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Praxis
Each case discussed took up the notion of praxis (although not necessarily nam- ing it as such) by integrating theory and practice in the interests of educational and social change.

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Decomposing reading and responding to writing: there are three inter-related constituents of this practice, which are attention, reasoning and determining a response. Attention: grammatical features, reasoning: weaknesses or thinking?
Response topics (surface or deep structures), response strategies (guided or controlled), response agents.
Reasoning:  with four sub-categories, Description, Interpretation, Positive Evaluation and Negative Evaluation.

Conventional, surface structures (grammar)=teacher focused help.

Deep structures: pictures, meaning, style, organization, student as an active agent, they work in pairs to improve their writing. (sign of both KCS and KCT). (Ball et. al, 2008)

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Given the increased recognition in education that subject-matter knowledge is a key element of teacher professionalism, it is argued that TLA should be seen as equally important for the teacher of language subjects.

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the link between knowledge about language (subject-matter knowledge) and knowledge of language (language proficiency),

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Teachers’ language awareness is metacognitive in nature. It involves an extra cognitive dimension of reflections upon both knowledge of subject matter and language proficiency, which provides a basis for the tasks of planning and teaching.

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each teacher’s language awareness could potentially have a significant impact on how that teacher handled language, i.e. the content of learning.

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pedagogical practice is specifically engaged with the content of learning, i.e. the language itself.

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pedagogical practice is specifically engaged with the content of learning, i.e. the language itself.

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most teachers changed their knowledge of SRL-based in- struction from providing students with full autonomy in self-studying a topic to strengthening teachers' role in creating a high-SRL classroom environment.

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Previous professional development programs have focused on two aspects of SRL-based instruction: enhancing teachers' capacity in offering strategy instruction explicitly; and enhancing teachers’ capacity in creating a constructive learning environment in which students learn to regulate their learning independently.

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researchers have argued that only if teachers were self-regulated learners, then they could effectively help their students to become self-regulated learners (Butler & Schnellert, 2012;

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Communities of Practice (CoP) are groups of people who are pursuing common goals, during which meaning and enterprise are mutually developed among members through various forms of engagement (Wenger, 1998). In Wenger’s (1998) definition, CoP involve participants in a system consisting of joint enterprise, mutual engagement, and shared repertoire (Wenger, 1998). Joint enterprise refers to the negotiation made among members in response to the conditions and goals of certain CoP. Mutual engagement involves members in sustained interaction by which different roles and relationships arise from the interaction. Shared repertoire consists of symbols, tools, and language that used as shared resources and had meaning specific to certain CoP (Wenger, 1998). The three principles of CoP (Wenger, 1998) were used to code the data about the training features of the case cluster. To analyse the features of joint enter- prise, cluster meetings and interviews were used to identify how teachers selected a high-SRL classroom model to guide their lesson planning. Teaching artefacts such as lesson plans, worksheets, and assignments and the video-recorded open lessons were used to identify what a SRL lesson looked like. To analyse the features of mutual engagement, data from cluster meetings were employed to identify how the participants interacted in the meetings. The products produced from the cluster - lesson plans, teaching mate- rials, and open classes, were coded as shared repertoire.

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“clusters”. A cluster was a unit of training, which con- sisted of a training tutor and ten to fifteen in-service teachers from three primary schools, with three to five teachers working in one school. All clusters shared a ten-session structure. Session one provided teacher participants with an introduction and session two and three engaged teachers in needs analysis and setting goals of in- dividual clusters. Teacher participants worked on planning a lesson from session four to six and participated in open class observation and after-class discussion from session seven to nine. In the final session, all participants of a cluster reviewed the learning process and outcomes. In each cluster, teachers from three schools developed a lesson that lasting 40e70 min, which was then taught by a teacher from one of three schools and observed by all teacher participants in the same cluster.

