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If you think you can't, watch! EVERYONE has the ability to change. EVERYONE has the ability to shift and do what's best for learners.

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Confessions of a Converted Lecturer: Eric Mazur

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Agency describes the ability to identify valued goals and desired outcomes, and to pursue those goals and outcomes proactively, purposefully and effectively. The key components of agency include:

the thoughtful identification of one's values and priorities

a belief in one's abilities

the capacity to intentionally direct one's efforts towards specific goals[i]

It is important that agency is understood in educational contexts to incorporate both action and intention.

The concept of agency is derived from the fields of sociology and psychology, and has been used in different ways for different purposes in education. It is sometimes used interchangeably with concepts like proactivity, autonomy, the ability to exercise choice, and self-regulation. This conceptual instability, combined with a limited empirical evidence base, means that the evidence for the role and impact of agency is less emphatic than that for other, more stable concepts such as self-efficacy.

While some factors of social emotional learning, such as self-efficacy, motivation or engagement, may be lower in some domains and higher in others, agency is a characteristic specific to an individual.[ii] Students have a sense of agency in guiding their own educational pathways as a whole regardless of how they feel in specific content areas. Importantly, it is malleable, and teachers can support students to develop their sense of agency.

The benefits of an agency-focused education are not controversial: indeed, some are fairly obvious. Agency supports all aspects of achievement while students are at school as well as powerfully setting them up for life beyond school. Agency, like many other factors of social emotional learning, is both an enabler of success at school and an outcome of schooling.

The building blocks of agency

While agency is complex, it comprises several core components, all of which can be developed and supported by teachers in the classroom.
Self-efficacy: Confidence in one's abilities
Students' beliefs in their own abilities affect the degree to which they feel stress when confronted with a problem. Students with low capability beliefs will feel threatened when they are assigned difficult problems[iii] and may react with anxiety, depression, anger or frustration when they feel threatened by activities that they do not feel equipped to accomplish. Students may shut down or act out due to low self-efficacy when given a challenging problem or assignment. Conversely, students with high competency beliefs do not feel threatened by taxing or confusing problems. They know that they can work through them with effort, drawing on their stable confidence. Associating optimistic outcome beliefs with difficult academic tasks largely dictates the extent to which students seek out and engage in challenging academic assignments and courses. This is a self-perpetuating cycle because the more a student pushes through a difficult task, the stronger their skills become, leading in turn to higher personal self-efficacy.
Self-awareness: Thoughtful identification of one's values and priorities
A student who clearly understands their personal values has a much stronger drive to actively pursue their goals. Whether consciously or not, students' values and priorities shape every decision they make regarding their education. Clarifying these priorities is a valuable yet often ignored step for students in setting proximal and long-term goals and plans. Students who regularly reflect on what authentically matters to them will have a sense of agency in their schoolwork. This self-awareness will push them to actively make changes later in their academic or professional lives if their work misaligns with their personal priorities.
Self-regulation: The ability to direct one's efforts towards specific goals
In an era of constant distractions, students without the internal tools to guide their attention will be at the mercy of their impulses. However, self-regulating students set short and long-term goals, check progress towards those goals, manage their time, and develop positive learning strategies. These students will be able to put their values into practice. The ability to inhibit one's impulses can be especially useful for supporting agentic independence in students with learning differences. Goal-setting and tracking abilities, time management and impulse control are fundamental skills from which to build student agency. Coupled with high confidence in one's abilities and an understanding of one's values, self-regulating students direct their own educational, professional, and personal trajectories.
Individual variation
Some students may be more inclined to develop these skills or may come to school already equipped with a positive sense of agency. These traits are impacted by factors such as the student's home environment and early years, which are out of a teacher's control. However, a sense of agency is highly malleable[iv], and there are a number of strategies that teachers can use to support and promote the development of students' self-efficacy, self-awareness, and self-regulation.

The value of prioritising agency in education

Agency is important in educational settings because agentic students act on their environments and life trajectories in thoughtful and purpose-driven ways. A student with a high sense of agency creates rather than responds to educational opportunities. In the classroom, students with a sense of agency regularly communicate their level of interest and express preferences, ask for a say in how problems are to be solved, and seek ways to add personal relevance to the lesson. They will work intentionally by recommending goals or objectives to pursue, soliciting resources or learning opportunities, finding study strategies and spaces that work for them, and seeking clarification or assistance. They will contribute to lessons by offering suggestions or contributions, asking deep questions and sharing their thoughts and opinions. Students who develop a sense of agency are advocates for themselves and the issues they care about.
Agency supports students during their school years
Agency predicts highly valued academic outcomes. For example, students who actively seek clarification or request assistance from their teachers have been found to score higher on standardised exams.[v] Conversely, students who are hesitant to seek help or clarification have lower grades than those who enjoy interacting with their teachers. In addition, students who connect to the deeper meaning of an assignment will also enjoy the task more and experience higher achievement. Finally, students who evaluate how they best focus and act on their findings have higher learning outcomes. In sum, students who seek out ways to personally relate to their learning and find ways to grow and improve have better academic outcomes. While students will naturally feel a predilection for specific subjects, agency describes the stable internal trait of being able to motivate and regulate their learning across content areas. Agency is variable from one individual to the next, but stable within the individual in various contexts.

Students with a high sense of agency are also much more likely to engage in or lead clubs and sports teams. Agentic students take initiative in social issues that matter to them, and are more willing to regularly challenge themselves and intentionally engage in activities in which they have the opportunity to make and learn from mistakes. Agency can also empower students to promote positive change within their communities, as a belief in one's ability and a willingness to take action can propel individuals and their communities forward. For example, agentic students are more likely to advocate for one another or argue a point with an intimidating counterpart rather than turning a blind eye or feeling disempowered to act when they witness bullying or injustice. Similarly, students who are comfortable sharing their voice and actively engaging in their learning contribute to building a stronger school community.
Agency prepares students for life beyond school
A vital role of education is to prepare students to thrive professionally after they finish school. In order to be successful in today's fast-paced and constantly developing world, students must develop a desire and an aptitude for life-long learning. In a marketplace where companies are increasingly likely to contract the talent they need for a particular job or project, employees must often be responsible for developing skills on their own rather than relying on their employers to provide workplace training. Students entering the workforce will often be in unfamiliar territory in terms of their skills and knowledge base, and, in order to thrive, must have both the capability to determine what they need to learn and the inner drive to learn it, even if it is hard.Agentic people will more actively pursue challenging projects, share their thoughts and opinions, and take on leadership roles within their teams. The unpredictable and evolving nature of the job market today emphasises the need for students to actively take charge of their professional lives and learning.

In a democracy, the wellbeing of the public relies on the active participation of its citizens. Agency directly shapes an individual's democratic citizenship through personal responsibility and a justice orientation. Personal responsibility refers to an individual's propensity to care for their community, while social justice-oriented citizens actively engage in civic and social affairs at the local, state, and national levels. These high agency individuals challenge social, political, and economic injustices, and consider strategies by getting to the root of systemic issues. Citizens with a high sense of agency are the backbone of any thriving democracy. Therefore, part of the role of education in democratic countries must be to energise students to develop their own opinions, share their voice, and take action.

Students who develop a strong sense of agency in their formative years will also be more likely to enter into healthy personal relationships in adulthood. Agentic individuals have a stable sense of self-worth, so they are willing to address issues in interpersonal relationships. A lack of agency in a relationship can, in severe cases, devolve into abuse.
Learning environments that promote student agency
In this new age of seemingly endless information, the opportunities for students are enormous. Self-directed individuals can pursue any skill set or content area that interests them. Students who have a strong belief in their own capabilities and the self-regulation to effectively stick to their goals will exercise agency if their environments are conducive to autonomy. Below are several ways to create such learning environments.
Congruence between students' social and academic identities
This involves ensuring that students' activity in the school community does not conflict with their social worth in their friend group. In traditional schools, students not already strongly committed to an academic identity face powerful pressures, both internal and external, to define themselves in ways that minimise identification with schooling. Internalised voices argue incessantly against the alignment of values with teachers and their academic tasks, making schoolwork seem incompatible with popularity or loyalty to some key reference groups (such as a student's culture, ethnic group, gender, family or peers). By the time they reach high school, very few students engage in groups primarily defined by academic excellence.

However, a classroom that recognises a student's need to keep their social image intact can adapt teaching and learning to fit an agentic academic identity. Creation of identity congruence with academic behaviour can be achieved by building student pride in ethnic and family heritage while opening doors to 'code-switching' and other strategies that deal with the sharply different behavioral expectations of school, the workplace, and peer groupings. When a student evaluates a given academic task as high in personal relevance without a risk to positive social image, the result is a willingness to actively engage with that task and that environment.
Student-directed learning through clear formative assessment
Discussions about assessment in the classroom may focus on marks and grades, the weight of different assignments in comparison to tests and projects, the impact of turning assignments in late, and the amount of material to be covered on tests. Rarely, it seems, do these conversations focus on student learning. In addition, grading often feels final to students. They may not review the comments on marked assignments or take the time to learn the problems they missed on a test because they don't perceive that learning this information will have any impact on their future grade. All this may lead to students feeling disengaged or even disempowered when it comes to their academic outcomes.

Purposeful formative assessment dispels student passivity associated with academic results. For example, a quiz can clearly denote which learning objectives the student has mastered and which they have yet to master.Clear formative assessment supports student agency by communicating a student's specific strengths and areas of growth. A student in this system is better able to determine how to improve their grade based on the most important aspect of education-how well they comprehend and can apply the content of the course.

