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Sedimentary
- formed by the compaction and cementation of sediments
Eg - Sandstone
Igneous
- formed when melted rock (lava or magma) cools
Eg - Basalt
Metamorphic
- formed when extreme heat and pressure are applied to a rock for a long period of time
Eg - Marble

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Matter: anything that has mass and takes up space or volume

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6 main energy types which are classified under kinetic or potential energy.
6 main types are:

Thermal

Chemical

Electircal

Nuclear

Electromagnetic

Mechanical

Energy types:

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Solids:

Fixed shape & volume. Cant be compressed

Particles vibrate about a fixed position

Heat gives particles more energy to vibrate vigorously. Enough heat allows them to move far enough apart to go onto the next phase.

Not a lot of energy but strong bonds

Liquids:

Variable shape and fixed volume. Can't be compressed, can bepoured

Particles move further apart & are able to move around and slide over each other

Bonds that hold particles together are weaker than those in a solid. Particles have more energy than those in a solid.

Weaker bonds than a solid, more energy than a solid

Gases:

Variable shape & volume

Gases diffuse/spread out to fill available space

Particles move very fast and very far apart.

Have lots of energy but weak bonds.

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Living things must be able to MRS GREN (Move, Respire, Sense, Grow, Reproduce, Excrete and Nutrition [eat])
Cells are organisms.
The Cell Theory: All known living things are made of one or more cells. All living cells are made by pre-existing cells. Cells are the most fundamental unit of structure.
Cell Organisation:

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Complex cells; have a nucleus and organelles are membrane bound.
Plants, fungi and animals

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Simple cells; no nucleus and organelles are not membrane bound.

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Cell Membrane: border control
Nucleus: Control centre
Nucleous: Holds DNA
Golgi Body: Packages and transports nutrients or waste out of cells
Mitochondria: Energy for the cell
Ribosomes: Produce proteins
Endoplasmic Reticulum: Transports proteins, glucose and minerals around cell.
Cytoplasm: Holds all organelles
Vacuole: Bigger in plant, stores water
Chlorplasts: Only in plants, produce photosynthesis
Cell Wall: Plants only, provide structure for cells

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Cells require energy to grow, move, undertake chemical reactions, reproduce.
Energy for cells: Adenosine TriPhospate (ATP)
ATP is produced through aerobic cellular respiration mitochondria

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Carbon Dioxide: Diffuses out of cell and into bloodstream
Water: moves from cells into blood

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Purposes:

Put oxygen into body

Remove carbon dioxide

Put oxygen into blood stream

When oxygen is put into the body, it is called inspiration
When we exhale and remove carbon dioxide it is called expiration
This is done by (inspiration):
Nasal cavity to the pharynx to the larynx to the trachea to the bronchi to the bronchioles to the alveoli

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Alveoli; one cell thick and surrounded by capillaries, Alveoli allows gases to easily move from one to the other

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Diffusion: to move from high concentration of oxygen to low concentration.
Oxygen: either attaches to red blood cells or dissolves into plasma
Carbon dioxide: produced by aerobic respiration and diffuses from high to low concentration (cells to blood) and (capillaries to alveoli)
Carbon dioxide attaches to red blood cells, dissolves in plasma or becomes bicarbonate ions.

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Purposes

Put food into body

Absorb nutrients

Break down food

Remove waste

Mechanical Digestion

Food is chewed by teeth,

Food is broken down without changing chemical makeup

Tongue pushes food in bolus and bolus is swallowed down oesophagus

In oesophagus food is pushed down by peristalsis until it reaches stomach

In stomach food is churned

Chemical Digestion
6 main nutrients that bodies need:

Carbohydrates are broken down by amalases

Fats are broken down by lipase in small intestine

Proteins are broken down by protease in small intestine or stomach

Water is absorbed in large intestine

Minerals is absorbed in large intestine

Vitamins is absorbed in large intestine

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Is leftover waste stored in rectum and excreted out of anus.

