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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-yFc18Hxdgk
till 1:40
and answer to the questions:
1) What's immunity?
2)What's immune system?
3) Why is the immune system important?
4) What's immune response?

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What's the function of the immune system?
How is it made up?
What are antigens?
What can the immune system do?
What is an autoimmune reaction?

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Struggling with strawberries? Petrified of peanuts? Sorry you ate shellfish? Maybe you have a food allergy. Find out more in this article for kids.

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Read the text till the paragraph of the "two types of leukocytes". Listen to the audio and prepare a summary using the technical words to talk about the subject.
Questions:
How is the immune system made up of?
What's  the meaning of "make up of" in the text?
What are leukocytes?
What do they do?
Where are they produced?
Where are they found?
What are the two types of leukocytes?
Write the translation for:
1) thymus
2) spleen
3) clumps
4) lymphoid tissue
5) phagocyte
6) lymphocytes

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The immune system, which is made up of special cells, proteins, tissues, and organs, defends people against germs and microorganisms every day. In most cases, the immune system does a great job of keeping people healthy and preventing infections. But sometimes problems with the immune system can lead to illness and infection.

About the Immune System

The immune system is the body's defense against infectious organisms and other invaders. Through a series of steps called the immune response, the immune system attacks organisms and substances that invade body systems and cause disease.

The immune system is made up of a network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to protect the body. One of the important cells involved are white blood cells, also called leukocytes, which come in two basic types that combine to seek out and destroy disease-causing organisms or substances.

Leukocytes are produced or stored in many locations in the body, including the thymus, spleen, and bone marrow. For this reason, they're called the lymphoid organs. There are also clumps of lymphoid tissue throughout the body, primarily as lymph nodes, that house the leukocytes.

The leukocytes circulate through the body between the organs and nodes via lymphatic vessels and blood vessels. In this way, the immune system works in a coordinated manner to monitor the body for germs or substances that might cause problems.

The two basic types of leukocytes are:

1. phagocytes, cells that chew up invading organisms

2. lymphocytes, cells that allow the body to remember and recognize previous invaders and help the body destroy them

A number of different cells are considered phagocytes. The most common type is the neutrophil, which primarily fights bacteria. If doctors are worried about a bacterial infection, they might order a blood test to see if a patient has an increased number of neutrophils triggered by the infection. Other types of phagocytes have their own jobs to make sure that the body responds appropriately to a specific type of invader.

The two kinds of lymphocytes are B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes. Lymphocytes start out in the bone marrow and either stay there and mature into B cells, or they leave for the thymus gland, where they mature into T cells. B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes have separate functions: B lymphocytes are like the body's military intelligence system, seeking out their targets and sending defenses to lock onto them. T cells are like the soldiers, destroying the invaders that the intelligence system has identified.

Here's how it works:

When antigens (foreign substances that invade the body) are detected, several types of cells work together to recognize them and respond. These cells trigger the B lymphocytes to produce antibodies, which are specialized proteins that lock onto specific antigens.

Once produced, these antibodies stay in a person's body, so that if his or her immune system encounters that antigen again, the antibodies are already there to do their job. So if someone gets sick with a certain disease, like chickenpox, that person usually won't get sick from it again.

This is also how immunizations prevent certain diseases. An immunization introduces the body to an antigen in a way that doesn't make someone sick, but does allow the body to produce antibodies that will then protect the person from future attack by the germ or substance that produces that particular disease.

Although antibodies can recognize an antigen and lock onto it, they are not capable of destroying it without help. That's the job of the T cells, which are part of the system that destroys antigens that have been tagged by antibodies or cells that have been infected or somehow changed. (Some T cells are actually called "killer cells.") T cells also are involved in helping signal other cells (like phagocytes) to do their jobs.

Antibodies also can neutralize toxins (poisonous or damaging substances) produced by different organisms. Lastly, antibodies can activate a group of proteins called complement that are also part of the immune system. Complement assists in killing bacteria, viruses, or infected cells.

All of these specialized cells and parts of the immune system offer the body protection against disease. This protection is called immunity.

