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- Worked at IBM
- compiled data on workplace behaviour
- cultural patterns emerged
- data was important
to IBM as a multiculturaloranisation
- found ways to classify and organize

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Culture is more often a source of conflict than of synergy. Cultural differences are a nuisance at best and often a disaster.

(The Economist 2008)

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Me2HlTQPS40

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- difficult to quantify
- ebbs and flows
- resistant to change
- THE 2014 WORD OF THE YEAR
- inducts people into a group
- collective programming of the mind
- learned norms and values
- affects intra/er/personal behaviour
- universal culture
- national culture
- visible/invisible
- CAN be a way of sreotyping
- surface/deep

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Define /Outline/Analyse/Evaluat

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Is there such a thing as NATURAL MORALITY or is all MORALITY self-constructed?

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... not neat boundaries  with definite characteristics
.... a continuum
https://www.asme.org/engineering-topics/articles/business-communication/communicating-across-cultures

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Neto (1995)

- Female participants
- normative social influence
- gender-related OT culture-related?

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indulgence vs restraint
long-term vs short-term
uncertainty avoidance
masculinity vs femininity
power distance

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Hofstede defined culture as 'the collective programming of the mind distinguishing the members of one group or category of people from others' (Hofstede n.d.). Specifically, Hofstede came up with the idea of cultural dimensions, which are basically the values around which a national culture is organised. Hofstede started out with four dimensions, but as the research continued over decades the list expanded (Hofstede n.d.).

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Hofstede defined culture as 'the collective programming of the mind distinguishing the members of one group or category of people from others' (Hofstede n.d.). Specifically, Hofstede came up with the idea of cultural dimensions, which are basically the values around which a national culture is organised. Hofstede started out with four dimensions, but as the research continued over decades the list expanded (Hofstede n.d.).

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Empirical evidence for the influence of each dimension on behaviour and cognition.

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The dimensions are meant to provide a general framework to ease interpersonal and intergroup behaviour in multicultural situations. The idea is that understanding another culture's behaviour may help reduce conflict and increase the benefits of cultural interactions. There are of course many individual variations within each of these cultures, and any score on a given dimension is only relative, meaning that its main function is to allow for cultural comparisons, not to give any culture a 'score' or value judgement.

Clearly, some cultural dimensions overlap and form little clusters of culture here and there. While there isn't always a straight line between one culture and another, some of the dimensions do seem to go together. For example, many collectivist countries also score high on long-term orientation. Similarly, cultures scoring high on uncertainty avoidance might also score high on restraint. The cultural dimensions definitely do not exist in a vacuum – they sometimes have a clear influence on each other.

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1)  definition of culture/cultural norms
2) Find empirical evidence in the form of 2/3 specific studies evidencing two of the dimension's effect on behaviour

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The individualistic/collectivistic dimension signifies that in individualistic cultures, identities are formed from personal characteristics, whereas collectivist societies define their identities through collective group characteristics. This has impacted people's behaviour, and one example would be conformity rates in a study conducted by Petrova et al., 2007.
Within this study, it was seen that collectivists demonstrated lower levels of compliance than individualists when the FITD technique was used.

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Individualism vs collectivism

Cultural dimensions are an attempt that Hofstede (1980) came up with in order to try to look at culture from a scientific point of view. They are to be conceived as spectrums, that different cultures with different scores fall on. Their aim is not to predict behavior, as in they're not 100% accurate, but rather to try and isolate cultural patterns in behavior. Individualism is an example of cultural dimension: a culture that scores high in it would typically be less concerned about the self as a group, privileging their self-perception.

A study carried out about the effects of individualism on depression was that of Chiao and Blizinsky (2010). They found a biological explanation for high scores in individualism being related to depression. They suggested that collectivistic cultural norms have developed to protect the more biologically vulnerable groups.

