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Direct Instruction, Discussion, Experiential Learning, Discovery Learning, Microworlds, Simulations, Eclectic Learning approaches are not superior to each other, but may be adapted to best suit the unique characteristics of the learners, learning context and topic of instruction

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Group learning may foster higher level thinking, communication and leadership skills, and the like (Top Hat, n.d.).

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Teacher-Centred vs Student-Centred Instruction  

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Teacher-Centred vs Student-Centred Instruction  

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Teacher-centred instructional strategies such as lectures may not be best suited for the need of 21st century students. Lathan (n.d.) maintains that education becomes more of a shared experience between students and instructors when student-centred instructional methods are employed (Lathan, n.d.).

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Learning Design involves selecting the environment, information, instructional strategies, schedule, evaluation methods, and the like for instruction and desired learning

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Learning styles are not actually correlated with improved student performance (Khazan, 2018).

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Child learners are dependent and adult learners are more self-directed (Colorado Christian University, 2011).

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Design Theory vs Instructional Design Theory

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Design Theory vs Instructional Design Theory

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Design theories are goal-oriented. Instructional design theories are prescriptive in that they guide the process of creating, producing and evaluating instruction (Reigeluth & Carr-Chellman, 2012, pp. 7-8).

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''Fuzzy'' or unclear objectives include conditional verbs like would or would be as opposed to will. The latter is a clearer term.

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Instructional objectives typically include a subject, verb and conditions for eliciting and evaluating the desired performance.

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A needs assessment process can give an Instructional Designer, Human Performance Technologist, Programme Evaluator, inter alia, insight for decision-making and intervention selection.

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Context plays a role in the learning experience. Therefore, the orienting, instructional and transfer context should be considered in planning, developing and delivering instruction.

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When it comes to solving performance problems, instructional interventions are not always suitable. In these instances, non-instructional interventions should be considered.

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Colorado Christian University. (n.d.). How adult learn compared to younger children. Retrieved from https://www.ccu.edu/blogs/cags/2011/10/how-adults-learn-compared-to-younger-learners/

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Khazan, O. (2018, April 11). The myth of learning styles. Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2018/04/the-myth-of-learning-styles/557687/

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Lathan, J. (n.d.). Complete guide to teacher-centered vs student-centered learning. Retrieved from https://onlinedegrees.sandiego.edu/teacher-centered-vs-student-centered-learning/#:~:text=Benefits%20of%20a%20Student%2DCentered%20Classroom&text=Students%20tend%20to%20be%20more,part%20of%20the%20learning%20process.

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Reigeluth & Carr-Chellman. (2009). Instructional design theories and models: Building a common knowledge. New York, NY: Taylor and Francis.

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Top Hat. (n.d.). Collaborative learning theory. Retrieved from https://tophat.com/glossary/c/collaborative-learning-theory/#:~:text=Collaborative%20learning%20theory%20involves%20peer,self%2Dmanagement%20and%20leadership%20skills.

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A learning theory links changes in performance with identified reason for those changes (Driscoll, 2013)

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learning occurs  when these processes( attention, pattern recognition, retrieval, rehearsal, encoding, retention) are activated. Hence, instruction should facilitate this activation using Gagne's nine events of instruction( Driscoll, 2013)

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Katambur, D. (2016, September 20). Instructional Design Model - A Framework to Develop Instructional Materials [Infographic]. Retrieved January 22, 2021, from Rapid eLearning Blogs – CommLab India website: https://blog.commlabindia.com/elearning-design/instructional-design-model-infographic

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Creativity is as important in education as literacy (Robinson, 2006).

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https://www.ted.com/talks/ken_robinson_says_schools_kill_creativity?language=tr

http://www.ted.com TEDTalks shares the best ideas from the TED Conference with the world, for free: trusted voices and convention-breaking mavericks, icons and geniuses, all giving the talk of their lives in 18 minutes. We post a fresh TEDTalk every weekday.

TEDTalks are licensed under Creative Commons, so you're welcome to link to or embed these videos, forward them to others and share these ideas with the people you know.