Autonomy through 'just-in-time' support

While engagement might shift on a day-to-day basis for various reasons, teachers can promote a more stable sense of agency to learn that determines students' orientation towards school in general. Agency is developed by providing the delicate balance of supportive scaffolding with autonomy. Teachers who regularly gauge student understanding will be able to positively manage this balance by giving students a degree of autonomy in their learning while providing instruction on a 'just-in-time' basis. For example, a teacher monitoring a student working on a STEM project may step in to provide explicit instruction on a particular scientific or mathematical principle in order to allow the student to move forward with their hypothesising and problem-solving. Similarly, a teacher might support a group discussion about a novel by providing a piece of contextual knowledge pertaining to the historical setting of the novel that enables the students to draw pertinent insights but does not dictate or dominate the nature of the discussion. This kind of support allows students to continue to work independently or collaboratively towards their learning goals without being held up by a gap in their knowledge.

Teaching that promotes agency

The following instructional models optimise agency development by encouraging students to decide what they need to learn and how best to learn it in order to be able to accomplish their project. Students discover for themselves the gaps in their current knowledge and seek out resources (such as their teacher) in order to progress.
Problem-based learning
Problem-based and project-based learning create opportunities for students to develop agency by making sense of a problem at the edge of their current understanding or skill level. As they follow similar patterns, only problem-based learning is used below as an example. This instructional model follows a series of steps and may seem more specific than other strategies included here, but teachers should feel free to develop, add to, or eliminate any pieces from the following to better suit their own students. Teachers may also choose to incorporate elements of the model rather than using it as a whole.

Students are divided into small groups, and each group is assigned a facilitator. The facilitator's task is to manage group discourse by ensuring that everyone has the chance to voice their thoughts. The students are then presented with the problem 'cold.' In other words, they are not given context. This pushes students to explore various areas of their prior knowledge and make connections between these areas.

The group then discusses the problem and generates hypotheses of the solution based on any prior knowledge or experience they bring to the table. They then identify several 'learning issues,' which are relevant topics that the students do not feel they understand as well as they should in order to solve the problem. Each student verbally reflects on the problem and potential solutions based their existing knowledge and assumes the responsibility of researching one of the learning issues. Therefore, rather than having pre-assigned learning objectives, students assign themselves objectives (these are the learning issues they identify).

Engage in self-directed learning

Following the discussion, students direct their own learning, using the resources they have available in the way they feel is most effective. Resources should always include the teacher, who carefully responds to questions in order to push student thinking further rather than simply supplying the answer.

The students meet again to re-evaluate the problem using their collective new information and skills. Students also share what strategies or resources they use in gathering information, and how each was or was not useful. This part of the process makes students aware of positive learning habits. As new learning issues arise, students again revisit step three (engaging in self-directed learning).

This cycle is repeated generally over a period of five to six weeks, with smaller sub-questions along the way. However, the length of time on each problem is up to the teacher's discretion.
Student-designed units
This instructional approach involves students employing a framework provided by the teacher to develop their own units. Students then pitch their units to the class and everyone votes on the topics that the whole class will learn about. This framework allows students to inquire about areas of interest and gain conceptual understanding of the key concepts, the global context, the statement of inquiry, and factual, conceptual or debatable inquiry questions associated with that topic. It also requires students to decide on the best way to test mastery of the concept and create a summative assessment. The role of the teacher in this approach is crucial in terms of ensuring that the topic of focus is not only of interest to the students but aligned to valued knowledge and learning outcomes. The teacher may also need to explicitly teach students how to design an assessment tool that effectively evaluates their mastery of the topic. This approach promotes agency by requiring students to identify a valued learning goal and then determine how best to attain it, but should be used to complement rather than replace teacher-designed units.

Measuring agency

Periodically evaluating students' social emotional learning serves the dual purpose of informing the teacher of their students' progress and wellbeing and prompting students to practise self-awareness. While formal school-wide social emotional assessments are valuable for collecting comprehensive data, these measures are time-consuming and cannot practically be implemented more than once or twice each year. For these formal assessments, one reliable measure with strong evidence of validity is the Panorama Social-Emotional Learning Survey. However, on a fortnightly or monthly basis, teachers can informally gauge student agency by asking the following questions:

When you are working independently, how often do you stay focused? (Almost never/Sometimes/Fairly often/Almost always)

How sure are you that you can complete all the work that is assigned in your classes? (Not at all sure/Quite Sure/Sure/Very sure)

When complicated ideas are presented in class, how confident are you that you can understand them? (Not at all confident/Quite confident/Confident/Very confident)

How sure are you that you can do the hardest work that is assigned in your classes? (Not at all sure/Quite Sure/Sure/Very sure)

When you get stuck while learning something new, how likely are you to try a different strategy? (Not at all likely/Quite likely/Likely/Very likely)

Before you start on a challenging project, how often do you think about the best way to approach the project? (Almost never/Sometimes/Fairly often/Almost always)

How much effort do you put into your homework for class? (Very little effort/Some effort/Quite a bit of effort/A lot of effort)

When your teacher is speaking, how much effort do you put into trying to pay attention? (Very little effort/Some effort/Quite a bit of effort/A lot of effort)

How often do you seek to challenge yourself in your learning? (Almost never/Sometimes/Fairly often/Almost always)

How often do you make connections between your learning and the things that are important to you in your life? (Almost never/Sometimes/Fairly often/Almost always)

How often do you seek help and feedback so that you can improve your work and reach your goals? (Almost never/Sometimes/Fairly often/Almost always)

How confident are you that you can achieve the goals that you set for yourself at school? (Not at all confident/Quite confident/Confident/Very confident)

How confident do you feel to evaluate your progress towards achieving your goals at school and work out what else you need to learn or master? (Not at all confident/Quite confident/Confident/Very confident)

References

Bandura, A. (1989). Human agency in social cognitive theory. American Psychologist, 44(9), 1175.

Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 1-26.

Barnett, R. (2007). Will to learn: Being a student in an age of uncertainty. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill Education.

Jackson, D. B. (2003). Education reform as if student agency mattered: Academic microcultures and student identity. Phi Delta Kappan, 84(8), 579-585.

Klemenčič, M. (2015). What is student agency? An ontological exploration in the context of research on student engagement. In M. Klemenčič, S. Bergran & Primožič, R. (Eds.), Student engagement in Europe: Society, higher education and student governance (pp. 11-29). Council of Europe Higher Education Series No. 20. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing.

Kolowich, S. (2014). Confuse students to help them learn. Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved from https://www.chronicle.com/article/Confuse-Students-to-Help-Them/148385.

Komarraju, M., & Nadler, D. (2013). Self-efficacy and academic achievement: Why do implicit beliefs, goals, and effort regulation matter? Learning and Individual Differences, 25, 67-72.

Linnenbrink, E. A., & Pintrich, P. R. (2003). The role of self-efficacy beliefs in student engagement and learning in the classroom. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 19(2), 119-137.

Oros, A. L. (2007). Let's debate: Active learning encourages student participation and critical thinking. Journal of Political Science Education, 3(3), 293-311.

Panorama Education. (n.d.). Panorama Social-Emotional Learning Survey. Retrieved from https://panorama-www.s3.amazonaws.com/files/sel/SEL-User-Guide.pdf?__hssc=17850406.2.1561136595773&__hstc=17850406.87c365f7c5fdf59f8f7749cd9db5a791.1561053300421.1561077139359.1561136595773.3&hsCtaTracking=78286a36-b5ad-4eb3-bf77-fe44ea819486%7Cd1a167f1-c1c1-4119-97b1-081f1aa419d4

Reeve, J., & Tseng, C. M. (2011). Agency as a fourth aspect of students' engagement during learning activities. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 36(4), 257-267.

Rodriguez, G. M. (2013). Power and agency in education: Exploring the pedagogical dimensions of funds of knowledge. Review of Research in Education, 37(1), 87-120.

Savery, J. R., & Duffy, T. M. (1995). Problem based learning: An instructional model and its constructivist framework. Educational Technology, 35(5), 31-38.

Taylor, J. J., Buckley, K., Hamilton, L. S., Stecher, B. M., Read, L., & Schweig, J. (2018). Choosing and using SEL competency assessments. Retrieved from http://measuringsel.casel.org/pdf/Choosing-and-Using-SEL-Competency-Assessments_What-Schools-and-Districts-Need-to-Know.pdf.

Townsley, M. (2014). What is the difference between standards-based grading (or reporting) and competency-based education? Competency Works. Retrieved from https://www.competencyworks.org/analysis/what-is-the-difference-between-standards-based-grading/.

Van den Branden, K. (2019). Education for the 21st century: Renewing energy for learning. Routledge.

[i] Klemenčič, 2015.

[ii] Klemenčič, 2015.

[iii] Bandura, 1989.

[iv] Taylor et. al, 2018.

[v] Komarraju & Nadler, 2013.

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The role of agency in learning - THE EDUCATION HUB

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An introduction to the concept of student agency and its importance for learning and lifelong success, as well as some practical strategies for promoting student agency.

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By: Richard E. Boyatzis, Ph.D.

Case Western Reserve University

Original Reference - Reprinted With Permission
Boyatzis, R.E. (2002). Unleashing the power of self-directed learning. In R. Sims (ed.), Changing the Way We Manage Change: The Consultants Speak. NY: Quorum Books.

The new economy is not about technology, it is about a change in the basic assumptions about the nature of work. Contributing to this are several demographic factors. Worldwide, the workforce is aging. By 2050, the average age of the US population will increase to 40 (from 36 in 1995). In the US in 1999, 19% of the workforce was 70 or older. By that same year, the number of retirees in Europe will be greater than the number of people in the workforce (The Economist, 2000). The workforce and population is becoming increasingly ethnically and racially diverse. By 2050, 24% of the workforce (about 97 million people) in the US will be Hispanic. Women are filling more positions of power in organizations each year. Slowing population growth and resettlement patterns are changing the human resource picture in entire countries. For example, by 2050, without extraordinary immigrations, the population of Spain and Italy will shrink by 25%.

Technology has changed the design of work and the rhythm of our lives. Even though we may feel guilty for not checking our email at least once a day, we still fail to comprehend the magnitude of this change. For example, the current high school graduating class in the US will be the first generation to never have touched a typewriter. Their basic assumptions about how to work, live and learn is different than ours as a result of technology. We engage in anywhere, anytime shopping, conversations, information acquisition, medical advice, and learning.