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PDC: Professional Digital Competence
ICT: Information and Communication Technology
ITE: Initial Teacher Education
Content knowledge (CK) is teachers’ knowledge about the subject matter to be learned or taught.
Pedagogical knowledge (PK) is teachers’ deep knowledge about the processes and practices or methods of teaching and learning.
Pedagogical Content Knowledge the transformation of the subject matter for teaching.The teacher interprets the subject matter, finds multiple ways to represent it, and adapts and tailors the instructional materials to alternative conceptions and students’ prior knowledge.
TPACK is an emergent form of knowledge that goes beyond all three “core” components (content, pedagogy, and technology). Technological pedagogical content knowledge is an understanding that emerges from interactions among content, pedagogy, and technology knowledge. a change in any one of the factors has to be ‘‘compensated’’ by changes in the other two. (Mishra & Koehler)

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What Is Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge? (TPACK) Koehler, M. J., & Mishra, P. (2009).

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What Is Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge? (TPACK) Koehler, M. J., & Mishra, P. (2009).

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integration efforts should be creatively designed or structured for particular subject matter ideas in specific classroom contexts.

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Daily teaching practices should be considered

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Daily teaching practices should be considered

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reviews generally include macro- or meso-level analyses of how ITE programmes ‘organise their student teachers’ ICT-training with an emphasis on programme technological infra- structure, policy, and barriers and enablers rather than on a micro- or interactional levels focusing on showcasing daily teaching practices and activities with ICT’.

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Krumsvik (2011) distinguished between teachers being confident about using ICT as a tool and teachers being confident about using ICT in their own teaching.
First, one assumption of the self-effi- cacy theory is that people are active learners and that they have the option to develop their own careers (Sáinz and Eccles 2012). Second, the task or activity is assumed to have value for the learner.

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Perceived usefulness is part of a person’s belief system (DeLone and McLean 2003). The perceived usefulness of ICT concerns what a person (e.g. a teacher) believes about the benefits of ICT.

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Several conceptual models have been used to explain the integration of ICT in classroom practices and how this influences teachers’ pedagogical practice. One of these is the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) model, which Mishra and Koehler (2006) expanded from the original concept of Shulman (1986, 1987). In the 1980s, Shulman argued that schools should combine pedagogy and content, thus proposing the concept of pedagogical content knowledge (Shulman 1986, 1987).

In their TPACK model, Mishra and Koehler (2006) expanded on the model of Shulman (1986, 1987) by integrating an additional area of focus. The TPACK model, thus, includes the following: technical knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and knowledge of content.

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The three-pillar model of PDC incorporates:

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The three-pillar model of PDC incorporates:

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1. (a)  generic digital competence,

2. b)  subject/didactic digital competence,

3. (c) profession-orientedcompetence,

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Wenger’s (1998) social theory of identity formation as a dual process of identification and negotiation of meanings.

The “tension between our investment in the various forms of belonging and our ability to negotiate the meanings that matter in those contexts”. Identification is reificative: We identify, or are being identified, as belonging to socially organized categories, roles, and so on. It is also participative: It is the lived experience of belonging that constitutes who we are. There- fore, identification is both relational and experiential.
Freeman and Johnson (1998) point out, participation in the social practices and the sociocultural environments associated with teaching and learning is essential to learning how to teach.
Legitimate access to practice: Wenger (1998) further dis- tinguishes between peripherality and marginality according to the tra- jectory of participation: Peripherality leads to full participation in meaning making in a community whereas marginality does not. (you need to accept your differences and recognize the competence valued by the community). Then you have the legitimacy of access. First you legitimate your own access and then you are given the legitimacy.

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The interplay between reification and negotiation of meanings, and the institutional construction and personal reconstruction of identities.

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The interplay between reification and negotiation of meanings, and the institutional construction and personal reconstruction of identities.

