# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
An artistic illustration depicting a glorified Sufi missionary spreading Islamist teachings.

# data[].attributes.headline
Religious Developments Across South & Southeast Asia

# data[].attributes.subject
Religious Developments Across South & Southeast Asia

# data[].attributes.body
Islamic expansion in South and Southeast Asia brought significant religious and imperial transformations. In Southeast Asia, Islam spread primarily through trade networks, the efforts of Sufi missionaries, and the collapse of the Srivijaya Empire in 1025 C.E. This empire, which had controlled a vast network of ports, promoted trade with Indian merchants, including Muslims, and its fall opened opportunities for the establishment of Muslim trading centers along coastal regions. Sufi missionaries facilitated the spread of Islam by blending local traditions with Islamic practices, increasing the amount of religious conversions within the region. Meanwhile, in South Asia, Islamic migrants seeking refuge often integrated aspects of Buddhist and Hindu cultures, contributing to a unique blend of religious and cultural traditions. These developments not only reshaped religious practices but also influenced the political landscape, as Islamic states and trading communities gained prominence across the region.

# data[].attributes.body
This project was completed by Aryan Agarwal, Amelie Ortner, Karena Ling, & Leo Feuchtwang.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
An artistic illustration of Genghis Khan.

# data[].attributes.body
Before the birth of Chinggis, or Genghis Khan, the Mongols were a scattered group of nomads from the central steppes of Asia. However, after his birth in 1162 C.E, the Mongol course of history was changed forever. Genghis originally rose to power by becoming the leader of his tribe, and using this position to forge alliances with other Mongols. However, in 1206 C.E, Genghis gained the title of khan, or leader, in a meeting of all major Mongol tribes. This title gave him full authority over all of the Mongol people, and allowed him to utilize the Mongol military prowess to conquer an empire stretching from Europe to the Pacific. This empire lasted for many years, and was largely aided by the invention of the saddle, which allowed Mongol warriors to ride horses into battle. However, after the death of Genghis Khan, due to a lack of formal government organization and planning the Mongol Empire was split between his descendants, and broke into four main khanates. These four khanates would be the Yuan Dynasty in China, the Ilkhanate in Persia, the Chagatai Khanate in Central Asia, and the Golden Horde Khanate in modern-day Eastern Russia. Despite the inevitable failure of the Mongol Empire, it would still hold lasting effects across Europe, Asia and the Middle East, and would help to foster further cultural exchanges across the region.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
An artistic illustration of semi-nomadic Yuan dynasty warriors on horseback.

# data[].attributes.body
During the peak of Mongol power, East and Southeast Asia were some of the most Mongol-influenced regions. Kublai Khan, a direct descendant of Genghis Khan, established the Yuan dynasty in China, which prioritized expansion, innovation, and cultural integration. From this stronghold, the Mongols projected their influence across the region. In Japan, the Mongols launched two major invasions in 1274 and 1281 C.E, but both failed miserably due to fierce Japanese resistance and coincidental typhoons, later called "kamikaze" or "divine winds." These invasions, despite their failure, prompted Japan to strengthen its military and centralize political authority under the shogunate. In Vietnam, Mongol invasions initially devastated the region, but local resistance, particularly under the Tran dynasty, forced the Mongols to withdraw. Despite this, the interactions brought new administrative practices and increased Vietnamese integration into broader regional trade networks. Similarly, in Korea, the Mongols established the Goryeo dynasty as a vassal state, deeply influencing Korean governance, military organization, and culture, while also facilitating the exchange of goods and ideas. The Mongol presence in these regions left lasting impacts, and even hundreds of years later still influenced the development of nations within the region.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
An artistic illustration depicting what a human settlement may have appeared like 12,000 years ago.

# data[].attributes.body
Humans first emerged around 2.5 million years ago, but only evolved into the Homo Sapiens species around 300 thousand years ago. It is widely recognized that after the emergence of the true human species (Homo Sapiens), humans developed complex speech around 100,000 B.C.E, and were able to migrate into the Americas by around 12,000 BCE. It was around this time that nomadic humans domesticated wild animals like dogs, and began using stone tools. This period of time is called the Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age) and was when these early developments began to spread across the entire human population. This era would mark the early beginnings of humanity and would set the stage for the numerous historical developments to follow.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
A photo taken of an ancient Egyptian hieroglyph showcasing early forms of domesticated agriculture.