Immunity

Humans have three types of immunity - innate, adaptive, and passive:

Innate Immunity

Everyone is born with innate (or natural) immunity, a type of general protection. Many of the germs that affect other species don't harm us. For example, the viruses that cause leukemia in cats or distemper in dogs don't affect humans. Innate immunity works both ways because some viruses that make humans ill - such as the virus that causes HIV/AIDS - don't make cats or dogs sick.

Innate immunity also includes the external barriers of the body, like the skin and mucous membranes (like those that line the nose, throat, and gastrointestinal tract), which are the first line of defense in preventing diseases from entering the body. If this outer defensive wall is broken (as through a cut), the skin attempts to heal the break quickly and special immune cells on the skin attack invading germs.

Adaptive Immunity

The second kind of protection is adaptive (or active) immunity, which develops throughout our lives. Adaptive immunity involves the lymphocytes and develops as people are exposed to diseases or immunized against diseases through vaccination.

Passive Immunity

Passive immunity is "borrowed" from another source and it lasts for a short time. For example, antibodies in a mother's breast milk give a baby temporary immunity to diseases the mother has been exposed to. This can help protect the baby against infection during the early years of childhood.

Everyone's immune system is different. Some people never seem to get infections, whereas others seem to be sick all the time. As people get older, they usually become immune to more germs as the immune system comes into contact with more and more of them. That's why adults and teens tend to get fewer colds than kids - their bodies have learned to recognize and immediately attack many of the viruses that cause colds.

Problems of the Immune System

Disorders of the immune system fall into four main categories:

1. immunodeficiency disorders (primary or acquired)

2. autoimmune disorders (in which the body's own immune system attacks its own tissue as foreign matter)

3. allergic disorders (in which the immune system overreacts in response to an antigen)

4. cancers of the immune system

Immunodeficiency Disorders

Immunodeficiencies happen when a part of the immune system is missing or not working properly. Some people are born with an immunodeficiency (known as primary immunodeficiencies), although symptoms of the disorder might not appear until later in life. Immunodeficiencies also can be acquired through infection or produced by drugs (these are sometimes called secondary immunodeficiencies).

Immunodeficiencies can affect B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes, or phagocytes. Examples of primary immunodeficiencies that can affect kids and teens are:

IgA deficiency is the most common immunodeficiency disorder. IgA is an immunoglobulin that is found primarily in the saliva and other body fluids that help guard the entrances to the body. IgA deficiency is a disorder in which the body doesn't produce enough of the antibody IgA. People with IgA deficiency tend to have allergies or get more colds and other respiratory infections, but the condition is usually not severe.

Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) is also known as the "bubble boy disease" after a Texas boy with SCID who lived in a germ-free plastic bubble. SCID is a serious immune system disorder that occurs because of a lack of both B and T lymphocytes, which makes it almost impossible to fight infections.

DiGeorge syndrome (thymic dysplasia), a birth defect in which kids are born without a thymus gland, is an example of a primary T-lymphocyte disease. The thymus gland is where T lymphocytes normally mature.

Chediak-Higashi syndrome and chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) both involve the inability of the neutrophils to function normally as phagocytes.

Acquired (or secondary) immunodeficiencies usually develop after someone has a disease, although they can also be the result of malnutrition, burns, or other medical problems. Certain medicines also can cause problems with the functioning of the immune system.

Acquired (secondary) immunodeficiencies include:

HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) infection/AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) is a disease that slowly and steadily destroys the immune system. It is caused by HIV, a virus that wipes out certain types of lymphocytes called T-helper cells. Without T-helper cells, the immune system is unable to defend the body against normally harmless organisms, which can cause life-threatening infections in people who have AIDS. Newborns can get HIV infection from their mothers while in the uterus, during the birth process, or during breastfeeding. People can get HIV infection by having unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person or from sharing contaminated needles for drugs, steroids, or tattoos.

Immunodeficiencies caused by medications. Some medicines suppress the immune system. One of the drawbacks of chemotherapy treatment for cancer, for example, is that it not only attacks cancer cells, but other fast-growing, healthy cells, including those found in the bone marrow and other parts of the immune system. In addition, people with autoimmune disorders or who have had organ transplants may need to take immunosuppressant medications, which also can reduce the immune system's ability to fight infections and can cause secondary immunodeficiency.