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1) the multidimensionality or multifaceted nature of professional identity and the relationships between these dimensions or facets.
2) the relationship between the personal and social dimensions of identity formation. number of researchers have pointed out the importance of the professional context, which is part of the broader sociocultural and political context, in shaping teacher identity (Reynolds, 1996).
3) the relation- ship between agency and structure in identity formation. Coldron and Smith (1999) stress the importance of agency over social structure and argue that the choices that teachers make constitute their professional identities.

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Three Modes of Belonging According to Wenger 

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Three Modes of Belonging According to Wenger 

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Engagement in practice is a powerful source of identification in that it involves investing ourselves in what we do as well as in our relations with other members of the community.
Imagination is a pro- cess of relating ourselves to the world beyond the community of practice in which we are engaged and seeing our experience as located in the broader context and as reflective of the broader connections.
Alignment is how participants in a community become connected by bringing their actions and practices in line with a broader enterprise. It is through alignment that the identity of a large group such as an institution becomes the identity of its participants.

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The negotiation of meanings involves the production and adoption of meanings: The two must go together.
Power and Economies of Meanings: Benefitting from meanings in a way that it won't cause any conflicts due to power relations.

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Coping: to survive, managing: to flourish (the intellectual and emotional influences of personal, policy, school and classroom environments (Day and Hong 2016). Early career teachers' identities are transitional.

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She reified her reader identity in her teaching practice by forming a readers club. Reader (teacher)-text- reader (student) interaction. Experienced teachers’ narrative accounts about their professional identity and the entailing practice be collected, analysed, and shared in teacher education programmes (Johnson and Golombek 2011). As for EFL teachers, they are advised to form a readers club, provide an orientation on SLA theory, teach metacognitive reading strategies, discuss principles about book selection, share readings, and endow a platform to have members’ intentions and voices to be heard (Bakhtin 1981).

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the concurrent model, in which disciplinary studies and pedagogical studies are integrated and taught at the same time; and the consecutive model, which focuses mostly on pedagogy following the disciplinary studies already completed by university graduates interested to go into teaching.(formasyon gibi)
The results of the study by Zuzovsky and Schmidt : the entry rates and the proportion of graduates that were teaching over the years is significantly higher in the consecutive model. a higher percentage of university graduates were promoted to all types of leadership positions.

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Teacher Educators: Second-Order Practioners: a ‘boundary broker’ from a university perspective who works to effect successful Third-Space working by bringing together different perspectives within the context of designing workshops for pre-service teachers.
Kubiak et al. (2015, p. 82) suggest, the boundary broker is positioned as a ‘liminal inside-outsider constantly faced with the challenge of how to make the practice of one community of practice relevant to another’.
What is it? Development from the ‘first-order teaching skills’ of teaching pupils to the ‘second-order skills’ of teaching others to teach.  This is where the Third-Space activity and the role of the ‘boundary broker’ come into their own especially, perhaps, to create a symbiosis between craft and theory-related elements.
successful boundary crossing entails specific personal factors such as communication/interaction skills and awareness of contextual factors in order to see an issue from another’s perspective and thereby become a broker.
Wenger suggests that part of the role of a broker is to facilitate, to ‘make things easier’.
Wenger (1998) suggests that brokers must be connected enough to the community of practice to have the legitimacy to be listened to but at the same time have enough distance to offer a different perspective which provides value to the community of practice.
Suchman’s ‘unqualified’ professionals  (new teachers felt like this). Broker must see this.

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Wenger et al. (2011) defined five different cycles of value creation generated within CoP: immediate value; potential value, applied value; realized value; and reframed value. Immediate value includes learning that is put to use immediately to solve a problem. Potential value includes benefits related to the shared skills and knowledge that can be realized at some time in the future. Applied value results from the application of shared skills and knowledge to new contexts. Realized value includes CoP participant and stakeholder reflections on how the skills and knowledge gained as a result of their participation in a CoP made a difference in their ability to achieve important goals. Lastly, reframed value involves the identification and definition of new criteria for success.