At the same time, right-sizing, acquisitions, dot com exuberance, and changing values have led to a dramatically different relationship between each person and the organizations within which they work. People are more individualistic in the way they view their careers and commitment to organizations. Organizations have done little to encourage any other view by viewing people as a tradable and expendable human resource. People today want increasing work/life balance and an holistic approach to life. Of those with skills and the better educated, many believe that there are many opportunities available for work, especially for the most talented.

It is no wonder that organizations face a war for talent, as decried by studies of McKinsey in 1998 and 2000 as reported in Fast Company (January, 2001). Finding the right people and keeping them has become a major problem for organizations. This occurs even when they are simultaneously laying others off and restructuring their workforce. There is almost full employment in the industrial and knowledge industry sections of many countries. The CEO of Hewlett Packard, Carly Fiorina has developed a mantra that captures her approach to this dilemma, "Capture their hearts, their minds will follow."

The current relationship or psychological contract between a person and an organization seems best characterized by the concept of Free Agency. Like free agents in sports, people feel that they can and should look for the best offer, one that suits their individual needs and career aspirations each year, or sooner if opportunities come along.

The emerging forms of organizations will depend on free agency more and more. For the longest period of human history, the primary form of social organization was a hunting and gathering society. They were mobile groups of 50 to 100 people who adapted continuously to the climate, food sources, external threats. They lasted at least 50,000 years, and were organic. When agricultural forms came into being about four or five thousand years ago and then spread, hunting and gathering societies began to fade. This was the predominant form of social organization beyond the family for about 3,000 years.

Then we developed bureaucratic forms of organization- military, feudal system, and churches (which lasted for about 1,000 or so years). They featured a command and control system. Science paved the way for the industrial revolution that has lasted about 200 years. Money was the key resource, but we were separated from our completed products and customers. Functional and even matrix forms were popular.

But this form of organization began to fade with the emergence of fluid organizations. Fed by the information revolution and knowledge economy, especially evident in professional services and technology but spreading to many types of organization, we have seen the growth of fluid organizations in the last 10 years or so. They are adaptive systems using self-organizing principles described by complexity theory. Fluid organizations have fuzzy boundaries, alliances and communities of practice. Information and people are the key resource. Velocity is vital as we pursue e-business, e-learning, and e-relationships. These emerging forms are organic and tribal.

This reminds us and may in fact lead us back to hunting and gathering societies. In fluid or hunting and gathering societies, any person can leave with an hour. Kevin Kelly said, in The New Economy, that adaptability will replace productivity as the key measure of organizational performance in the coming years, adapting to clients, markets, technology, the workforce, and so forth. In fluid organizations, free agency is the primary form of psychological contract.

"How do the 'best companies to work for' maintain an edge in this environment? One word: culture!" ( Fortune , January 8, 2001, pg.149). The desired culture is one that is exciting and viewed as a great place to grow and develop. This has been shown in surveys of the managerial and professional workforce in the US since the middle 1980's.

Can a Person Grow and Develop Their Talent?
Decades of research on the effects of psychotherapy (Hubble et. al., 1999), self-help programs (Kanfer and Goldstein, 1991), cognitive behavior therapy (Barlow, 1988), training programs (Morrow, Jarrett, and Rupinski, 1997), and education (Pascarella and Terenzini, 1991; Winter, McClelland, and Stewart, 1981) have shown that people can change their behavior, moods, and self-image. But most of the studies focused on a single characteristic, like maintenance of sobriety, reduction in a specific anxiety, or a set of characteristics often determined by the assessment instrument, such as the scales of the MMPI. For example, the impact of Achievement Motivation Training was a dramatic increase in small business success, with people creating more new jobs, starting more new businesses, and paying more taxes than comparison groups (McClelland and Winter, 1969; Miron and McClelland, 1979). The impact of Power Motivation Training was improved maintenance of sobriety (Cutter, Boyatzis, and Clancy, 1977).

A series of longitudinal studies underway at the Weatherhead School of Management of Case Western Reserve University have shown that people can change on the complex set of competencies that distinguish outstanding performers in management and professions. In contrast to the honeymoon effect of most training, education and development programs, the behavioral improvements did not fade away after three weeks or three months. They lasted for years. A visual comparison of different samples is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Percentage Improvement of Emotional Intelligence

Competencies of Different Groups of MBA Graduates
Up to two years after going through the change process--compared to when they first entered the course-- they showed 47% improvement on self-awareness competencies like self-confidence and on self-management competencies such as the drive to achieve and adaptability. When it came to social awareness and relationship management skills, improvements were even greater: 75% on competencies such as empathy and team leadership.

These gains are also in stark contrast to those from standard MBA programs, where there is no attempt to enhance emotional intelligence abilities. The best data here comes from a research project by a research committee of the American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business. They found that graduating students from two highly ranked business schools, compared to their levels when they began their MBA training, showed only improvements of 2% in the skills of emotional intelligence. In fact, when students from four other high-ranking MBA programs were assessed on a more thorough range of tests, they showed a gain of 4% in self-awareness and self-management abilities, but a decrease of 3% in social awareness and relationship management. The gains were found again, in studies that assessed part-time MBA students, who typically take three to five years to graduate. These groups showed 28% improvement in self-awareness and self-management competencies and 56% improvement in social awareness and social skills competencies by the end of their MBA program.

That's not all. Jane Wheeler tracked down groups of these part-timers two years after they had graduated. Even all that time later, they still showed improvements in the same range: 36% on the self-awareness and self-management competencies, and 45% on the social awareness and relationship management competencies. These are remarkable results, the first to demonstrate gains sustained over so many years in the emotional intelligence building blocks of resonant leadership.

The "honeymoon effect" of typical training might start at 30-40% improvement immediately following the training, but within 1-3 months it would drop to about 10% and stay there.

To be more specific, MBA students, averaging 27 years old at entry into the program, showed dramatic changes on videotaped and audiotaped behavioral samples and questionnaire measures of these competencies, as summarized in Figures 2 and 3, as a result of the competency-based, outcome oriented MBA program implemented in 1990 (Boyatzis, Baker, Leonard, Rhee, and Thompson, 1995; Boyatzis, Leonard, Rhee, and Wheeler, 1996; Boyatzis, Wheeler, and Wright, in press).

Figure 2. Value-Added to Full-Time Students from the Old Vs. the New MBA Programs

Figure 3. Value-Added to Part-Time Students from the Old Vs. the New MBA Programs

Four cadres of full-time MBA students graduating in 1992, 1993, 1994, and 1995, showed improvement on 100% (7) of the competencies in the Self-Management cluster (e.g., Efficiency Orientation, Initiative, Flexibility) and 100% (8) of the competencies in the Social Awareness and Management cluster (e.g., Empathy, Networking, Group Management). Meanwhile the part-time MBA students graduating in 1994, 1995, and 1996 showed improvement on 86% (6 of 7) of the competencies in the Self-Management cluster and 100% (8) of the competencies in the Social Awareness and Management cluster. In a follow-up study of two of these graduating classes of part-time students, Wheeler (1999) showed that during the two years following graduation they continued to improve, statistically significantly, on an audiotaped, behavioral measure of two competencies in the Social Awareness and Management cluster (i.e., Empathy and Persuasiveness).

This is in contrast to MBA graduates of the WSOM of the 1988 and 1989 traditional full-time program who showed strong improvement in only 80% of the competencies in the Self-Management Cluster while part-time graduates of those two years showed improvement in only 40% of these competencies. With regard to the competencies in the Social Awareness and Management cluster, the full-time MBAs who showed improvement in only 38% of the competencies in the Social Awareness and Management cluster, while part-time graduates of those two years showed improvement in only 25% of these competencies.
In a longitudinal study of four classes completing the Professional Fellows Program (i.e., an executive education program at the Weatherhead School of Management), Ballou, Bowers, Boyatzis, and Kolb (1999) showed that 45-55 year old professional and executives statistically significantly improved on Self-confidence, Leadership, Helping, Goal Setting, and Action skills. These were 67% of the emotional intelligence competencies assessed in this study.

Self-Directed Learning
What these studies have shown is that adults learn what they want to learn. Other things, even if acquired temporarily (i.e., for a test), are soon forgotten (Specht and Sandlin, 1991). Students, children, patients, clients, and subordinates may act as if they care about learning something, go through the motions, but they proceed to disregard it or forget it-unless, it is something which they want to learn. Even in situations where a person is under threat or coercion, a behavioral change shown will typically extinguish or revert to its original form once the threat is removed. This does not include changes induced, willingly or not, by chemical or hormonal changes in one's body. But even in such situations, the interpretation of the changes and behavioral comportment following it will be affected by the person's will, values, and motivations.
In this way, it appears that most, if not all, sustainable behavioral change is intentional. Self-directed change is an intentional change in an aspect of who you are (i.e., the Real) or who you want to be (i.e., the Ideal), or both. Self-directed learning is self-directed change in which you are aware of the change and understand the process of change.

The process of self-directed learning is graphically shown in Figure 4 (Boyatzis, 1999; Boyatzis, 2001; Goleman, Boyatzis, McKee, 2002)). This is an enhancement of the earlier models developed by Kolb, Winter, and Berlew (1968), Boyatzis and Kolb (1969), Kolb and Boyatzis (1970a and b), and Kolb (1971). The description and explanation of the process in this chapter is organized in five sections. Each section starts with a point of discontinuity. That is, a part of the process that may not and often does not occur as a smooth, linear event. It occurs with a surprise. The person's behavior may seem to be stuck for long periods of time and then a change appears quite suddenly. This is a discontinuity. A person might begin the process of self-directed learning at any point in the process, but it will often begin when the person experiences a discontinuity, the associated epiphany or a moment of awareness and a sense of urgency.

This model describes the process as designed into a required course and the elements of the MBA and executive programs implemented in 1990 at the Weatherhead School of Management. Experimentation and research into the various components have resulted in refinement of these components and the model as discussed in this paper. For a detailed description of the course, read Boyatzis (1995, 1994).