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Functions

Transport oxygen & glucose to cells

Transport carbon dioxide & water away from cells

Fight infections

To clot

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Nutrients & wastes are carried in blood.
Parts:

Red blood cells contains haemoglobin and carries oxygen and carbon dioxide

White blood cells attacks invading disease, produces antibodies

Platlets clot the blood

Plasma liquid part of blood

Blood vessels:
Arteries & Aterioles:

thick walls & high blood pressure

takes oxygenated blood away from the heart

Arterioles are tiny ateries

Capillaries:

One cell thick

Allows gas exchange

Nutrients to cells

Wastes away from cells

Veins & Venules:

Thin walls & low blood pressure

Deoxygenated blood to heart

Small veins are venules

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Right Hand Side: deoxygenated blood: venules - veins - superior/inferior vena cava - right atrium - valve - right ventricle - valve - pulmonary arteries - lungs - small blood vessels - capillaries - alveoli - gas exchange

Left Hand Side: oxygenated blood - pulmonary veins - left atrium - valve - left ventricle - valve - aorta - arteries - arterioles - body

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Functions:

Filter water & toxins

Urine productions

Urine storage

Excrete urine

Filtration is when blood is filtered by kidneys and contains toxins.

Urine production is when the clean blood returns to the circulatory system and the toxins are remove from blood and exit kidneys through ureters.

Urine storage is when urine arrives at the bladder and is stored there until it should be removed.

Urination is when the bottom of the bladder opens which makes the urine exit via the urethra to outside world and removes all excess water & toxins

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Occurs in chloroplasts in plants
Equation is:

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Xylem is a one directional transport system that carry water and dissolved nutrients
Phloem is a two directional transport system that carries glucose

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Can be either asexual or sexual.
Sexual Reproduction male reproductive + female reproductive = offspring
offspring is a combination of parents
Plants reproductive organs are flowers
Asexual Reproduction
Single parent produces identical offspring

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Male: (Stamen)

Anther & Filament

Anther - produces pollen

Filament - supports anther

Female: (Pistil)

Style - is the tube connecting stigma to ovary

Stigma - receive pollen from anther

Ovary - where ovules (female gaments) are stored

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Wind and insects transports pollen from the anther of one plant to the stigma of another

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After pollen lands on stigma pollen tubes grow down through the style.
Pollen + ovule combine and fertilise a zygote.

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Male sex cells is sperm
Female sex cell is ova

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Male
Testes - produce sperm
Epididymis - store sperm
Vas deferns - carries sperm from epididymis to urethra
Scrotum - holds testes & keep sperm at right temperature
Penis - internal sexual reproduction
Urethra - tube for sperm & urine
Bladder - stores urine
Female
Ovary - produce ova
Fallopian tube - ovary to uterus where fertilisation takes place
Uterus - where fertilised zygote turns into baby
Cervix - Opening to uterus
Vagina - receives penis & birth canal

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Animals produce sexually or asexually with internal or external fertilisation

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One parent reproduces a genetically identical to self through;
Budding: where offspring grows out of side of body
Fertilisation: body of parent breaks down into pieces, each piece is a new organism.
Regeneration: piece of adult breaks off and grows into new indivual

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Combination of male & female gametes

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Fertilisation occuring inside body
Mostly found in land & animals
Prevents sperm from drying up
Mother provides nutrients to embryos

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Fertilisation occurring outside the body
Found in water animals
Sperm is deposited into water when female eggs are laid which contain food for embryo for hatching.

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Expansion:

Many substances expand when heated

When heated, the particles (atoms or molecules) in a substance vibrate more

This means they need more space

So the substance expands

Contraction:

The opposite happens when most substances are cooled

The particles vibrate less

They need less room

The substance contracts

*The particles do not expand themselves!

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Periodic Table

Elements are arranged left to right and top to bottom in order of increasing atomic number

Elements have different atomic numbers and these increase up the table

Periods:

The different rows of elements are called periods.