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research shows that involvement of preservice teachers in learning communities and activities such as reflective writing and collaborative reflection inform preservice teachers' professional identity

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Professional identity construction as a learning-to-teach process (Smagorinsky, Cook, Moore, Jackson, & Fry, 2004) occurs as pre- service teachers interact with significant others such as their teacher educators (Johnson, 2003). Such a view is based on social constructivism, which assumes learning happens in a social process in which learners gain new skills and knowledge through in- teractions with other people such as teachers (Vygotsky, 1978).

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(1) knowledge is constructed by learners; (2) learning involves social interaction and (3) learning is situated (Beck & Kosnik, 2006) can be interpreted as: pre-service teachers go through the learning-to-teach process and gradually construct their teacher identity in their daily interactions with significant others, such as their mentor teachers in the context of the practicum.

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the coherence to be established in the sense the courses at university help preservice teachers to get prepared for in-school OTL

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Coteaching is a model for learning to teach where teacher candidates1 and clinical educators work alongside one another and share responsibility for student learning (Darragh, Picanco, Tully, & Henning, 2011; Martin, 2009; Tobin, 2006).

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From a sociocultural perspective, coteaching is aligned with situated learning theory (Bransford & Schwartz, 1999; Sawyer, 2006) and Vygotsky’s social constructions of knowl- edge (Vygotsky, 1934/1986; Murphy, Scantlebury, & Milne, 2015). Situated learning theory helps depict student teaching as a bounded context for learning encompassing a micro- community of learners (Rogoff, 1994), where learning takes place in the same authentic context as it is applied (Lave & Wenger, 1991).

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1) co-teaching supports both prospective and experienced teachers in planning, instructing and evaluating on reciprocal bases (Zeichner, 2012).
2) It is in contrast to in gradual release models where candidates observe clinical educators teach but are not necessarily privy to the teachers’ planning and rationale processes.
3) impositions and points of authority are levelled thanks to the seamless flow of power among experienced teachers and student teachers since teaching collaboratively transformation of participation, from passive receiver of knowledge to active reflection and meaning maker
4) Transformation of participation: According to the article by Soslau, Gallo-Fox and Scantlebury (2018), this social practice or the practice of learning by being situated within the context leads to such outcomes as improved collaborative practice, growth competence and adaptive expertise, which indicate transformation of participation.

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Improved collaborative practice is achieved through mutual reflective discussions with experienced teachers or clinical educators. Student teachers participate in Socratic dialogues by being exposed to analytical questions (probing), critiques regarding their practical decisions (questioning) and corrective feedback (justifying) by clinical educators. co-planning, co-instruction and co-evaluation are performed

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As opposed to competency-based teacher education models, co-teaching helps  students gain the abilities of self-reflecting and self-correcting to improve their practices while they are literally and actively teaching

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It defines the ability to make on-spot adaptations to a previously planned instruction by changing the guidelines of a curriculum according to pupil needs and contextual demands. In other words, it refers to experimental teaching without creating any risks (Soslau, 2012). (through co-instruction)

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*It requires authentic practice
*It is a development of a broad set of knowledge and skills.
*It requires dispositions in clinical settings.

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The elements of mentoring are the mentor’s

(1) own knowledge, skills and experiences,

(2) ability to identify the potential in a mentee,

(3) ability to enable a mentee to achieve his or her potential (Trubowitz, 2004).

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The Clinical Faculty Program (CFP) must include:

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The Clinical Faculty Program (CFP) must include:

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1) Training of

co-operating teachers
2) Supervisions of clinical experiences by experienced classroom teachers,
3) Mentoring as the central skill

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Portner’s (2003) model which indicates four fundamental roles of a mentor:

•Fostering a trusting relationship,

•Assessing strengths and struggles,

•Coaching for proficiency and mastery,

•Guiding toward autonomy.

(Aimed to equip CF with skills for mentoring adaptable to dif. strengths and needs.)