Autoimmune Disorders

In autoimmune disorders, the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's healthy organs and tissues as though they were foreign invaders. Autoimmune diseases include:

Lupus: a chronic disease marked by muscle and joint pain and inflammation (the abnormal immune response also may involve attacks on the kidneys and other organs)

Juvenile idiopathic arthritis: a disease in which the body's immune system acts as though certain body parts (such as the joints of the knee, hand, and foot) are foreign tissue and attacks them

Scleroderma: a chronic autoimmune disease that can lead to inflammation and damage of the skin, joints, and internal organs

Ankylosing spondylitis: a disease that involves inflammation of the spine and joints, causing stiffness and pain

Juvenile dermatomyositis: a disorder marked by inflammation and damage of the skin and muscles

Allergic Disorders

Allergic disorders happen when the immune system overreacts to exposure to antigens in the environment. The substances that provoke such attacks are called allergens. The immune response can cause symptoms such as swelling, watery eyes, and sneezing, and even a life-threatening reaction called anaphylaxis. Medicines called antihistamines can relieve most symptoms.

Allergic disorders include:

Asthma, a respiratory disorder that can cause breathing problems, often involves an allergic response by the lungs. If the lungs are oversensitive to certain allergens (like pollen, molds, animal dander, or dust mites), breathing tubes can become narrowed and swollen, making it hard for a person to breathe.

Eczema is an itchy rash also known as atopic dermatitis. Although not necessarily caused by an allergic reaction, eczema most often happens in kids and teens who have allergies, hay fever, or asthma or who have a family history of these conditions.

of several types can affect kids and teens. Environmental allergies (to dust mites, for example), seasonal allergies (such as hay fever), drug allergies (reactions to specific medications or drugs), food allergies (such as to nuts), and allergies to toxins (bee stings, for example) are the common conditions people usually refer to as allergies.

Cancers of the Immune System

Cancer happens when cells grow out of control. This can include cells of the immune system. Leukemia, which involves abnormal overgrowth of leukocytes, is the most common childhood cancer. Lymphoma involves the lymphoid tissues and is also one of the more common childhood cancers. With current treatments, most cases of both types of cancer in kids and teens are curable.

Although immune system disorders usually can't be prevented, you can help your child's immune system stay stronger and fight illnesses by staying informed about your child's condition and working closely with your doctor.

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The immune system, which is made up of special cells, proteins, tissues, and organs, defends people against germs and microorganisms every day. In most cases, the immune system does a great job of keeping people healthy and preventing infections. But sometimes problems with the immune system can lead to illness and infection.

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Answer and join the them into a summary:
What are the body’s three lines of defence?
Where are immune cells born?
what are phagocytes?
Where are lymphocytes found?
What cellls do lymphocytes include?
Which of them produce antibodies?
What are antibodies made up of?
What is the function of the variable region of an antibody?
Which is the constant region?
What are immunoglobulins?
How are T cells divided?
What is complement?

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Do you know your immune system? Label the parts of the system that keeps you well.

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test yourself

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Take this quiz about the immune system, the system that keeps you healthy.

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Watch the video and answer to the questions

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Watch the video and answer to the questions

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Watch this movie about your immune system - the system that keeps you healthy.

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What's an antigen?
What are lymphocytes?
How are antigens divided?
What is an autoimmune disorder?
What is an immunogen?

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Antigen, substance that is capable of stimulating an immune response, specifically activating lymphocytes, which are the body's infection-fighting white blood cells. In general, two main divisions of antigens are recognized: foreign antigens (or heteroantigens) and autoantigens (or self-antigens).

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What is the main difference between the two?”
Are there any other relevant differences?
Are both bacteria and viruses harmful?
Are antibiotics useful for both bacteria and viruses?