Figure 4: Boyatzis' Theory of Self-Directed Learning ( Download in PDF to view Figure 4)

The First Discontinuity: Catching Your Dreams, Engaging Your Passion
The first discontinuity and potential starting point for the process of self-directed learning is the discovery of who you want to be. Our Ideal Self is an image of the person we want to be. It emerges from our ego ideal, dreams, and aspirations, The last twenty years has revealed literature supporting the power of positive imaging or visioning in sports psychology, appreciative inquiry (Cooperrider, 1990), meditation and biofeedback research, and other psycho-physiological research. It is believed that the potency of focusing one's thoughts on the desired end state of condition is driven by the emotional components of the brain (Goleman, 1995). The Ideal Self is a reflection of the person's intrinsic drives. Numerous studies have shown that intrinsic motives have more enduring impact on a person's behavior than extrinsic motives (Deci and Ryan, 1985).

Our aspirations, dreams, and desired states are shaped by our values, philosophy (Boyatzis, Murphy, and Wheeler, 2000), life and career stages (Boyatzis and Kolb, 1999), motives (McClelland, 1985), role models, and other factors. This research indicates that we can access and engage deep emotional commitment and psychic energy if we engage our passions and conceptually catch our dreams in our Ideal Self-image.

It is an anomaly that we know the importance of consideration of the Ideal Self, and yet often, when engaged in a change or learning process we skip over the clear formulation or articulation of our Ideal Self image. If a parent, spouse, boss, or teacher, tells us something that should be different, they are giving us their version of our Ideal Self. They are telling us about the person they want us to be. The extent to which we believe or accept this image determines that extent to which it becomes part of our Ideal Self. Our reluctance to accept others' expectations or wishes for us to change is one of many reasons why we may not live up to others' expectations or wishes, and not change or learn according to their agenda! In current psychology, others' version of what our Ideal Self should be is referred to as the "Ought Self."

We may be victims of the expectations of others and the seductive power of popularized images from the media, celebrities, and our reference groups. In his book, The Hungry Spirit: Beyond Capitalism, A Quest for Purpose in the Modern World (1997), Charles Handy describes the difficulty of determining his ideal. "I spent the early part of my life trying hard to be someone else. At school I wanted to be a great athlete, at university an admired socialite, afterwards a businessman and, later, the head of a great institution. It did not take me long to discover that I was not destined to be successful in any of these guises, but that did not prevent me from trying, and being perpetually disappointed with myself. The problem was that in trying to be someone else I neglected to concentrate on the person I could be. That idea was too frightening to contemplate at the time. I was happier going along with the conventions of the time, measuring success in terms of money and position, climbing ladders which others placed in my way, collecting things and contacts rather than giving expression to my own beliefs and personality. (pg. 86)" In this way, we allow ourselves to be anesthetized to our dreams and lose sight of our deeply felt Ideal Self.

The Second Discontinuity: Am I a Boiling Frog?
The awareness of the current self, the person that others see and with whom they interact, is elusive. For normal reasons, the human psyche protects itself from the automatic "intake" and conscious realization of all information about ourselves. These ego-defense mechanisms serve to protect us. They also conspire to delude us into an image of who we are that feeds on itself, becomes self-perpetuating, and eventually may become dysfunctional (Goleman, 1985).

The "boiling frog syndrome" applies here. It is said that if one drops a frog into a pot of boiling water, it will jump out with an instinctive defense mechanism. But if you place a frog in a pot of cool water and gradually increase the temperature, the frog will sit in the water until it is boiled to death. These slow adjustments to changes are acceptable, but the same change made dramatically is not tolerated.

The greatest challenge to an accurate current self-image (i.e., seeing yourself as others see you and consistent with other internal states, beliefs, emotions, and so forth) is the boiling frog syndrome. Several factors contribute to it. First, people around you may not let you see a change. They may not give you feedback or information about how they see it. Also, they may be victims of the boiling frog syndrome themselves, as they adjust their perception on a daily basis. For example, when seeing a friend's child after two years, you may gasp as to how fast they have grown. Meanwhile, the parent is only aware of the child's growth when they have to buy new shoes, clothes, or a sudden change in the child's hormonal balance leading to previously unlikely behavior.

Second, enablers, those forgiving the change, frightened of it, or who do not care, may allow it to pass unnoticed. Our relationships and interpersonal context mediate and interpret cues from the environment. They help us interpret what things mean. You ask a friend, "Am I getting fat?" To which she responds, "No, you look great!" Whether this is reassuring to the listener or not, it is confusing and may not be providing feedback to the question asked. Of course, if she had said, "No, it is just the spread of age or normal effects of gravity" you may not have more useful information either.

In counseling sessions with effective CEOs and Managing Directors of not-for-profits, I have often been surprised by their lack of seeing themselves as leaders. Others may see them as leaders. Sometimes humility blocks this perception. Sometimes, it is the interpersonal or cultural context. On the planet Krypton, Superman was just another citizen without "supernatural" power. This lack of admitting that which is obvious to others to yourself can also occur when you have prolonged spiritual blackouts, losing sight of your core values and your philosophy.

Some organizational cultures will, as mentioned earlier, encourage a preoccupation with the "gaps." Some individuals have philosophies, or value orientations, that push them to focus on areas of improvement (i.e., a Pragmatic Value Orientation or philosophy, Boyatzis et. al., 2000, or a dominant underlying motive of the Need for Achievement, McClelland, 1985). Some individuals have such a low level of self-confidence or self-esteem that they assume they are unworthy and distrust positive feedback and focus on negative issues and the gaps.

For a person to truly consider changing a part of himself or herself, you must have a sense of what you value and want to keep. Likewise, to consider what you want to preserve about yourself involves admitting aspects of yourself that you wish to change or adapt in some manner. Awareness of these two and exploring them exist in the context of each other.

All too often, people explore growth or development by focusing on the "gaps" or deficiencies. Organizational training programs and managers conducting annual "reviews" often commit the same mistake. There is an assumption that we can "leave well enough alone" and get to the areas that need work. It is no wonder that many of these programs or procedures intended to help a person develop result in the individual feeling battered, beleaguered and bruised, not helped, encouraged, motivated, or guided. The gaps may get your attention because they disrupt progress or flow (Fry, 1998).
Exploration of yourself in the context of your environment (How am I fitting into this setting? How am I doing in the view of others? Am I part of this group or organization or family?) and examination of your Real Self in the context of your Ideal Self both involve comparative and evaluative judgments. A comprehensive view includes both strengths and weaknesses. That is, to contemplate change, one must contemplate stability. To identify and commit to changing parts of yourself you must identify those parts you want to keep and possibly enhance. In this way, adaptation does not imply or require "death" but evolution of the self.

There are four major "learning points" from the first two discontinuities in the self-directed learning process:

1) Engage your passion and create your dreams; and

2) Know thyself!

3) Identify or articulate both your strengths (those aspects of yourself you want to preserve) and your gaps or discrepancies of your Real and Ideal Selves (those aspects of yourself you want to adapt or change); and

4) Keep your attention on both characteristics, forces or factors-do not let one become the preoccupation!

All of these learning points can be achieved by finding and using multiple sources for feedback about your Ideal Self, Real Self, Strengths, and Gaps.

The sources of insight into your Real Self can include systematically collecting information from others, such as 360 degree feedback currently considered fashionable in organizations. Other sources of insight into your Real Self, Strengths and Gaps may come from behavioral feedback through videotaped or audiotaped interactions, such as collected in assessment centers. Various psychological tests can help you determine or make explicit inner aspects of your Real Self, such as values, philosophy, traits, motives, and such.

Sources for insight into your Ideal Self are more personal and more elusive than those for the Real Self. Various exercises and tests can help by making explicit various dreams or aspirations you have for the future. Talking with close friends or mentors can help. Allowing yourself to think about your desired future, not merely your prediction of your most likely future, is the biggest obstacle. These conversations and explorations must take place in psychologically safe surroundings. Often, the implicit norms of one's immediate social groups and work groups do not allow nor encourage such discussion. In this case, you may want to search for groups who are considering changing their lives in an academic program, career development workshop, or personal growth experience.

The Third Discontinuity: Mindfulness Through a Learning Agenda
The third discontinuity in self-directed learning is development of an agenda and focusing on the desired future. A learning orientation will replace a performance orientation for those organizations that thrive in the coming decades. While performance at work or happiness in life may be the eventual consequence of our efforts, a learning agenda focuses on development. Individuals with a learning agenda are more adaptive and oriented toward development. In one study, a learning agenda resulted in dramatically better presentations, whereas a performance agenda resulted in people becoming defensive, not wanting to fail or not wanting to look bad, and did not result in increased performance (Brett and VandeWalle, 1999). A learning orientation arouses a positive belief in one's capability and the hope of improvement. A learning agenda helps a person focus on what they want to become. This results in people setting personal standards of performance, rather than "normative" standards that merely mimic what others have done (Beaubien and Payne, 1999). Meanwhile, a performance orientation evokes anxiety and doubts about whether or not we can change (Chen et al, 2000). A performance agenda focuses on success, producing proof of our capability, and getting praise. Performance goals arouse the wrong parts of our brain for development. In studying sales achieved in a three-month promotion in the medical supply distribution business, a learning goal orientation predicted sales volume, a performance goal orientation did not.

As part of one of the longitudinal studies at the Weatherhead School of Management, Leonard (1996) showed that MBAs who set goals desiring to change on certain competencies, changed significantly on those competencies as compared to other MBAs. Previous goal setting literature had shown how goals affected certain changes on specific competencies (Locke and Latham, 1990), but had not established evidence of behavioral change on a comprehensive set of competencies that constitute emotional intelligence.

The major learning point from this section crucial in self-directed learning is: Create your own, personal learning agenda!

Others cannot tell you how you should change-they may tell you but it will not help you engage in the change process. Parents, teachers, spouses, bosses, and sometimes even your children will try to impose goals for change or learning. People only learn what they want to learn!