CF training is delivered through a graduate-level course,
*More specifically, training focuses on the following topics:

*Exploring teacher preparation and the role of Clinical Faculty
*Building a professionally supportive relationship with the

teacher candidate
*Setting expectations for student teacher competence
*Demonstrating professional practice through competency-

based, reflective portfolios
*Effectively using clinical supervision techniques
*Observing instruction and collecting reflective data
*Implementing developmental coaching and conferencing

techniques.

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The core activity of the CFP focuses on the identification, recruitment, selection, training, support, and ongoing collaboration with experienced classroom teachers who are serving as CTs. Cooperating teachers who become part of the Clinical Faculty Program by virtue of the successful completion of formal training are then designated as Clinical Faculty (CF). Pro- spective CF must meet the following criteria:

*Hold a valid teaching license and must have successfully taught at least three years

*Demonstrate content and pedagogical expertise
* Demonstrate effective communication skills
*Have a positive attitude and a professional demeanor
*Show genuine interest in preparing and supporting aspiring

teachers
*Demonstrate the ability to effectively prepare and support

aspiring teachers
*Demonstrate a willingness to work with other teacher prepa-

ration professionals
*Enjoy the respect of their colleagues.

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The relational dimension of mentoring refers to the relationship between mentor and mentee just as proposed by Gehrke’s (1988) conceptualization, which assigns a mentor the role of passing on gift of wisdom to the protégé, or mentee. This ‘gift giving’ process starts with the creation of the gift by the mentor and ends with the protégé becoming a mentor and sharing the gift with another teacher candidate. The developmental dimension can be characterised by Maynard and Furlong’s (1993) apprenticeship, competency and reflective models. These models are actually the consecutive stages of mentoring. In the first stage, mentees work with mentors acting as role models and they observe the complex processes of teaching. In the second stage, mentees are engaged in a systematic process of observation and feedback. And, in the final stage, mentors act as co-enquirers to create mutual reflections on mentee’s teaching and learning. And, the contextual dimension is concentrated on how beginning teachers’ needs for learning are influenced and shaped by the school organization and culture, or context, which – therefore – should be supported by collaboration and inquiry. This process of mentored learning has been defined as ‘enculturation’ and it helps mentees simply fit into the school community and culture.

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Teachers as active participants in their own learning encouraged through reflective practice (Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002). 

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Teachers as active participants in their own learning encouraged through reflective practice (Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002). 

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Self-reflections, observations and interviews

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Teachers can engage in conversation, collaboration and observation, which Fullan (2001) identifies as necessary for effective changes to pro- fessional practice, as well as individual and collaborative reflection on their experience of implementing new initiatives (

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Day and Sachs (2004) highlight the value of engaging teachers in professional development experiences which are meaningful and in alignment with their personal beliefs and values. 

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Day and Sachs (2004) highlight the value of engaging teachers in professional development experiences which are meaningful and in alignment with their personal beliefs and values. 

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The term dialogic teaching is most directly associated with Alexander (2006), who states that spoken language should play a central role in teaching, since it provides an opportunity to influ- ence students' thought processes through their involvement in classroom discourse. Questions in dialogic teaching are structured in such a manner so as to provoke thoughtful answers and these answers are supposed to provoke further new questions. This serves to create a coherent line of enquiry (Alexander, 2006, p. 41). Among his inspirational sources, Alexander (2005, 2006) empha- sizes in particular Vygotsky and Bakhtin.

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Each participant brings to communication something unique and original. The consequent mixing of various elements creates a dialogue in which individual voices react to one another, each utterance responding to the pre- vious one and stimulating the following one.

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(1) authentic questions (2) uptake e a situation in which the speaker builds on what has been said by the previous speaker, increasing the coherence of the dialogue; (3) higher order teacher feedback e comments on the correctness or incorrectness of a student's response, as well as more elaborate feedback on the content of the student's response; (4) open discussion e a sequence that includes at least three participants who respond to each other for more than 30 s.