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bacteria are the second smallest living things on earth with only viruses being smaller. they are very small organisms which usually consist of only a single cell. they do not have chlorophyll that is found in plants which allow for the production of food. if one million of the tiny bacteria were laid end-to-end

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they would only measure about two inches. the word bacteria is plural

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and bacterium describes a single organism.

an amateur scientist named anton van leeuwenhoek was the first person to see bacteria and other tiny organisms under a microscope. though tiny

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they are found everywhere. bacteria is found in the air

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as well as inside and outside of the human body. they reproduce quickly if the conditions are right. millions of the tiny organisms can form in a space as small as a drop of water.

bacteria are usually placed in three categories depending on their shapes. the can be described a spherical (like a football)

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or shaped like a spiral or corkscrew. there are also some bacteria shaped like a comma used in writing

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but much smaller. there is helpful bacteria and harmful bacteria. some can improve human life

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but others can cause diseases. in addition

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there are many more that simply have no effect on humans.

the helpful bacteria assist with the digestion of foods in several kinds of animals including cows

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sheep and others. the bacteria help break down some of the foods the animals eat. in humans

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a bacteria called e. coli also occur in the digestive system breaking down many kinds of foods. it is responsible for producing vitamin k and certain b vitamins.

other bacteria are decomposers in the food chain

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which attack dead animals and break them down. they are then used as nutrients by plants. bacteria is also part of the production of many foods eaten by people. bacteria causes milk to become sour which helps in the production of buttermilk

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and yogurt. bacteria is involved in the production of sauerkraut and vinegar too.

unfortunately

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bacteria are best known by the disease it causes. it can directly attack the tissues in a plant or animal. sometimes fruits or vegetables become discolored due the attack by bacteria. bacteria can also cause harm organisms by releasing chemicals that are poisonous to plants and animals. one type is responsible for a disease known as tetanus

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which can paralyze the muscles of a person. the condition when this occurs is called lockjaw. finally

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the worst type of food poisoning is caused by a bacterium releasing a toxin. this type of food poisoning is called botulism.

there are also harmful bacteria living on the skin

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but are not dangerous unless they enter the bloodstream through a cut in the skin. if e. coli

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enters the bloodstream it can cause cramping

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diarrhea and maybe even death.

methods to destroy bacteria include freezing and drying during food preservation or through pasteurization

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which is the process of heating food to a specific temperature for a period of time. this is how bacteria are killed during the processing of milk.

in summary

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bacteria are everywhere and can be harmful or helpful to humans and other organisms.</p>

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Bacteria - Bacteria are the second smallest living things on Earth with only viruses being smaller. They are very small organisms which usually consist of only a single cell. They do not have chlorophyll that is found in plants which allow for the production of food.

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1) Antibiotics do not work on ________  (fungi/bacteria);
2) Antibiotics work on _____________ (fungi/bacteria);
3) Bacteria are an example of _____________ cells (prokaryotes/eukaryotes);
4) Fungi is an example of ______________(prokaryotes/eukaryotes);
5) Your own cells are __________________ (prokaryotes/eukaryotes);
6) Prokaryotes were _____________ (bacteria/fungi);
7) Eukaryotic cells include ______________________.
7) Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have a ____________________ (cell wall/ cell membrane);
8) Cell membrane controls what goes ____________________ (in,out/ in,  outside);
9) what's the difference between cell wall and cell membrane?
10) What's ribosome?
make a summary:

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ERROR: The request could not be satisfied

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Read about the difference between Prokaryotes and eukaryotes

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Read about the difference between Prokaryotes and eukaryotes

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1) I batteri sono organismi molto semplici: sono tutti unicellulari, cioè costituiti da una sola cellula senza nucleo, in quanto non possiedono la membrana cellulare; gli unici organuli presenti sono i ribosomi.

2) La membrana cellulare è rivestita da una parete cellulare e al suo esterno talvolta si trova un rivestimento gelatinoso chiamato capsula.

3)

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Read the following test to make a brief and precise summary:

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Read the following test to make a brief and precise summary:

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Immunology has its origins in the study of how the body protects itself against infectious diseases caused by microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and fungi, and also parasitic organisms, such as helminth worms.