Atomic numbers and atomic masses increase as you move from the left to the right in a period

All atoms of the elements in the same period have the same number of orbitals/levels

Columns:

The different columns of elements are called groups

Elements in the same family have similar properties

Atoms of elements in the same group have the same number of electrons in the outer orbitals of their atoms

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Non-Metals:

Brittle

Not Ductile or malleable

Not shiny

Poor conductors

Most solid at room temp.

One liquid, some gases

Metals:

Malleable and ductile

lustrous (shiny)

Good conductors (heat & electricity)

Most solid at room temp

Metalloids:

Properties of both metals and Non-metals

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Physical Change:

No new substance formed

One that doesn't change identity of substance

E.g. change state, size or shape

Chemical Changes:

New substance formed

Change in the identity of substance

Bonds in the reactants broken, bonds of new product is formed

Has different properties to original substance and is difficult/impossible to reverse

E.g. Gas evolved, light emitted, colour change, temperature change ect.

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https://coneqt-s.mcc.wa.edu.au/seqta/student/load/file?type=message&file=46b24c55-65ea-4659-acf6-c4100463d026

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Science Rev Sem 2 PDF

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https://coneqt-s.mcc.wa.edu.au/seqta/student/load/file?type=message&file=ca2f204d-7f9f-437b-bd53-a1af655434e9

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https://coneqt-s.mcc.wa.edu.au/seqta/student/load/file?type=message&file=f25c814a-4f2e-4137-acab-e5153a9780f6

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Thermal: Vibration of atoms or molecules, solids have low thermal energy and gases have high thermal energy
Chemical: Energy stored within the chemical bonds of an atom
Electromagnetic: Carried by electromagnetic waves that move through empty space
Mechanical: Energy that moves an object
Nuclear: Energy carried within nucleus of an atom
Electrical: Energy of moving atoms

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"Energy can not be created nor destroyed, only transferred to another place or transformed into another type of energy."

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When the same type of energy is moved from one location to another

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Energy can be transformed or changed into another type of energy

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Give visual representation of waste & total energy

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What is erosion?
The moving of sediments from one location to another

Agents of Erosion

water (glaciers,  water)

wind

gravity

Water

Moves material (both small and large) down streams, rivers, ect.

Glacial

Glaciers carry and move rock clasts that are in them

Wind

Picks up small pieces of rock and carries them through the air.

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What is Weathering?
The process of breaking down rocks into smaller clasts

There are 3 types, these are:

Biological Weatering

Chemical Weathering

Physical Weathering

Biological Weathering

Decaying or disintegration of rocks due to the processes of living organisms

Can be chemical or physical

chemical - organisms secrete acids that disintegrate some rocks

physical - when plant roots grow into or inside of rocks causing the rocks to crack

Chemical Weathering

Processes which change the chemical composition of rocks and minerals

- Factors

Climate - warm maximises chemical reations

Plants and Animals - seretion

Time - longer contact, greater change

Mineral Composition - Some minerals are more susceptible to change

- Processes

Dissolving

Oxidation

Hydrolisis

- Dissolving

Water often containing dissolved acids, will dissolve minerals in a rock leaving cavities in the rock

Carbonation

Precipitation - sulfur and nitrogen

Acid rain - when water reacts with gases in the atmosphere forming acid rain

- Oxidation

Minerals may combine with oxygen which forms new minerals which are not as hard

- Hydrolisis

Minerals may combine with water which forms ew minerals that are not as hard

Physical Weathering
Weathering that breaks a rock into smaller pieces without altering its chemical composition.

- Processes

Frost wedging

Frost heave

Thermal expansion and contraction

Mechanical Exfoliation

Abrasion

- Frost Wedging

When water settles between rock crevices, it may freeze causing it to expand. This causes masses of rocks to break or crack.

- Frost heave

Repeated freezing and thawing of ground water. This means the land is continuously rising and falling.

- Thermal Expansion and Contraction

when a material is repeatedly heated and cooled it causes the material to crack

- Exfoliation

Top layer of rock is weathered away leaving the next layer oxposed.

- Abrasion

Small sediment can be carried through the air by wind, through moving streams or rivers or carried down hill by gravity.