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Individualism and collectivism
Cultural dimensions could be considered as a means of identifying different features of a culture, and hence allowing for intercultural comparison. They were established by Hofstede(1984). One of the dimensions for classifying cultures is individualism/collectivism dimension, whereby a culture either praises individuality in focusing on personal achievements and choices(individualism), or characteristics, choices, and success of social groups(collectivism). This is not to say that the cultural dimensions are just another instance of stereotyping, or that variations between even individualism and collectivism cannot occur intraculturally
Petrova et al. 2007 demonstrated how being high on individualism or collectivism differently affects the levels of compliance when the FITD technique is used. 3000 participants at a university, half of which were native US students, and the other half were Asian students, were sent an email asking them to participate in a survey. A month later, they were again sent an email asking them to participate in an online survey. It was found that the proportion of Asian students complying with the first request was greater than for the native US students. However, the proportion of the students that complied with the first request and afterwards to the second request was twice as high as for the US students. This shows how people from individualist cultures are more likely to  behave consistently with their personal choices and commitments(which then causes compliance with the second request) than people from the collectivist cultures(Heine and Lehman, 1997), probably because they disregards their own personal choices.Perhaps they would comply if they received information on how other members of their culture/group complied.

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Cultural dimensions can be explained as being the way a culture is measured based on its beliefs and values on a continueum. An example of such dimensions are collectivist and individualistic but a culture is never 100% one or the other, it simply tends to behave one way more than the other.
Collectivist cultures put importance on the well-being or achievement of an important group (family, work group) rather than the individual. Individualistic cultures place importance on the improvement and well being of oneself before others.
Petrova et al. 2007
- collectivist cultures comply more when FITD technique is used
- however compliance rate to a second request when first request was accepted is higher among individualistic cultures

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individualism vs. collectivism in conformity

Hofstede classified individualism as:
1. priority on personal rather than social
2.the view that each person is unique on their own
3. autonomy and self expression are highly valued

and collectivism as:
1. Social rather than personal
2. Trust on long standing relationships, and obligation amongst social
3. individual autonomy and self expression is not valued
4. emphasis on group achievements and team work.

Bond and Smith (1996) carried out a meta-analysis on of 133 conformity studies using the ash paradigm. 17 countries were used to classify them as individualistic or collectivistic societies. The meta-analysis was made from studies of collectivistic countries such as Fiji, Hong Kong and Brazil and individualistic countries such as the US, France and the UK. The findings of Bond and Smith (1996) were consistent with that earlier studies. They concluded that members in collectivistic countries were more likely to conform to a supportive culture of group relationships and promoting the reduction of conflicts. Thus, Collectivist societies are viewed to be more sensitive rather than submissive to the will of others, as in individualistic countries (Hodges and Greyers, 2006).

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Power distance index

Cultural dimensions are a semi-rigorous method of measuring various aspects of cultures devised by Hofstede. The power distance index is a measure of the acceptance of the least powerful members of a society of the inequality in power distribution.

A study done by Lynn, Zinkhan, & Harris (1993) found that people in places with a higher power distance index are more likely to tip (and to tip more) than those in places with lower power distance index. Although, the correlation is fairly weak, with the correlation between power distance and the rate of tipping standing at 0.40.

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Individualism/Collectivism and compliance

Cultural dimensions are the way groups (cultures) behave based on their beliefs. In individualistic cultures, our identity is defined by our individual decisions and achievements. In more collectivist cultures, one's identity is defined by the characteristics of the group.
Research shows that in collectivist cultures, people are less likely to behave according to their personal choices.

Heine and Lehman, 1997

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Confucian Dynamism( Time orientation)

The additional 5th dimension added to the existing 4 Hofstede's dimensions. This dimension relates to how people perceive time in different cultures, for instance, if they consider long-term goals to be more important than short-term goals and vice versa. Hofstede ranked different cultures according to their time orientation( long-term vs. short-term orientation). As a general rule, Asian cultures score highly on the time orientation, this is, they value long term goals more than short-term goals. In contrast, USA and western cultures are more short-term time oriented, this is, they value immediate goals and satisfaction resulting from them.