The late 1960's and early 1970's were witness to a widespread program in organizations called Management by Objectives. It was so popular that it spread to other arenas-- you could find books and workshops on Learning by Objectives, Teaching by Objectives, and so on and so forth. In all of these programs, there was one and only one approach to goal setting and planning taught. It specified development of behavioral specific, observable, time-phased, and challenging goals (i.e., involved moderate risk). Unfortunately, the one-size fits all approach lacked a credible alternative until McCaskey (1974) suggested that some people plan by "domain and direction setting." Later, as part of the Weatherhead longitudinal studies, McKee (1991) studied how MBA graduates planned personal improvement. She discovered four different styles of planning: objectives-oriented planning; domain and direction planning; task (or activity) oriented planning; and "present-oriented" planning. The latter appeared as an existential orientation to one's involvement in developmental activities, and could be considered a non-planning style.

A major threat to effective goal setting and planning is that people are already busy and cannot add anything else to their lives. In such cases, the only success with self-directed change and learning occurs if people can determine what to say "no" to and stop some current activities in their lives to make room for new activities.

Another potential challenge or threat is the development of a plan that calls for a person to engage in activities different than their preferred learning style or learning flexibility (Kolb, 1984; Boyatzis, 1994). In such cases, a person commits to activities, or action steps in a plan that require a learning style which is not their preference or not within their flexibility. When this occurs, a person becomes demotivated and often stops the activities, or becomes impatient and decides that the goals are not worth the effort.

The Fourth Discontinuity: Metamorphosis
The fourth discontinuity and potential start of self-directed learning is to experiment and practice desired changes. Acting on the plan and toward the goals involves numerous activities. These are often made in the context of experimenting with new behavior. Typically following a period of experimentation, the person practices the new behaviors in actual settings within which they wish to use them, such as at work or at home. During this part of the process, self-directed change and learning begins to look like a "continuous improvement" process.

To develop or learn new behavior, the person must find ways to learn more from current, or on-going experiences. That is, the experimentation and practice does not always require attending "courses" or a new activity. It may involve trying something different in a current setting, reflecting on what occurs, and experimenting further in this setting. Sometimes, this part of the process requires finding and using opportunities to learn and change. People may not even think they have changed until they have tried new behavior in a work or "real world" setting. Rhee (1997) studied full-time MBA students in one of the Weatherhead cadres over a two-year period. He interviewed, tested, and video and audio-taped them about every six to eight weeks. Even though he found evidence of significant improvements on numerous interpersonal abilities by the end of the second semester of their program, the MBA students did not perceive that they had changed or improved on these abilities until after they returned from their summer internships.

Dreyfus (1990) studied managers of scientists and engineers who were considered superior performers. Once she documented that they used considerably more of certain abilities than their less effective counterparts, she pursued how they developed some of those abilities. One of the distinguishing abilities was Group Management, also called Team Building. She found that many of these middle-aged managers had first experimented with team building skills in high school and college, in sports, clubs, and living groups. Later, when they became "bench scientists and engineers" working on problems in relative isolation, they still pursued use and practicing of this ability in activities outside of work. They practiced team building and group management in social and community organizations, such as 4-H Clubs, and professional associations in planning conferences and such.

The experimentation and practice are most effective when they occur in conditions in which the person feels safe (Kolb and Boyatzis, 1970b). This sense of psychological safety creates an atmosphere in which the person can try new behavior, perceptions, and thoughts with relatively less risk of shame, embarrassment, or serious consequences of failure.

The Fifth Discontinuity: Relationships that Enable Us to Learn
Our relationships are an essential part of our environment. The most crucial relationships are often a part of groups that have particular importance to us. These relationships and groups give us a sense of identity, guide us as to what is appropriate and "good" behavior, and provide feedback on our behavior. In sociology, they are called reference groups. These relationships create a "context" within which we interpret our progress on desired changes, the utility of new learning, and even contribute significant input to formulation of the Ideal (Kram, 1996). In this sense, our relationships are mediators, moderators, interpreters, sources of feedback, sources of support and permission of change and learning! They may also be the most important source of protection from relapses or returning to our earlier forms of behavior. Wheeler (1999) analyzed the extent to which the MBA graduates worked on their goals in multiple "life spheres" (i.e., work, family, recreational groups, etc.). In a two-year follow-up study of two of the graduating classes of part-time MBA students, she found those who worked on their goals and plans in multiple sets of relationships improved the most and more than those working on goals in only one setting, such as work or within one relationship.

In a study of the impact of the year-long executive development program for doctors, lawyers, professors, engineers, and other professionals mentioned earlier, Ballou et. al. (1999) found that participants gained self-confidence during the program. Even at the beginning of the program, others would say these participants were very high in self-confidence. It was a curious finding! The best explanation came from follow-up questions to the graduates of the program. They explained the evident increase in Self-confidence as an increase in the confidence to change. Their existing reference groups (i.e., family, groups at work, professional groups, community groups) all had an investment in them staying the same, meanwhile the person wanted to change. The Professional Fellows Program allowed them to develop a new reference group that encouraged change!

Based on social identity, reference group, and now relational theories, our relationships both meditate and moderate our sense of who we are and who we want to be. We develop or elaborate our Ideal Self from these contexts. We label and interpret our Real Self from these contexts. We interpret and value Strengths (i.e., aspects considered our core that we wish to preserve) from these contexts. We interpret and value Gaps (i.e., aspects considered weaknesses or things we wish to change) from these contexts.

The major learning points from the fourth and fifth discontinuities critical in self-directed learning process are:
(1) Experiment and practice and try to learn more from your experiences!
(2) Find settings in which you feel psychologically safe within which to experiment and practice! and
(3) Develop and use your relationships as part of your change and learning process!

Signposts on the Path to Change and Learning
In guiding yourself or others through the self-directed learning process, the learning points can be used as signposts, or benchmarks. If you do not feel that you have addressed the learning point, do not bother attempting to move forward. The process needs to slow down and either wait for the person to reach the learning point, or try another way to help the person. Please remember, people do not gain these discoveries or experience the epiphany of the discontinuity in a smooth manner. One person may take minutes to achieve a breakthrough of one discovery, and yet another discovery may take several days, weeks, months, or even years.

The signposts on the path to self-direct learning are:

1) Has the person engaged their passion and dreams? Can they describe the person they want to be, the life and work they want to have in the future? Can they describe their Ideal Self?

2) Does the person know himself or herself? Do they have a sense of their Real Self?

3) Can the person articulate both their strengths (those aspects he/she wants to preserve) and gaps or discrepancies between their Real and Ideal Selves (those aspects he/she wants to adapt or change)?

4) Has the person help their attention on both Strengths and Gaps- not letting one become the preoccupation?

5) Does the person have their own personal learning agenda? IS it really their own? Can the elements of the plan fit into the structure of their life and work? Do the actions fit with their learning style and flexibility?

6) Is the person experimenting and practicing new habits and actions? Is the person using their learning plan to learn more from their experiences?

7) Has the person found settings in which to experiment and practice in which he/she feels psychologically safe?

8) Is the person developing and utilizing his/her relationships as part of their learning process? Do they have coaches, mentors, friends, and others with whom they can discuss progress on their learning agenda? Do they have relationships with whom they can explore each their new behavior, habits, new Ideal Self, new Real Self, new strengths and gaps as the process unfolds?

9) Are they helping others engage in a self-directed learning process?

Concluding Thought
Our future may not be entirely within our control, but most of what we become is within our power to create. Hopefully, the self-directed learning process described in this chapter can provide a roadmap and guidance for how to increase the effectiveness of your change and learning efforts. As a concluding thought, I offer a few lines from the 1835 John Anster translation of Goethe's Faustus: A Dramatic Mystery. In the Prologue to the Theater, he says:

"What you can do, or dream you can, begin it,
Boldness has genius, power and magic in it!"

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Unleashing the Power of Self-Directed Learning - Emotional Intelligence Consortium

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By: Richard E. Boyatzis, Ph.D. Case Western Reserve University Original Reference - Reprinted With Permission Boyatzis, R.E. (2002). Unleashing the power of self-directed learning. In R. Sims (ed.), Changing the Way We Manage Change: The Consultants Speak. NY: Quorum Books.

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Let's have a look at these values in more detail in order to clarify what we mean when we talk about student agency.

Genuine decision making

Student agency is about having students take on some of the heavy lifting of learning. When students can have a genuine role in the decision-making process, this will create a classroom culture that values learning as an action. When I teach, I often ask myself, " Am I doing something my students could be doing themselves?" If the answer is yes, I de-centre myself so students can take on these responsibilities. The more I do this, the more comfortable and confident they become in taking on this agency over their learning. Learning becomes a partnership between the teacher and the student as we co-design and co-construct the learning experiences together in the classroom.

Knowing my strengths and stretches as a learner.

I often ask myself if my students know where they are at in their learning, where they need to go next, and if they can identify the steps they need to take to get there. Teachers can often answer these questions about each of our students, but can our students answer these questions for themselves? To help get these conversations started in class, I ask a series of guiding questions to help students reflect and begin to get to know themselves better as learners. For example, " Do you learn best alone, in a small group, or in a large class setting? Do you prefer to write, talk about or draw your learning for others to see? What is your focus threshold, as in, how long can you remain focused on something before you feel you need a change of pace, setting or action?" These questions all help students begin to take on more ownership over their learning.

Exploring my wonderings, curiosities and passions in school.

All students enter their schooling as curious and inquisitive beings. They are full of questions and wonder as they explore and discover the world around them. However, somewhere in their schooling, many become complacent, disengaged and uninterested in their learning and in school. What does our teaching do to support and honour the innate curiosity of all students? How do we lean into student wonderings to make rich connections to our curriculum? How can we make our curriculum come alive so students see it as something we explore rather than something we merely cover? These questions help honour the wonderings, curiosities and passions of all of our students so that they can see themselves as important stakeholders in their learning.