Important initial barriers to infection are physical (e.g. the skin), enhanced by substances secreted by the body, such as saliva and tears, that contain molecules that can neutralise bacteria. The internal mucosal tissues (e.g. lungs & airways, and the gut) are coated with mucus that is able to trap potential infectants. In the airways, mobile ciliate hairs work together to transport contaminants away from vulnerable areas. Tissues such as the skin, mucosal surfaces and airways also contain populations of immune cells that can respond to infectants that breach these physical defences.

In its most complex forms, the immune system consists of two branches: the innate immune system that utilises certain ‘hard-wired’ strategies to provide a rapid, general, response when alerted by certain typical signals of infection (essentially forming a first-line of defence); and the adaptive immune system that is able to develop highly specific responses (and a persistent ‘immune memory’) to target infection with extraordinary accuracy. Both systems work in close cooperation and, to an important extent, the adaptive immune system relies upon the innate immune system to alert it to potential targets, and shape its response to them.

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Do you know the difference between viruses and bacteria?

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https://youtu.be/qi1MgmaQM0Q
Watch the video and make a scheme with the answers to the questions:
What are microbes?
Which are the types of microbes?
Are they living things?
Where do they live?
How can they survive?
What are germs? Give an example

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Lactose

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About Lactose Intolerance

For many kids, an ice cream sundae or a cool glass of milk at lunch means an afternoon of cramps, gas, and diarrhea.

Kids who have this kind of discomfort after consuming dairy products might have lactose intolerance, which is caused by problems digesting lactose, the main sugar in milk and milk products.

Lactose intolerance happens when the body makes too little of the enzyme lactase, which is needed to break down lactose into two smaller sugars, called glucose and galactose. When there's not enough lactase in the body, lactose doesn't get broken down in the small intestine, and it passes into the large intestine where bacteria ferment it into gases and acids.

This process can cause cramps, abdominal pain, gas, and diarrhea about 30 minutes to 2 hours after consuming any foods or drinks that contain lactose.

For some kids, these symptoms are very severe and their systems can't tolerate any lactose. For others, the symptoms are milder and they just have to limit the amount of dairy products they consume.

Lactose intolerance can be managed - and the stomach discomfort can be eased - with some changes to the diet. If you think that your child has a lactose intolerance, call your doctor.

Who Gets Lactose Intolerance?

Lactose intolerance is more common among people of Asian, African, Native American, and Hispanic descent.

For most people with lactose intolerance, it remains a lifelong problem. But for some kids, it's a temporary condition that begins after they take certain antibiotics or have gastrointestinal infections, and eventually goes away.

Diagnosing Lactose Intolerance

Doctors usually diagnose lactose intolerance through a simple hydrogen breath test. A person blows into a tube to give a sample of the breath, then gives another sample after drinking a lactose solution or eating a lactose-containing food.

If someone has a lactose intolerance, the test will show that there is a higher than average level of hydrogen and methane in the breath. That's because undigested lactose leads to higher levels of these gases in the system, which can be detected in the breath.

Certain foods, medicines, and exposure to cigarette smoking can affect the test's accuracy, so the doctor might advise taking a few precautions before the test is done.

Besides the breath test, doctors usually do a physical exam and take a full medical history to rule out other medical conditions.

An endoscopy, which lets the doctor look at the esophagus, stomach, and part of the small intestines using a tiny camera, also can be done to check for lactose intolerance. In an endoscopy, the doctor may give the patient a medicine to help him or her relax and may spray the throat to numb it. This makes the test more comfortable. Most patients are given anesthesia and are "asleep" when this procedure is done.

The doctor then slides a thin, flexible plastic tube called an endoscope down the throat and into the esophagus and the stomach. A tiny camera in the endoscope lets the doctor look for abnormalities on the surface of the esophagus and stomach lining. During the endoscopy, the doctor also may use small tweezers (forceps) to remove a piece of tissue for biopsy. A biopsy can show damage caused by acid reflux or infection and help rule out other problems.

Problems digesting lactose can also occur in people with other diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, such as celiac disease, a condition in which the intestine becomes damaged due to the person's abnormal sensitivity to gluten (a protein found in wheat and certain other grains).