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TED Talks - Do Schools Kill Creativity - Sir Ken Robinson

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https://www.ted.com/talks/ken_robinson_says_schools_kill_creativity?language=tr http://www.ted.com TEDTalks shares the best ideas from the TED Conference with the world, for free: trusted voices and convention-breaking mavericks, icons and geniuses, all giving the talk of their lives in 18 minutes. We post a fresh TEDTalk every weekday.

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"The Performance
Improvement/HPT Model is a diagnostic and strategic tool for improving workplace
performance because it is a thoughtful, evidence-based approach" (Van Tiem, Moseley, & Dessinger, 2012, p. 90)

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A task analysis as the collection of procedures for defining
the content of an instructional unit(Morrison, Ross, Kalman, & Kemp, 2012, p.74).

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Task Analysis. Analyzing and describing how people do their jobs/work -> Go to their environment Examine users' tasks to better understand what they need from interface and how they will use it. Components. Three key components to include in discussing how people work Activities Artifacts

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"A needs
assessment is used to identify gaps in performance and then determine whether the
gaps are worth addressing through an intervention" (Morrison, Ross, Kalman, & Kemp, 2012, p. 30)

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According to Rossett, performance analysis “involves partnering with clients and customers to help them define and achieve their goals . . . reaching out for several perspectives on a problem or
opportunity . . . determining any and all drivers toward or barriers to successful performance . . . [and] proposing a solution system based on what is learned, not on what is
typically done(Van Tiem, Moseley, & Dessinger, 2012,p.179)

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The International Institute for Innovative Instruction

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This is the process used to identify and prioritize the elements that influence human performance (Van Tiem, Moseley, & Dessinger, 2012)

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SWOT Analysis can be used for organizations as well as personal.

1. 1. SWOT Analysis S W O T Copyright © 2008 - 2012 managementstudyguide.com. All rights Instructions: 1. Press "Previous" and "Next" buttons to move between Slides. 2. Press "Esc" Key to Close the Presentation. By APS SWOT ANALYSIS

2. 2. Introduction SWOT Analysis is an examination of organization's internal Strengths & Weaknesses and its Opportunity for growth & Threats in the external environment.

3. 3. Aim To provide understanding on SWOT analysis and its utilization in the dynamic environment.

4. 4. Contents  Introduction  Aim  Contents  Environmental Analysis  SWOT Matrix  Matching and Conversion  Application in Strategic Management  Personal SWOT analysis

5. 5. External Environment - Opportunities - Threats Internal Environment * Strengths * Weaknesses Environmental Analysis Culture Expertise Resources Unique Qualities Market Ecosystem (PESTEL) Third parties

6. 6. SWOT Matrix

7. 7. Matching and Conversion  Leverage (SO) - Maxi-maxi Strategy  Constraint (WO) - Mini-maxi Strategy  Vulnerability (ST) - Maxi-mini Strategy  Problem (WT) - Mini-mini Strategy

8. 8. Application in Strategic Management * Defining Strategy * Implementatio n of Strategy * Internal Capacity to Respond * External Environment Analysis Assess AssistAid

9. 9. Personal SWOT Analysis

10. 10. Conclusion

Recommended

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SWOT Analysis can be used for organizations as well as personal. 1. SWOT Analysis S W O T Copyright © 2008 - 2012 managementstudyguide.com. All rights Instructions: 1. Press "Previous" and "Next" buttons to move between Slides. 2. Press "Esc" Key to Close the Presentation. By APS SWOT ANALYSIS 2.

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A learning intervention is  a gap  between the actual knowledge, skill, or attitude of a worker and the required performance of the  job (Van Tiem, Moseley, & Dessinger, 2012)

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Objectives facilitate the learner’s achievement of  learning goals by selecting the appropriate teaching strategies (Morrison, Ross, Kalman, & Kemp, 2012).

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Driscoll, M. P. (2013). Psychology of learning for instruction: Pearson new international edition. Pearson.