When these sediments hit larger rock clasts, it can break off pieces of rock from the surface.

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Biogenic

Formed from sediments of dead living organisms

Are organic

Eg - Coal and chalk

Clastic

Made up of different sized rock sediments/ clasts

Chemical

Made up of inorganic sediments

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Ways we know that a chemical change has occurred:
light is emitted
gas is produced
colour change
temperature increase
precipitate it formed

*Is in chemical column under chemical changes

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Atoms: the smallest stable particle that elements are made up of e.g. 🔹 🔺 ▪️
Molecules: formed when two or more atoms chemically bond together. Can be same or different atom. 🔹-🔹or ▪️-🔺-▪️
Elements:

Simplest form of matter (pure substance).

Can't be chemically or physically broken down into simpler substances e.g. Mg, Fe, K ect.

All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons in their nucleus

All elements are listed on the periodic table in order of increasing number of protons (atomic number)

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Mixtures:

Combination of two or more pure substances that are not chemically combined

Held together by physical forces not chemical bonds

No chemical change takes place when they form

Can be physically separated

Compounds:

Made when two or more different elements are chemically bonded together.

Can only be separated  by another chemical reaction

Properties of compounds are usually different from the properties of the elements they contain

You cannot vary the amount of each element in a compound

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Atomic Number

the atomic number of an atom is the amount of protons in the nucleus.

the amount of protons in the nucleus will be the same as the amount of electrons in the atom.

The atomic number is smaller than the mass number/ atomic mass

Atomic Mass

The sum of the protons and the neutrons.

Atomic Structure:

Electrons are arranged in Energy levels or Shells around the nucleus of an atom

First Shell -- max of 2 electrons

Second Shell -- max of 8 electrons

Third Shell -- max of 8 electrons

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Tables:

A table consists of vertical columns and horizontal rows in which information is recorded

Each column should have a heading

If a column contains measurements, the units should be written with the heading

Results should be written in order

Must use a ruler

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Chemical Reactions:

When a chemical change occurs it is called a chemical reaction

Chemical reactions can be shown by using a chemical equation

Reactant + Reactant  Product + Product.

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Graphs:

Graphs are diagrams that present information in a visual way

It makes the information easier to understand

Trends and relationships are easier to see.

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Bar Graph:

A very useful way of comparing data is to draw a bar graph. Sometimes called a bar chart

Used to show the quantity of each of the items being investigated

Eg. Suppose you were investigating how long it took different model cars to travel down a wooden ramp. Results;

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Line Graph:

Sometimes you want to show the relationship between two things being measured

In this case you would draw a line graph of the data

For example, a group of students was investigating the growth of seedlings. They measured the height of the seedlings every day.

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Interpreting data:

Data is the information scientists collect by observation  and measurement

Interpreting data means finding some pattern in the data that gives an answer to the problem

Graphs makes interpreting data easier because they provide a clearer picture of the data that has been collected

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Interpolation of Graphs:

The shape of the graph can be used to get data that was not collected in the investigation

This is called interpolation.

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Extrapolation of Graphs:

Graphs can be used to predict what will happen outside the range of data displayed on the graphs

This is called extrapolation

It is the extension of the graph beyond the data that has been collected.

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Independant Variable (IV):

The variable you change on purpose

Dependant Variable (DP):

The variable you measure to see the effect of changing the independant variable has made

Hypothesis:

Prediction of the effect you expect from the independant and dependant variable

Aim:

Statement of purpose of the experiment. What your trying to find out

Controlled Variable:

List of all things (except IV & DP) that could affect the experiment if they are not kept the same

Keeping controlled variables the same and only changing the idependant and dependant variables make it a 'fair test'

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Discussion:

Summary of results you have obtained

Identify any patterns, trends or relationships in the data

Explain results and relationship using scientific principles

E.g. What is the science explanation for why the results turned out the way they did

Evaluation:

Comment on accuracy of materials used in experiment and method used.

Suggest improvements in method and equipment

Conclusion:

What relationship did you find between your IV and DP and was it what you predicted in your hypothesis