Living With Lactose Intolerance

Severity of lactose intolerance can vary widely between kids. Because each case is different, there's no one simple way of dealing with it. Each child needs to find what works best depending on the symptoms and how much, if any, lactase the body produces. It may help to keep a food diary as you figure out what foods and drinks your child's system can and can't handle.

Many foods, drinks, and digestive aids are available for those with a lactose intolerance (like milk specifically made for people with this condition, which most supermarkets carry). Ask your doctor if your child should supplement certain dairy products with drops or tablets that contain the lactase enzyme.

While kids with the most severe cases may have to avoid all dairy products, doctors now recommend that most have some dairy in order to get enough calcium, vitamin D, and protein. Many kids can have small amounts of dairy products - which should be consumed in combination with other foods that don't contain lactose - and some can have one to two glasses of milk each day without any problems, especially if consumed with non-dairy foods.

Also, kids with lactose intolerance may find that other dairy products, such as yogurt and cheeses, are easier to digest than milk. Lactose-free milk is also a great way to get calcium in your child's diet without the problems. A lactase enzyme supplement can be used, too. Taking this before eating foods that contain dairy will help the body digest the lactose sugar in dairy and prevent the symptoms of lactose intolerance, like pain, cramping, bloating, gas, and diarrhea.

Encourage your child to eat other calcium-rich foods that don't have lactose, like broccoli, collard greens, kale, turnip greens, salmon, almonds, soybeans, dried fruit, fortified orange juice, and tofu.

Also, consider talking with a registered dietitian to come up with dairy alternatives and a well-balanced diet that provides vital nutrients for your child.

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For many kids, an ice cream sundae or a cool glass of milk at lunch means an afternoon of cramps, gas, and diarrhea. Kids who have this kind of discomfort after consuming dairy products might have lactose intolerance, which is caused by problems digesting lactose, the main sugar in milk and milk products.

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What’s the difference between food allergy and food intolerance? 

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What’s the difference between food allergy and food intolerance? 

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What is the difference between food allergies and food intolerances?
- Elaine

Food allergies and food intolerances (or sensitivities) can have similar symptoms, but are very different conditions:

A food intolerance means either the body cannot properly digest the food that is eaten, or that a particular food might irritate the digestive system. Symptoms of food intolerance can include nausea, gas, cramps, abdominal pain, diarrhea, irritability, nervousness, or headaches.

A food allergy happens when the body's immune system, which normally fights infections, sees the food as an invader. This leads to an allergic reaction - a response from the immune system in which chemicals like histamine are released in the body. The reaction can cause symptoms like breathing problems, throat tightness, hoarseness, coughing, vomiting, abdominal pain, hives, swelling, or a drop in blood pressure.

Even if previous reactions have been mild, someone with a food allergy is always at risk of the next reaction being life-threatening. Eating a microscopic amount of the food, or sometimes even touching or inhaling it, could lead to anaphylaxis. So anyone with a food allergy must avoid the problem food(s) entirely and always carry emergency injectable epinephrine.

Many people with food sensitivities, on the other hand, can ingest a small amount of the bothersome food without a problem.

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What's the Difference Between a Food Allergy and a Food Intolerance?

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What is the difference between food allergies and food intolerances? - Elaine Food allergies and food intolerances (or sensitivities) can have similar symptoms, but are very different conditions: A food intolerance means either the body cannot properly digest the food that is eaten, or that a particular food might irritate the digestive system.

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answers to the questions:
a) what are pathogens?
b) give an example of pathogen.
c) describe bacteria
d) how do they in the body?
e) Give an example of bacterial infection
f) Describe viruses
g) How do they reproduce?

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What Are Pathogens? | Health | Biology | FuseSchool

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Bacterial Disease | Health | Biology | FuseSchool

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Edpuzzle video lesson. Make any video your lesson. Take a video and crop it, add your voice or embed questions at any point.

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What's food poisoning?
How to store eggs after purchase?
How can we prevent food poisoning?
Can we food get contaminated for storing?
Why is important to separate meat from other food?
Give examples of ways to defrosting food.