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Morrison, G. R., Ross, S. M., Kalman, H. K., & Kemp, J. E. (2012). Designing effective instruction. Wiley.

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Robinson, S. K. (2006). Do schools kill creativity? [Video]. Retrieved from https://www.ted.com/talks/sir_ken_robinson_do_schools_kill_creativity

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Van Tiem, D. V., Moseley, J. L., & Dessinger, J. C. (2012). Fundamentals of performance improvement: Optimizing results through people, process, and organizations. John Wiley & Sons.

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Instructional Design Theory: The Evolution

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3 Learning Theories of Instructional Design

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3 Learning Theories of Instructional Design

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Design instruction for the learner not the designer

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Concept mapping is a cognitivist instructional design tool that learning designers use to enhance the learning process. It enables learners to organize their thoughts by linking overarching concepts and sub concepts to developing ideas that further explains the concepts. This helps the learner to assimilate knowledge and information more effectively. The strategy was developed by Joseph Novak and his colleagues in 1972. Novak’s theory was influenced by David Ausubel’s assimilation theory.

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According to Reigeluth (1999: 6-7) Instructional Design-Theory is: design-oriented (focusing on means to attain given goals for learning or development) and identifies methods of instruction (ways to support and facilitate learning) and the situation in which these methods should and should not be used.

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ADDIE approach to designing and learning

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Phase 1
Profiling
Phase 2
Strategising
Phase 3
Ascertainment

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Hollis, K. (2021). The history of instructional design.
https://www.wordpress.com

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Reigeluth (ed.) (1999). Instructional-Design Theories and Models: A New Paradigm of Instructional Theory, Vol. 2 (Instructional Design Theories & Models), Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0805828591

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Learning occurs as a response to environmental stimuli and is demonstrated by changes in behaviour (Driscoll, 2005).

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Focuses on how information is received, organized, stored, and retrieved by the mind (Ertmer & Newby, 1993).

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Learning occurs when a human learner processes information that is input from the environment, stores it in memory and outputs it as a learned competence (Driscoll, 2005).

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Learning occurs through creating meaning from experience (Driscoll, 2005).

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Cognitive flexibility is the ability to adapt conceptual knowledge to new problems or situations in ill-structured domains, such as medicine, business, and history. Ill-structured domains are those that present new and varied situations from one case of knowledge application to the next (Spiro et al., 1992).

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Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction

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Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction

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Learning is promoted when:

learners are engaged in solving real-world problems

existing knowledge is activated as a foundation for new knowledge

new knowledge is demonstrated to the learner

new knowledge is applied by the learner

new knowledge is integrated into the learner’s world (Merrill, 2009)

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Instructional Design:

is about helping learners make sense of information

has clear goals and gets learners focused on the right things

provides context and perspective

takes information and expertise of SMEs and delivers it to learner

engages learners with clear and meaningful content (Kuhlmann, 2008)

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In an earlier post, we looked at how to build better courses by trimming out some of the content. Many of the follow-up comments and questions speak to your role as an instructional designer. In fact, it's a question I was asked in a recent email:

What is the role of the instructional designer? And how do I convey that to my clients and subject matter experts?

As I was contemplating a response, I stumbled upon this video that does a great job illustrating the value of instructional design. Watch the video first and then I've got a few observations. If you don't have access to YouTube, click the link below the video.

Click here to watch video.

As humans, we're wired to learn and we're always learning. There's really not a time where we're not learning. Learning is just what we do. And we have a natural way of learning that is not dependent on taking a formal course.

Learning happens through our experiences and through the things we see and hear. We learn in our quiet moments as we reflect on life. And we learn in our social interactions and conversations with others. And sometimes we even learn through elearning courses. 🙂

A formal course intrudes on the learner's natural learning path. This intrusion is neither good nor bad. Essentially, we're just circumventing the natural learning process by not waiting for the learner to stumble upon what we need them to know or do. So we manufacture a learning experience. And in that sense, the role of the instructional designer is to help the learners make sense of the new information they get.