Having my questions shape my learning.

Questions are an invitation to learning. They call for us to be engaged, to be inquisitive and to research and problem-solve. In order to utilize this opportunity to create student agency, I often pose big, unGoogleable questions to frame our units of study in class that draw students in and will act as our overarching big idea for our learning. I make this question highly visible in class. I compose this question to be compelling, relevant and interesting with a hope that this one big unGoogleable question will spark wonder and curiosity in students to ask their own connected questions. We discuss the questions that students generate and begin to sort them into categories and themes before we post them in class under the larger unGoogleable question. They have a genuine voice in the design of the unit in that we will explore the questions they posed in our research and exploration together. Students begin to see how their questions shape their learning.

Having a genuine voice in assessment of my learning.

If we are talking about student agency in the classroom, we must ensure there is student voice in the assessment of learning as well. Students have a genuine voice in the assessment of their learning when they can confidently give accurate feedback to peers, take and apply feedback without worry of ridicule or embarrassment, and embark into learning through the lens of taking risks in order to grow, rather than for a grade, mark or percentage score. Students need to feel psychologically safe if we are to ask them to take on a more active and meaningful role in their learning, which is why as we nurture student agency in our classrooms, it's important that we also nurture relationships, trust and risk taking.

Showing and exploring my learning in different ways.

Whatever the big idea or content we are learning about, I often begin the school year with a new group of students by providing a choice board through which kids can explore content. A choice board is a digital slide that I have embedded resources into that allows students some options to select information in a means that they feel best supports their learning. I often introduce the exploratory nature of a choice board by asking students, "D o you enjoy taking in information by reading text, looking at images, infographics or charts, watching a short video, exploring a website, or listening to a podcast or someone talking about the information?" Once students have reflected on this prompt, they have a clearer understanding of what best supports their learning. When facing the options on a choice board, they make a decision based on their better understanding of their learning needs and strengths.

Further, I encourage students to document their learning-" evidencing," as we refer to it-in a manner that they decide. I always provide a few options in the form of thinking maps, thinking routines or templates to help anchor and organize their learning. After exploring these options and considering if any of them would support their learning, I encourage students to take ownership over this decision and select an evidencing method that works best for them. The power of this choice over showing and exploring their learning in different ways is seen in their success and engagement as well as the greater understanding of how I can best support each individual student that I gain. I observe and document their choices and pathways and then reflect on how I can help them with this agency and have them be continuously successful throughout the process.

Deciding how I want to share my learning.

I often ask my students, " If you could show me your learning in any way, how would you show me what you know?" My hope is to honour the diverse learners in the room whilst simultaneously leaning into student's strengths when it comes to agency. Inevitably students tell me the things they've always done in school. Similar to the list of items on a menu I referenced at the onset of this piece, I often observe that students don't reflect on this prompt with the depth, individuality or creativity I would hope the opportunity offers. That's why it's so important that I share with students any artifacts I have curated from other classes and previous years to help paint the picture of what is possible in their learning. I have these artifacts posted on my walls, on display on my shelves or saved as digital files so I can do a bit of a show-and-share and speak to how other students have shown their learning before them. The result is that students begin to see that in our classroom, they will have some voice and choice in how they show their learning and that they can really lean into their strengths and interests. This creates a start point in learning from a strength-based stance rather than a deficit-based position. Kids will choose things that they're good at, interested in exploring more meaningfully and are more genuinely engaged in. How cool is that?

Growing into the person I want to be.

What are the enduring skills, lasting values and habits of mind that will be the legacy of our time with children in our classrooms? How are we cultivating the conditions in today's classrooms that will nurture the empathy and equity we hope students embody as citizens of tomorrow's world? How do we view each and every one of our students as unique individuals with strengths, talents, characteristics and perspectives that we need to honour and help flourish during their time in school? It is within our active exploration of these questions and our validation of them in our interactions with students that will give space and support for them to grow in our classrooms. Student agency is not about pushing all kids down the same pathway or having all kids choose the same goal. Student agency is about empowering students to know themselves better, determine who they want to be and identifying steps we can take together to have this goal become a reality.

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How Can Teachers Nurture Meaningful Student Agency? - MindShift

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Student agency is about empowering students to know themselves better, determine who they want to be and identifying steps we can take together to have this goal become a reality.

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Building Student Agency With Genius Hour

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The popular model of self-guided learning can be used to engage upper elementary students in conducting and presenting research—and learning to use new technology.

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Katie Martin | Informed by Research, Inspired by Practice

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True engagement is fundamental to learning but as Daniel Pink shares in Drive, "People don't engage by being managed. They don't engage by being controlle

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The Shift to Student-Led by Catlin R. Tucker & Katie Novak

Your Guide to Student-Led Learning

Catlin Tucker and Katie Novak have worked with too many educators who are frustrated and disillusioned with the teaching profession. They know that teachers are drowning in work and unrealistic demands. Many are mentally and emotionally exhausted by the uncertainty and constant change created by the pandemic. In this follow-up to UDL and Blended Learning, the authors have set out to help teachers reimagine their approach to this work so that it is sustainable and rewarding.

Each chapter in The Shift to Student-Led takes apart one traditional teacher-led workflow, examining the problems it presents teachers and students, what the research says versus what the reality in the classroom is, and how UDL and blended learning can free teachers from the "sage on the stage" role and place students at the center of their learning. These reimagined student-led workflows help students develop self-awareness, internal motivation, and self-regulation skills, which are critical to becoming expert learners.

Intended for K-12 educators, instructional coaches, and school leaders who want to create academically robust, inclusive learning communities, this book is full of principles, strategies, and resources that can be put into practice right away and at any level.

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The Shift to Student-Led: Reimagining Classroom Workflows with UDL and Blended Learning

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The Shift to Student-Led: Reimagining Classroom Workflows with UDL and Blended Learning [Tucker, Catlin R., Novak, Katie] on Amazon.com. *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. The Shift to Student-Led: Reimagining Classroom Workflows with UDL and Blended Learning

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OUR MISSION: to advance STEM education to ensure all students, especially those furthest from opportunity, thrive and reach their highest potential as problem solvers and lifelong learners who pursue their passions and tackle the worlds toughest challenges. Learn more.

Registered 501(c)(3). EIN: 11-3769438

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National Math and Science Initiative - Blog + News

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OUR MISSION: to advance STEM education to ensure all students, especially those furthest from opportunity, thrive and reach their highest potential as problem solvers and lifelong learners who pursue their passions and tackle the worlds toughest challenges. Learn more. Registered 501(c)(3). EIN: 11-3769438

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Professional Development: How Do We Know If It Works? - Education Resource Strategies

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Knowledgeable, skillful teachers form the bedrock of good schools. We all accept the notion that teachers who know and can do more in the classroom help students learn more. So…

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What makes a good teacher great? | Azul Terronez | TEDxSantoDomingo

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No More Bad Coffee: Professional Development That Honors Teachers: Sheryl Chard at TEDxABQED

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Learn from the experts at PD by MiEN while reading the latest blog post. Learn all about the emPOWERED PD methods.

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1. Introduction

It is common sense that children differ one from another. Teachers observe different readiness levels, needs, backgrounds, learning styles and interests among children in the same classroom (Tomlinson, Brighton, Hertbert, Callahan, Moon, Brimijoin et al., 2003) . In fact, more differences are expected to be added, as financial crisis, immigration, learning difficulties and other factors affect the composition of students in a classroom and their achievement (Smit & Humpert, 2012; Suprayogi, Vackle, & Godwin, 2017) . For example, the financial crisis may affect the access of children in knowledge, as families may limit their expenses to basic needs.

Differentiated Instruction (DI) is an innovative teaching approach which takes under consideration the existing variations among children to design teaching and learning responding to the needs of all (Tomlinson, 2001) . However, the application of the approach is restrained (Cha & Ahn, 2014; Ruys, Defruyt, Rots, & Aelterman, 2013; Wan, 2017) , due to teachers' deficit of knowledge and skills to differentiate their instruction sufficiently and effectively (Suprayogi, Vackle, & Godwin, 2017; Tobin & McInnes, 2008) .

Apparently, the gap of empirical studies about DI implementations (Hall, 2002; Santamaria, 2009; Smit & Humpert, 2012) , along with the lack of definitions about how-to-differentiate (Tobin & McInnes, 2008) , contributes to the teachers' confusion about the concept of DI (Hall, 2002; Santamaria, 2009) . Thus, a deep understanding of DI's theoretical background is essential to precede the application of the new approach. Therefore, Professional Development programs (PDp) are necessary when studying DI's application, as such programs are able to provide additional definitions and support (Mills, Monk, Keddie, Renshaw, Christie, Geelan et al., 2014) .

This study focuses on the kindergarten teachers' side, during their experience in participating in a PDp for DI, revealing their personal and professional development through understanding, applying and reflecting on DI practices.

2. Theoretical Framework

2.1. Differentiated Instruction

The educational systems worldwide are based on the general assumption that children from the same age have similar learning needs. However, the age cannot ensure the absence of any differences in interests, motivations, backgrounds and abilities (Bostina-Bratu & Negoescu, 2016) . Such differences are often ignored, as teaching to the middle level of the classroom is the common practice (Tomlinson, 1999) . Subsequently, the advanced learners are not challenged enough, while at the same time the struggling ones are over-challenged and finally remain puzzled (Koeze, 2007) , proving that one-size-fits-all approach of instruction is not effective.

As a result, the starting point of instruction is corresponding to the child's level of readiness, interests and learning style (Tomlinson, 1999) . The teacher who differentiates his/her instruction doesn't expect learners to find the way to adjust to his/her instruction, but proactively tailors the teaching and learning process according to them (Gregory & Chapman, 2007; Faber, Glas & Visscher, 2018) . Moreover, the lesson integrates a variety of sources, materials and assignments in different difficulty levels, provides different levels of support and multiple arrangements of the classroom. To that end, instruction is challenging, interesting and developmentally appropriate (Taylor, 2015) . The learning goals are achieved through different learning paths (Tobin & McInnes, 2008) , as DI incorporates various and flexible ways of presentation, expression and selection of learners' engagement in the learning process (Tobin & Tippet, 2014) .