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Read and make summary

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Viruses are the smallest of all the microbes. They are said to be so small that 500 million rhinoviruses (which cause the common cold) could fit on to the head of a pin. They are unique because they are only alive and able to multiply inside the cells of other living things. The cell they multiply in is called the host cell.

A virus is made up of a core of genetic material, either DNA or RNA, surrounded by a protective coat called a capsid which is made up of protein. Sometimes the capsid is surrounded by an additional spikey coat called the envelope. Viruses are capable of latching onto host cells and getting inside them.

1. Computer artwork of a typical virus particle which is icosahedral in shape.

The virus consists of a core of RNA (ribonucleic acid, green) enclosed in a capsid, or protein coat (blue spheres). Surrounding the capsid is a glycoprotein envelope (pink and green). Inserted in the envelope are surface proteins (orange spheres), which help the virus attach to its host cell.

2. Tobacco mosaic virus which is helical in shape.

3. T2 bacteriophage viruses (orange) attacking an Escherichia coli bacterium.

Each phage consists of a large DNA- containing head and a tail composed of a tube-like central sheath with several fibres.

4. AIDS virus (red/green) budding from the surface of a white blood cell.

5. Herpes simplex virus infection.

A section through a cell being destroyed by herpes simplex virus infection. At centre is a large cluster of viral capsids (protein coats, red) which the cell has produced at the direction of the virus's genetic material.

Viruses only exist to make more viruses. The virus particle attaches to the host cell before penetrating it. The virus then uses the host cell's machinery to replicate its own genetic material. Once replication has been completed the virus particles leave the host by either budding or bursting out of the cell (lysis).

Budding

As the newly formed viral particle pushes against the host cell's plasma membrane a portion adheres to it. The plasma membrane envelops the virus and becomes the viral envelope. The virus is released from the cell. This process slowly uses up the host's cell membrane and usually leads to cell death.

Lysis

The virus particles burst out of the host cell into the extracellular space resulting in the death of the host cell. Once the virus has escaped from the host cell it is ready to enter a new cell and multiply.

Related Information

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Viruses are the smallest of all the microbes. They are said to be so small that 500 million rhinoviruses (which cause the common cold) could fit on to the head of a pin. They are unique because they are only alive and able to multiply inside the cells of other living things.

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The difference between bacteria and viruses

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The human body is everything that makes up, well, you. The basic parts of the human body are the head, neck, torso, arms and legs.

[ Image Gallery: The BioDigital Human]

Body systems

Our bodies consist of a number of biological systems that carry out specific functions necessary for everyday living.

The job of the circulatory system is to move blood, nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hormones, around the body. It consists of the heart, blood, blood vessels,arteries and veins.

The digestive system consists of a series of connected organs that together, allow the body to break down and absorb food, and remove waste. It includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus. The liver and pancreas also play a role in the digestive system because they produce digestive juices.

The endocrine system consists of eight major glands that secrete hormones into the blood. These hormones, in turn, travel to different tissues and regulate various bodily functions, such as metabolism, growth and sexual function.

The immune system is the body's defense against bacteria, viruses and other pathogens that may be harmful. It includes lymph nodes, the spleen, bone marrow, lymphocytes (including B-cells and T-cells), the thymus and leukocytes, which are white blood cells.

The lymphatic system includes lymph nodes, lymph ducts and lymph vessels, and also plays a role in the body's defenses. Its main job is to make is to make and move lymph, a clear fluid that contains white blood cells, which help the body fight infection. The lymphatic system also removes excess lymph fluid from bodily tissues, and returns it to the blood.

The nervous system controls both voluntary action (like conscious movement) and involuntary actions (like breathing), and sends signals to different parts of the body. The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system consists of nerves that connect every other part of the body to the central nervous system.

The body's muscular system consists of about 650 muscles that aid in movement, blood flow and other bodily functions. There are three types of muscle: skeletal muscle which is connected to bone and helps with voluntary movement, smooth muscle which is found inside organs and helps to move substances through organs, and cardiac muscle which is found in the heart and helps pump blood.