The video above is an excellent illustration of some key points concerning instructional design. Imagine the video was the content of an elearning course. There's a lot of information and a lot going. If you sat the learner down in front of the video and offered no guidance, who knows what they'd focus on?

Some might try to understand the big picture and spend time figuring out where they're at and why they're in two teams. Some might just observe the basketball skills. Still others might try to pick up clues listening in on the conversations.

There's a lot going on and if you just left it up to the learner to figure out, you'd waste a lot of time and probably won't get the results you need. So, instructional design is more than just an information dump. Instead it's about helping the learners make sense of the information.

Fortunately, as you watch the video, the narrator does offer some guidance. He provides a basic objective: "This is an awareness test." And he gives some direction to look for passes by the team in white. That's easy enough to do.

For the moment, let's discount the bear and just look at what happened. There's so much activity and information that without clear instructions you'd focus on the wrong things. Because he gives clear instructions, you're able to answer his question. In fact, while the moonwalking bear is obviously intended to catch you off guard, the reality is that the clarity of the instructions helped you see past the bear and focus on the goal of counting the passes. You were able to do what he asked despite the distractions of all of the other activity.

And that's one of the critical pieces of instructional design. Because you're manufacturing a learning experience, you don't want the learners focused on twenty things. Instead, you're trying to get them focused on very specific pieces of information.

Now let's flip it around a little. Admit it. Unless you already saw this video, it was kind of shocking to think that something as obvious as a moonwalking bear could have passed before your eyes with you completely unaware.

There's a lesson in there for us all. We can become so intently focused on our perspective that we miss the "moonwalking bear." This is true of our clients, our managers, our subject matter experts, and even us. We don't know what we don't know.

This is why collaboration and good analysis comes in handy. It helps expose us to multiple perspectives and keeps us from counting passes, when the critical information is walking right passed us. And we're able to pass that on to our learners.

Make a mental list of everything that is going on in the scene. How many people are there? How many teams? What type of ball? What are the people saying? What is the ethnic makeup of the people? Is that a police siren or ambulance? Which team has the best ball handling skills? The list could go on. And as you can see, there's really a lot of information to collect and process.

Without instructional design, the learner might or might not get the information they need. Because of instructional design, you can get the learners to cut through a lot of extraneous information and get right to the important stuff.

What you do as an instructional designer is take the information and expertise of a tenured subject matter expert and deliver it to the learner. And in doing so, you compress the learning process saving time and money.

Now let's look at the video in its entirety. It's clever. I've watched it a few times and I've shared it with others. I've reflected on how to use the video as an illustration for this post. I've also used it in conversations with my kids and some friends. So the video makers have done a great job engaging me.

There something for us to learn here: good design engages us. When we're mentally engaged, we're more apt to remember and learn. And as you can see from the video, it's not interactive. Yet it is effective.

Not all of our content can be cleverly packaged like this video. In fact, most people would rather have clarity than cleverness to start. And that is the first step in engaging your learners. The information needs to be clear and have real meaning and purpose for the learners. Once they understand why it's important to them, they'll
be more apt to have a meaningful learning experience.

Learning is a complex process and there's a lot more to be said about instructional design. The key point is that instructional designers provide value when they're able to pull the content together to craft courses that are focused and meaningful. What do you think? Feel free to add your ideas by clicking on the comments link.

Free E-Learning Resources

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What Everybody Ought to Know About Instructional Design | The Rapid E-Learning Blog

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In an earlier post, we looked at how to build better courses by trimming out some of the content. Many of the follow-up comments and questions speak to your role as an instructional designer. In fact, it's a question I was asked in a recent email: What is the role of the instructional designer?

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Qualitative - non-numerical data that captures human behaviours and relationships
Quantitative - numerical data that is quantifiable and can be used for mathematical calculations and statistical analysis (Creswell, 2014)

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A structured, sequenced approach which is led by teachers

Emphasizes student-teacher interaction

Produces better scores on standardized tests of basic skills than other approaches

Caters for learners with varied abilities (Huitt, Monetti, & Hummel, 2009)

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Learners and instructor shares ideas

Promotes active learning

Develops critical thinking and problem-solving skills (Gibson, 2009)

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Learner-centered

Hands-on approach

Learn by doing (Lindsey & Berger, 2009)

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Learners develop skills in order to achieve a meaningful goal. The goal must be relevant and have a real-world impact on the learner (Steinke & Fitch, 2014).