Since the main aim of DI is to increase the academic success of children, its impact on achievement has been the object of investigation for several researchers. Recent studies suggest that differentiated approach affected positively children's performance and enhanced motivation for learning (Koeze, 2007; Lewis & Batts 2005; Little, McCoach, & Reis, 2014; Tobin & Mc Innes, 2008; Tomlinson & McTighe, 2004) . Most empirical studies focused on the effectiveness in reading (Little, McCoach, & Reis, 2014) and mathematics (Scott 2012; Tieso, 2005) , while few evaluated differentiation in other fields, such as science education (Odgers, Symons, & Mitchell, 2000) .

Although, DI is considered as an effective and promising teaching and learning approach that should be included in teachers' everyday practice, the related literature indicates that teachers tend to avoid DI's application (Mills et al., 2014; Wan, 2017; Suprayogi, Vackle, & Godwin, 2017; Tobin & Tippett, 2014; Tomlinson et al., 2003) , as they perceive differentiation as a difficult and time-consuming procedure (Danzi, Reul, & Smith, 2008) . Furthermore, in the study of Mills et al. (2014) , teachers confused DI with individualized instruction and believed they had to prepare as many activities as the students in their classroom. In addition, evaluation of children's initial ideas and abilities did not precede the decisions regarding the grouping arrangements, along with the application of flexible grouping, so the differentiation was at least defective. Another common misconception that is greatly reported is the tendency to sideline the needs of advanced learners and provide more support to those who have difficulties in achieving their learning goals (Scott, 2012; Wan, 2017) . This misconception reveals that teachers hold a fixed mindset about a child's readiness level, according to which the ability is something solid and crosses all the subjects, while flexible grouping is based on a growth mindset that acknowledges the strengths and weaknesses of a learner (Dweck, 2006) . As a matter of fact, flexible grouping is usually replaced by whole-class instruction (Smit & Humpert, 2012) .

The systematic evaluation of children is perceived as a constraint by teachers (Mills et al., 2014; Smit & Humpert, 2012; Tobin & Tippett, 2014) , due to their difficulty to manage appropriately the collected information (Cha & Ahn, 2014) . Evaluation and DI are interdepended concepts, as no differentiation can really occur without knowing deeply the learners and the needs that instruction will respond to (Tomlinson & Moon, 2013) . Additionally, teachers argue that DI is undermined due to the big number of students in their classroom and the time-consuming nature of preparation for differentiation (Wan, 2017) .

Indeed, teachers from Wan's (2017) study preferred to differentiate instruction from a more teacher-centered approach rather than child-centered, because it required less time of preparation. Similarly, other researchers (Casey & Gable, 2012) discovered that teachers were more familiar with the more superficial differentiation strategies, such as providing options, rather than more sophisticated differentiation, like tiered activities (Koeze, 2007) .

Apparently, the application of DI is evasive for teachers, maybe because it requires a change in their teaching and learning philosophy (Tobin & Tippett, 2014) . To this end, appropriate training programs seem to be the only way to provide additional definition of DI and support to teachers (Gregory & Chapman, 2007) .

2.2. Professional Development Programs for Differentiated Instruction

Although PDps may positively affect the teaching practices, DI is a complicating approach that targets high effectiveness. There are several characteristics of PDps that are proven effective in changing the perceptions and practices of teachers. Hunzicker (2011) and Timperley (2008) argue that PDp's effectiveness increases when it considers the existing perceptions and needs of participants. Accordingly, the investigation of the teachers' initial ideas is necessary in order to design appropriately the content of the program. Moreover, a context with cooperation (Chitanana, 2012; Parsad, Lewis, Farris, & Greene, 2001) and interaction with colleagues is essential to allow teachers share their experiences and ideas (Cha & Ahn, 2014; Chen & McCray, 2012; Smit & Humpert, 2012) .

Additionally, authenticity is important for PDp, since the content is adjusted according to real needs, practices and data from the classroom of each participating teacher (Chitanana, 2012) , thus relating the teacher's practice with the new concepts and/or approaches. Such a process naturally needs to last for a long period of time in order to be successful (Hunzicker, 2011) .

Obviously, the investigation of PDp's impact on the application of DI is quite limited (Wan, 2017) , and therefore more research is necessary. Additionally, many PDps had short-lasting applications and concentrated mainly to teachers from elementary to university levels of education, leaving behind kindergarten teachers. Nonetheless, the philosophy of early childhood education, as well as the diversity of kindergarten classroom (Wu & Chang, 2015) , is aligned with differentiation (Brennan, 2008; DeBaryshe, Gorecki, & Mishima-Young, 2009) .

In this study, a long-lasting PDp was designed and implemented in order to support kindergarten teachers to deepen in DI, change their perceptions and include the approach in their practice. The main research aim was to evaluate the effectiveness of the program through the experiences of the participating teachers. Specifically, we sought to answer what kind of experiences the teachers had, what progress they followed, which elements of the PDp were evaluated as good experiences by them and which were the referred setbacks of the program.

3. Method

3.1. Participants

The participants of the study were 7 kindergarten teachers corresponding to 7 kindergarten schools. 3 of the schools were located at urban and 4 of them at sub-urban regions of Magnesia, Central Greece. The teachers were females, quite experienced, as they had been working for 11 to 17 years (Μ = 15.3, SD = 2.2) and had high educational qualifications: 2 teachers with bachelor degrees, 4 with a master's degree and 1 with a PhD title.

Convenience sampling was followed, since the group of teachers was formed due to their interest in DI, along with their willingness and openness to change their instructional practice. Therefore, the selection of the kindergarten schools was based on the consent of the teachers to participate in the study.

3.2. Roles

Aside of the teachers, a facilitator and a supervisor participated in the PDp. Apparently, each type of participant had a distinct role. In particular, teachers were expected to collect data from children through systematic observation, cooperate with the facilitator in designing the instructional plans, apply differentiated interventions in their classroom, share their ideas and experiences, and finally, reflect on their action.

The facilitator (1 st author) prepared, organized and managed the meeting conversations, provided teachers with the appropriate tools (e.g. for observations), cooperated with both the teachers and the supervisor to design and differentiate the instructional plans, had individual meetings with teachers and, more importantly, encouraged the teachers to continue through the difficult process of changing their practice.

Last but not least, the supervisor (2 nd author) invited and formed the group of teachers and supervised the whole process of the program, as she provided consultancy and useful guidelines on scientific, methodological and instructional issues. More specifically, she had frequent meetings with the facilitator before the beginning of the program, in order to train her in the action research methodology. Meetings took place also during and after the program to provide additional support. Furthermore, the supervisor encouraged emotionally the group of teachers with her presence in some meetings, especially when the participants were facing difficulties and were reluctant in changing their teaching practices.

3.3. Professional Development Program in Differentiated Instruction

The main aims of the program were to: 1) provide the appropriate context for teachers to change their ideas about DI, 2) gain deeper understanding regarding the concept of DI, the strategies and the techniques to address children's needs and 3) support effectively the teachers to apply DI activities and reflect on their action. In this scope, action research methods were leveraged to achieve the goals.

The program lasted 8 months during the academic year of 2016-2017 and included two phases: 1) the 1 st phase with emphasis placed on clarifying the concept of DI and gaining deeper understanding of the specific differentiated methods, strategies and techniques, and 2) the 2 nd phase during which experimentation, application and reflection on DI took place. More specifically, the goals of the 1 st phase (October-December 2016) were to deepen in DI philosophy, acquire awareness in their own teaching practices and their impact on children and compare their existing practices with the differentiated strategies. The group had 9 meetings, one per week, during which the teachers had the opportunity to express any previous experiences or/and prejudices regarding DI through various open conversations, short presentations, cooperative assignments and applied examples of differentiation in real school settings. On top of that, teachers conducted systematic observations on several aspects of children to get deeper knowledge about the exact levels of different readiness levels (literacy, mathematical and social skills), together with their interests and preferred learning styles. Their observations triggered further awareness and reflection on children's differences and their class's variations in multiple levels.

The 2 nd phase (January-May 2017) concentrated on the application of DI in participating kindergarten classrooms, aiming to provide effective support and space for reflection to teachers. During this phase teachers chose three instructional themes ("Protection of wild animals", "Healthy lifestyle", and "Books") to develop in instructional designs and then differentiate according to children's specific learning needs. The design of each theme followed the procedure: 1) division of each theme in subthemes and identification of the main learning goals by teachers and facilitator, 2) initial planning of the DI intervention by the facilitator, 3) interaction between teachers and facilitator on the initial plan, 4) final plan of DI intervention after consulting the supervisor, and 5) further adjustments of the final plan by each teacher to address sufficiently the needs of their children. During the application of the DI interventions, 8 group meetings were held every 15 days, with individual meetings in between, focusing on reflection, exchange of good practices and proposing of possible solutions in any referred problem by the group. In such cases, the teacher who referred the problem experimented with the proposed solutions back at her classroom and, then, shared her experience with the group, so that good practices emerge for the next DI intervention.

3.4. Data Collection and Analysis

To investigate the existing perceptions and experiences of teachers regarding DI, an open-ended questionnaire (based on Burkett, 2013 ) was used with 9 items. The questionnaire was divided in two sections: 1) demographic data (e.g. years of experience, degrees etc.) (4 items), and 2) perceptions and experiences (e.g. item 5. "What is your first thought when you hear the phrase 'Differentiated Instruction'"? item 7. "Do you think that differentiated instruction could be applied in your classroom? Why?").

Facilitator's notes on her diary were used as a data collection tool to evaluate the teachers' progress and, thus, inform the facilitator's further choices during the PDp. The notes were taken during the meetings and immediately after them. The facilitator had to record how teachers responded to their roles, their feelings, as well as her experience of her role as facilitator and her feelings.