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Behavorism. We consider two aspects of teacher education directly based on this view: classical micro-teaching and competency-based teacher education (CBTE).

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A core feature is its emphasis on self agency and personal change that is enabled but not directed by others.

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Constructivism consists of a family of theories based on the notion that we operate with mental representations of the world which are our knowledge, and which change as we learn: ‘all learning takes place when an individual con structs a mental representation of an object, event or idea’

Kelly and Kolb: constructs: bipolar concepts we use to construe the world, that is to interpret our reality and to predict future events. Kolb: experiential learning. (dialogue, integrated activities, individualism)

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the content (what content is and what of it learners bring or already know), about how learners learn that content (i.e., what is within versus beyond the scope of the classroom or instructional setting), and what learners should know and be able to do as an outcome of the teaching

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THE DIMENSIONS OF SCOPE: SUBSTANCE (content), ENGAGEMENT (how), AND INFLUENCE (outcome)

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THE DIMENSIONS OF SCOPE: SUBSTANCE (content), ENGAGEMENT (how), AND INFLUENCE (outcome)

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positivist research has sought to identify patterns of good teaching and has traditionally focused on what effective teachers do (teaching behaviors/processes) that leads to student achieve- ment (test scores/product).

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Social reality is understood as being created by people, and exists, in large part, within people’s minds. Seen from this stance, the goal of interpretative research is to uncover how people participate in and constitute social reality.

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Scaffolded Learning and Assisted Performance

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Scaffolded Learning and Assisted Performance

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the construction of knowledge and conceptual development represent a joint rather than an individual achievement.
Scaffolding: how a person can become intimately and productively involved in someone else’s learning
Assisted performance: graduated assistance provided by a more experienced other that is contingent on actual need and removed when the learner is able to function independently.

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The role of speech, between the teacher and an experienced researcher mentor, is central to  conceptual development and eventual internalization of the model of instruction.

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Embracing a conception of teaching as dialogic mediation shifts attention to the norms that govern participation in an activity and the extent to which L2 learners are (or are not) able to participate in that activity.

When teaching is understood as dialogic mediation, instruction (teaching/learning) has the potential to create opportunities for productive interactions to occur in goal-directed activity settings.

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**As part of our first class meeting I ask the teachers to do a word association activity in which they list all the words that come to mind when they think about the words methodology, language, and teaching "I mediate this activity by asking individual teachers to articulate how they understand a particular word, or why certain words should be grouped together or linked to other groups of words in the concept map."
**For our next session teachers read different published research articles in which the authors critique the traditional concepts of methodology,language, or teaching
In our next class session, the teachers are first grouped according to the article they read and given time to discuss their collective understand- ings of it.
**To concretize these emerging concepts, in the next class session the teachers watch short video clips of several different ESL teachers.
**In the next activity each teacher is responsible for teaching some L2 language/culture-related concept, item, or skill to the entire class. These tend to be short, usually fun, micro-teaching activities
**Critical to this activity is an assigned reflection paper in which teachers must discuss how they planned, carried out, and assessed their micro-teaching session and relate the processes they went through to the articles they read.
As the teacher educator, I play a critical role in this dialogic process in that I determine the concepts that I believe are central to the professional development of L2 teachers, I select the readings that define the scientific concepts under consideration, I mediate the teachers’ thinking by asking them to verbalize their understandings, and I assist them with means of visualization and goal-directed activities that support the development of thinking in concepts about L2 teaching and learning.

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Critical language teachers make transparent the complex relationships between majority and minority speakers and cultural groups, and between diverse speakers of the majority language, thus having the potential to disrupt potentially harmful and oppressive relations of power.