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A learner-centered approach where learners work in groups to solve a problem (Kurt, 2020).

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Small but complete subsets of real environments that promote discovery and exploration (Driscoll, 2005).

Based on constructivism and constructionism (Rieber, 2013).

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All important elements are included.

Each element is unidimensional.

Ratings are distinct, comprehensive, and descriptive.

Clear communication with both learners and other stakeholders.

Rich information is provided about the multiple aspects of performance.

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Learners engage in educational tasks that are meaningful and directly related to real tasks that they may need to perform in the future (Jonassen, Howland, Moore, & Marra, 2003) .

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Learning objectives are classified into levels of complexity and specificity.

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Objectives determine what learning should be achieved and are used to describe the setting in which behaviours must take place (Dick, 1991).
They should be SMART:

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Normative

Comparative

Felt

Expressed

Anticipated/Future

Critical Incident

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HPI’s goal is to help organizations achieve performance goals by focusing on people and desired results (Van Tiem, Moseley, & Dessinger, 2012).

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HPT is the process, tools, and techniques used to accomplish desired improvement in an organization  (Van Tiem, Moseley, & Dessinger, 2012).

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Application (working) environment is the work setting in which employees will perform.
Delivery (learning) environment is the setting in which instruction or other learning or performance intervention will be deployed (Rothwell & Kanasas, 2011).

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Interview

Focus group

Survey

Extant data

Observation

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Canas, A.J. (2012). The theory underlying concept maps and how to construct and use them.https://learning-theories.org

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Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage Publications.

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Dick, W. (1991). An instructional designer's view of constructivism. Educational Technology, 31(5), 41-44.

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Driscoll, M.P. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction (3rd ed.).  Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.

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Gibson, J. T. (2009). Discussion approach to instruction. Instructional-design theories and models, 3, 99-116.

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Huitt, W., Monetti, D., & Hummel, J. (2009). Direct approach to instruction. In C.M. Reigeluth, A.A. Carr-Chellman (Eds.), Instructional design theories and models, Volume III: Building a common knowledge base. New York: Routledge.

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Jonassen, D. H., Howland, J., Moore, J., & Marra, R. M. (2003). Learning to solve problems with technology: A constructivist perspective.

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Kuhlmann, T. (2008, July 22). What everybody ought to know about instructional design [Blog post]. Retrieved January 21, 2021 from https://blogs.articulate.com/rapid-elearning/what-everybody-ought-to-know-about-instructional-design/

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Kurt, S. (2020, January 8). Problem-based learning (PBL) [Blog post]. Retrieved January 21, 2021 from https://educationaltechnology.net/problem-based-learning-pbl/

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Lindsey, L., & Berger, N. (2009). Experiential approach to instruction. Instructional-design theories and models, 3, 117-142.

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Merrill, M. D. (2009). First principles of instruction. In Reigeluth, C. M. & Carr-Chellman, A. A. (Eds.). Instructional Design Theories and Models, Volume III: Building a Common Knowledge Base (p. 41-56) New York: Routledge.

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Rieber, L. P. (2013). Microworlds. In Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (pp. 582-602). Routledge.

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Rothwell, W. J., & Kazanas, H. C. (2011). Mastering the instructional design process: A systematic approach. John Wiley & Sons.

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Spiro, R. J., Feltovich, P. J., Coulson, R. L., Jacobson, M., Durgunoglu, A., Ravlin, S., Jehng, J. (1992). Knowledge acquisition for application: Cognitive flexibility and transfer of training in ill-structured domains. United States Army. Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

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Watkins, R., West Meiers, M., & Visser, Y. (2012). A guide to assessing needs: Essential tools for collecting information, making decisions, and achieving development results. The World Bank.