To gain deeper understanding on how teachers experienced the entire program and their interaction with the DI practices, a semi-structured protocol for individual interviews was developed by the researchers. The protocol was based on the Guskey (2002) model of PDp's evaluation and included 10 dimensions. The interviews were conducted by the end of the program (June 2017) and lasted 50 - 120 minutes each. The analysis comprised data from the dimensions: New perceptions (5 items), Supportive role of PDp (3 items) and General evaluation (5 items).

The data analysis followed the Content Analysis methodology in a 4-step procedure: 1) read all the answers to familiarize with the data, 2) repeat in order to identify codes of similar meanings, 3) adjust the emerged codes, and 4) categorize the codes into broader sets. The data processing was conducted through the NVivo program for qualitative data analysis.

4. Results

4.1. Initial Teachers' Perceptions of DI

The collected answers from the teachers about their initial ideas highlighted the existence of misconceptions about the concept of differentiation. For instance, Dorothy ¹ referred that DI "...is an instruction that has many goals. A different goal is set for every child". Clearly, she understood DI as a way to apply individualized instruction, which is impossible to be done for all the children in a classroom. Another emerged misconception was that DI is mostly about children with difficulties, as Paola mentioned "...instruction responds to those who usually fail...". This notion implies that children have a general readiness level that is concrete, and hence, they could be categorized as low, medium and high achievers. However, DI doesn't accept the labeling of students, but recognizes that every child has different strengths and weaknesses, that are constantly changing. Additionally, the idea that DI was designed primarily for the "low achievers" puts aside the gifted learners who also suffer from "one-size-fits-all" instruction. Moreover, the high level of variations among children was sometimes seen as an obstacle rather a fertile ground for differentiation (e.g. Amy: "...I think it is applicable in my classroom, but there are too many variations in my group, differences on social and economical level").

The teacher's initial perceptions were aligned with their previous experiences of applying DI, as they rarely had tried to implement differentiation before. Even when they did, they were impermanent and superficial attempts, since "it wasn't organized but mostly random" (Paola). They usually avoided DI, because of the fear of: 1) failing in managing the classroom, 2) children not having the necessary cooperative skills and 3) failing in keeping track of students' progress. Other reasons for avoiding the differentiation were that "... the space in my classroom is really tight, so its impossible to work in groups" (Stella) and the number of children per classroom, as Hannah mentioned "...there are 16 kids and I am all alone" ( Figure 1).

4.2. Formative Evaluation of PDp for DI

Content Analysis of the diary showed that every teacher followed more or less a specific journey to professional development ( Figure 2). Particularly, at the beginning of the program they were questioning not only that this program would be effective, but also that DI was not applicable in the Greek kindergarten context (e.g. record on 10/5/2016: "...she was assertive that working in groups was impossible to happen in her classroom, because it was tight. She also seemed quite skeptical if DI is just another trend that doesn't fit in the Greek reality"). After the first meetings, they started to feel nervous and sometimes denied to evaluate their children through systematic observation, seeing that it added heavy workload (e.g. record on 10/26/2016: "we talked for a while and she said she had a difficult time checking out the social skills of the kindergarteners. It took a long time for her to finish. She said exactly: I am not doing anything else!

. Reasons for teachers' avoidance to apply DI.

. Teachers' progress during the PDp for DI.

All of my teaching time is dedicated to evaluation..."). The facilitator acknowledged that the tools for systematic observations could be shorter, so a special meeting was planned to discuss and propose ways of accelerating the evaluation process. After that meeting, the teachers felt more secure to continue with the evaluation process, during which they started to realize that their instinctive estimations about children's strengths and weaknesses were often not valid. Therefore, they became more sensitive on their observations and aware of its importance (e.g. record on 11/24/2016: "Indeed, she said that this whole evaluation procedure on mathematics motivated her to find additional mathematical materials and create a new learning area in her classroom. She was thrilled and kids, too!").

Until the end of the 1 st phase, the teachers were concerned about how they would implement DI in their classrooms, although they had already participated in over 6 meetings during which they discussed thoroughly this issue. The source of their concerns laid in their insecurity to design appropriate DI interventions and then apply them. Therefore, the interventions were mainly pre-designed by the facilitator, thus helping the teachers to focus mostly on the application of the approach. Indeed, the pre-designed activities contributed to the teachers' understanding of the DI concept, as reported on 3/15/2017 "She stated she feels quite familiar with differentiation anymore, and the fact that she didn't have to design differentiated activities by her own helped her think she could accomplish to apply DI successfully...".

Subsequently, teachers changed their initial ideas and concerns about the applicability of the approach, since they indicated the positive impact on children (e.g. record on 3/29/2017 "...(kids) remember every little detail after such a long time... things from past interventions usually appear in our group conversations at school and at home! This is something new."). The most usually referred impact that teachers reported was the autonomy level that kindergarteners achieved after the first differentiated intervention, as "the very moment they (i.e. children) see their name on the "group board", they create the groups on their own and start to cooperate without my help. I think this is huge progress" (record on 5/9/2017). The positive effects on students facilitated the teachers' self-confidence regarding the DI approach and encouraged them to continue to experiment with this approach, even after the end of the program.

4.3. New Perceptions

The analysis of the teachers' answers on the interviews after the PDp shed light on the new ideas that they had formed. Specifically, three categories emerged: 1) perceptions of DI, 2) perceptions of the teacher's role and 3) perceptions of teaching practices. Under the first category, teachers referred that DI was useful (4 references), applicable (3 references) and interesting (3 references), as it expanded their teaching repertoire (1 reference). Furthermore, the perception of their role as teachers was reinforced with confidence (5 references) and consciousness of past mistakes (3 references). In any case, the program led them to personal and professional development (6 references) (e.g. Amy "I feel I am better now. I am one step forward than I was before."). The teachers raised their awareness of the learner's differences (4 references), which led to democratization of their teaching, as "the voices of the kids are heard more often from now on. I realized they have the right to select if they want to join the activity or express themselves otherwise" (Hannah). Moreover, they changed their perceptions about the equity in education, as Hannah also pointed out "I had that misconception that it is fair for all to do the same assignments, spent the same time with me... I wasn't t sure what is right or wrong... Through differentiated instruction I realized that I had to leave behind this notion. Kids didn't bother to do different assignments than their peers, because the teams, the assignments and their chance to select the assignment were not solid".

4.4. Supportive Role of PDp

The PDp in DI offered effective support on teachers to implement DI in their kindergarten classrooms. According to them, the PDp supported them through the meetings (19 references) and the pre-designed interventions (5 references). The latter was the catalyst to understand the concept of DI, since the differentiated activities were close to their experiences as practitioners. Instead of presenting DI merely on a theoretical level, the pre-designed activities offered a more practical view of the approach and facilitated the connection with their existing practice. Therefore, they argued that they "...felt much more confidence in what I am able to do when it comes to differentiation" (Stella), because the "organizing part was already done by the group" (Paola).

The meetings provided support on emotional (8 references) and instructional level (8 references). The positive climate at the meetings was the result of the friendly relationships that teachers grew with each other and the facilitator (1 reference). As a result, every participant felt secure, accepted, welcomed and recognized (4 references) (e.g. Nancy "The meetings took the stress away! I remember once that Paola was about to cry. I think she was relieved after the meeting... because when you hear other colleagues talking about their problems at school you know you are not alone. Everyone faces difficulties. So, the stories of others comfort you".).

On the other hand, the exchange of their experiences on DI (7 references) and the constant reflection on their action (3 references) administered instructional support to the teachers. Indeed, they usually mentioned how helpful their discussions about instructional and pedagogical issues were. For instance, Martha said that "It helped me a lot when those who had applied the activity a week before me shared their ideas and experience and then I knew what I should avoid or what adjustments I could probably try. Anyway, my classroom is different from the other, but I was more prepared than not having heard her experience before". And Paola also agreed "...I tried an idea that someone else from the group proposed and I had the thought "she might know better than me. Well, I wouldn't have this idea! Let's try and see if it's working with my kids, too".

5. Conclusion

The PDp for DI was designed to 1) provide the appropriate context for kindergarten teachers to change their ideas about DI, 2) gain deeper understanding regarding the concept of DI, the strategies and the techniques to address children's needs and 3) support effectively the teachers to apply DI activities and reflect on their action. The results indicated that these goals were sufficiently achieved, as teachers had positive experiences with DI.

The systematic evaluation of children was also an issue that raised much opposition towards teachers, in alignment with other studies (Mills et al., 2014; Smit & Humpert, 2012; Tobin & Tippett, 2014) . Seemingly, teachers need additional support with specific tools and guidelines in order to make the evaluation procedure briefer and more applicable, as it is possible that they are not quite experienced or familiar with the systematic evaluation techniques.

The misconceptions that exist before the PDp highlight the emergent need for training programs in DI, in order to facilitate the implementation of the approach (Gregory & Chapman, 2012). The combination of the long-lasting duration with the formation of a learning community with colleagues seemed to respond to the need of the specific kindergarten teachers for definition and support (Mills et al., 2014) to make the first step towards the implementation of DI in their classroom.

However, the future application of DI by those teachers who participated in the program is not ensured, as most teachers tend to return to previous practices that feel safer and are more aligned with their perceptions and mindsets, which do not change so easily. Further research should emphasize whether teachers continue to apply DI, how the applied differentiation has changed according to teacher's personal style of teaching and what kind of support they will need, given that they will be more experienced with DI. Possible follow-back interviews may provide answers to these questions.

Acknowledgements

The research work was supported by the Hellenic Foundation for Research and Innovation (HFRI) and the General Secretariat for Research and Technology (GSRT), under the HFRI PhD Fellowship grant (GA. No. 2424).

NOTES

¹ Every name is a pseudonym.

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Teachers' Experiences of a Professional Development Program for Differentiated Instruction

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Discover the impact of Professional Development programs on teachers' perceptions and implementation of Differentiated Instruction. Gain insights from a study with in-service kindergarten teachers.