The reproductive system allows humans to reproduce. The male reproductive system includes the penis and the testes, which produce sperm. The female reproductive system consists of the vagina, the uterus and the ovaries, which produce eggs. During conception, a sperm cell fuses with an egg cell, which creates a fertilized egg that implants and grows in the uterus. [Related: Awkward Anatomy: 10 Odd Facts About the Female Body]

Our bodies are supported by the skeletal system, which consists of 206 bones that are connected by tendons, ligaments and cartilage. The skeleton not only helps us move, but it's also involved in the production of blood cells and the storage of calcium. The teeth are also part of the skeletal system, but they aren't considered bones.

The respiratory system allows us to take in vital oxygen and expel carbon dioxide in a process we call breathing. It consists mainly of the trachea, the diaphragm and the lungs.

The urinary system helps eliminate a waste product called urea from the body, which is produced when certain foods are broken down. The whole system includes two kidneys, two ureters, the bladder, two sphincter muscles and the urethra. Urine produced by the kidneys travels down the ureters to the bladder, and exits the body through the urethra.

The skin, or integumentary system, is the body's largest organ. It protects us from the outside world, and is our first defense against bacteria, viruses and other pathogens. Our skin also helps regulate body temperature and eliminate waste through perspiration. In addition to skin, the integumentary system includes hair and nails.

Vital organs

Humans have five vital organs that are essential for survival. These are the brain, heart, kidneys, liver and lungs.

The human brain is the body's control center, receiving and sending signals to other organs through the nervous system and through secreted hormones. It is responsible for our thoughts, feelings, memory storage and general perception of the world.

The human heart is a responsible for pumping blood throughout our body.

The job of the kidneys is to remove waste and extra fluid from the blood. The kidneys take urea out of the blood and combine it with water and other substances to make urine.

The liver has many functions, including detoxifying of harmful chemicals, breakdown of drugs, filtering of blood, secretion of bile and production of blood-clotting proteins.

The lungs are responsible for removing oxygen from the air we breathe and transferring it to our blood where it can be sent to our cells. The lungs also remove carbon dioxide, which we exhale.

Fun facts

The human body contains nearly 100 trillion cells.

There are at least 10 times as many bacteria in the human body as cells.

The average adult takes over 20,000 breaths a day.

Each day, the kidneys process about 200 quarts (50 gallons) of blood to filter out about 2 quarts of waste and water

Adults excrete about a quarter and a half (1.42 liters) of urine each day.

The human brain contains about 100 billion nerve cells

Water makes up more than 50 percent of the average adult's body weight

You use your eyes to see, your ears to hear and your muscles to do the heavy lifting. Well, sort of. In fact, most body parts are far more complicated than that, while some seem to have no business being inside there at all.

Ready for Med School? Test Your Body Smarts

Editor's Note: If you'd like more information on this topic, we recommend the following book (available on amazon.com):

Related pages
Systems of the human body

Circulatory System: Facts, Function & Diseases

Digestive System: Facts, Function & Diseases

Endocrine System: Facts, Functions and Diseases

Immune System: Diseases, Disorders & Function

Lymphatic System: Facts, Functions & Diseases

Muscular System: Facts, Functions & Diseases

Nervous System: Facts, Function & Diseases

Reproductive System: Facts, Functions and Diseases

Respiratory System: Facts, Function & Diseases

Skeletal System: Facts, Function & Diseases

Skin: Facts, Diseases & Conditions

Urinary System: Facts, Functions & Diseases

Parts of the human body

Bladder: Facts, Function & Disease

Human Brain: Facts, Anatomy & Mapping Project

Colon (Large Intestine): Facts, Function & Diseases

Ears: Facts, Function & Disease

Esophagus: Facts, Function & Diseases

How the Human Eye Works

Gallbladder: Function, Problems & Healthy Diet

Human Heart: Anatomy, Function & Facts

Kidneys: Facts, Function & Diseases

Liver: Function, Failure & Disease

Lungs: Facts, Function & Diseases

Nose: Facts, Function & Diseases

Pancreas: Function, Location & Diseases

Small Intestine: Function, Length & Problems

Spleen: Function, Location & Problems

Stomach: Facts, Function & Diseases

The Tongue: Facts, Function & Diseases

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