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The situated nature of language learning, responsiveness to learners, praxis, dialogic engagement, reflexivity (making reflections)

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The training model of CPD is universally recognisable (Little, 1994; Kelly & McDiarmid, 2002) and has, in recent years, arguably been the dominant form of CPD for teachers. This model of CPD supports a skills-based, technocratic view of teaching whereby CPD provides teachers with the opportunity to update their skills in order to be able to demonstrate their competence. It is generally ‘delivered’ to the teacher by an ‘expert’, with the agenda determined by the deliverer, and the participant placed in a passive role. While the training can take place within the institution in which the participant works, it is most commonly delivered off-site and is often subject to criticism about its lack of connection to the current classroom context in which participants work.

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An award-bearing model of CPD is one that relies on, or emphasises, the completion of award-bearing programmes of study – usually, but not exclusively, validated by universities. This external validation can be viewed as a mark of quality assurance, but equally can be viewed as the exercise of control by the validating and/or funding bodies.

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Professional development can be designed specifically to address a perceived deficit in teacher performance. This may well be set within the context of performance management, which itself is subject to debate over its fundamental purpose. Rhodes & Beneicke (2003) point out that performance management can be viewed as a means of raising standards or ‘as an element of government intervention to exact greater efficiency, effectiveness and accountability’ (p. 124).

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The cascade model involves individual teachers attending ‘training events’ and then cascading or disseminating the information to colleagues. It is commonly employed in situations where resources are limited.

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The standards-based model of CPD belittles the notion of teaching as a complex, context-specific political and moral endeavour; rather it ‘represents a desire to create a system of teaching, and teacher education, that can generate and empirically validate connections between teacher effectiveness and student learning’ (Beyer, 2002, p. 243). This ‘scientific’ basis on which the standards movement relies limits the opportunities for alternative forms of CPD to be considered. It also relies heavily on a behaviourist perspective of learning, focusing on the competence of individual teachers and resultant rewards at the expense of collaborative and collegiate learning.

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The coaching/mentoring model covers a variety of CPD practices that are based on a range of philosophical premises. However, the defining characteristic of this model is the importance of the one-to-one relationship, generally between two teachers, which is designed to support CPD. Both coaching and mentoring share this characteristic, although most attempts to distinguish between the two suggest that coaching is more skills based and mentoring involves an element of ‘counselling and professional friendship’ (Rhodes & Beneicke, 2002, p. 301). Indeed, mentoring also often implies a relationship where one partner is novice and the other more experienced (Clutterbuck, 1991).

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There is a clear relationship between communities of practice and the mutually supportive and challenging form of the coaching/mentoring model discussed above. The essential difference between the two is that a community of practice generally involves more than two people, and would not necessarily rely on confidentiality. However, the other form of the coaching/mentoring model of CPD discussed above – the hierarchical, assessment driven model – is perhaps not as closely related to the communities of practice model.

Wenger (1998) contends that, while we are all members of various communities of practice, learning within these communities involves three essential processes:

evolving forms of mutual engagement;

understanding and tuning [their] enterprise;

developing [their] repertoire, styles and discourses (p. 95).

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Somekh (cited in Day, 1999, p. 34) defines action research as ‘the study of a social situation, involving the participants themselves as researchers, with a view to improving the quality of action within it’. The ‘quality of action’ can be perceived as the participants’ understanding of the situation, as well as the practice within the situation.

Advocates of the action research model (Weiner, 2002; Burbank & Kauchack, 2003) tend to suggest that it has a greater impact on practice when it is shared in communities of practice or enquiry, and indeed, many communities of practice will engage in action research. However, collaboration of the nature found in a community of practice is not a prerequisite of the action research model.

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What is termed in this article as a ‘transformative model’ of CPD involves the combination of a number of processes and conditions – aspects of which are drawn from other models outlined in this article. The central characteristic is the combination of practices and conditions that support a transformative agenda. In this sense, it could be argued that the transformative model is not a clearly definable model in itself; rather it recognises the range of different conditions required for transformative practice.