# data[].attributes.headline
Development of River Valley Civilizations

# data[].attributes.subject
Development of River Valley Civilizations

# data[].attributes.body
With the advent of agriculture around 10,000 B.C.E., humans transitioned from nomadic lifestyles to sedentary ones, settling in fertile river valleys that supported stable food supplies and larger populations. This shift led to the rise of the world’s first civilizations around 3500 B.C.E., such as Mesopotamia, the Indus River Valley, the Nile River Valley, and the Yellow River Valley. Mesopotamia, situated between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, saw the rise of city-states like Ur and Babylon, cuneiform writing, and Hammurabi’s Code. In the Indus River Valley, cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro demonstrated advanced urban planning, drainage systems, and trade networks. The Nile River Valley in Egypt developed centralized states under the Pharaohs, monumental architecture like pyramids, and achievements in mathematics and medicine. Meanwhile, China’s Yellow River Valley gave rise to the Shang and Zhou dynasties, with innovations like bronze metallurgy and the Mandate of Heaven. These river valleys not only provided fertile land for agriculture but also facilitated trade, communication, and cultural exchange, accelerating technological and social advancements. By the year 3500 B.C.E and beyond, the dominance of sedentary agricultural civilizations was firmly established, permanently shaping the global future of human development.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
An artistic illustration of the Roman Colosseum during the Roman Empire's peak around the year 117 C.E

# data[].attributes.body
Greece and Rome were two of the most advanced early civilizations that developed. These civilizations came about around 600 BCE, and with them brought the Classical Era, marked by learning and development. Rome and Greece made important advancements in philosophy, law, religion, and more. Their impacts were global, with their advances in every facet of life influencing how history would play out for hundreds of years.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
An artistic illustration of the battle of the first crusade.

# data[].attributes.body
After the fall of the Roman Empire, Western Europe entered the Middle Ages, a period marked by both progress and stagnation. Trade and production advanced over time, leading to the growth of towns and a more complex economy, but scientific and technological advancements slowed significantly compared to the classical era. Much of the knowledge from ancient Greece and Rome, including scientific and medical texts, was lost to time, with only a few inscriptions/texts preserved. The Black Death, one of the most catastrophic events in European history, killed more than a third of the population, causing massive social, economic, and cultural upheaval. Amidst these challenges, the Crusades were launched as a series of military campaigns by Western Christians to reclaim the Holy Land from growing Muslim control. These campaigns, while religiously motivated, also opened Europe to Eastern goods and ideas, gradually reintroducing some classical knowledge that had been preserved by other civilizations. This era would ultimately end with the Renaissance, a period of renewed interest in science, technology, and classical learning that exponentially increased significant advancements and marked the transition to a more modern, developed world.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
A photo taken of the Suleymaniye Mosque, located in Istanbul, Turkey.

# data[].attributes.body
The Abbasid Dynasty faced significant challenges, including internal struggles for succession and uprisings by slaves attempting to gain power. During this period, the Crusades were launched as a series of military campaigns by Western Christians aimed at reclaiming the Holy Land from Muslim control, intensifying conflicts in the region. Meanwhile, the role of women in Abbasid society saw a decline, with increased restrictions on their rights and public presence. The dynasty also faced external threats, particularly from the Mongols, who would later sack Baghdad in 1258, marking the end of the Abbasid Caliphate as a dominant power. Despite these challenges, the Abbasid period was marked by remarkable cultural and scientific achievements, including advancements in geometry, algebra, chemistry, and engineering, as well as innovations in paper production. Art and architecture flourished, shown by the construction of mosques and intricate crafts such as tapestries. Islam continued to spread widely, with conversions in regions like modern-day Egypt, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan, Morocco, and India. This would further shape the cultural and religious landscape of the Middle East, with Muslims maintaining the highest social status within society.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
An artistic illustration of what the Aztec Empire capital city of Tenochtitlan would've looked like in the early 16th century, located in lake Texcoco.

# data[].attributes.body
In the Americas, two powerful empires emerged in the 14th and 15th centuries, shaping the history of the region long before European contact. To the north, the Aztec Empire rose to prominence in central Mexico after the fall of the Toltec Empire in the 1300s. Despite being a smaller group compared to other Mesoamerican civilizations, the Aztecs leveraged their strong military and shared language with the Toltecs, Nahuatl, to consolidate power. Their capital, Tenochtitlan, became the heart of their empire, where they enforced tribute systems on conquered peoples, demanded land surrenders, and practiced religious human sacrifice. Far to the south, in the Andean highlands, the Inca Empire developed its own powerful state. The Incas, centered in Cuzco, created an extensive road system to connect their vast empire, facilitating trade and communication across diverse terrains. Like the Aztecs, the Incas also relied on systems of forced labor, such as the Mita, to build their empire. Known for their agricultural innovations, the Inca mastered terrace farming, allowing them to feed large populations in the challenging mountainous environment. While geographically distant, both the Aztec and Inca empires were defined by their military strength, sophisticated infrastructure, and complex systems of governance.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
A photo taken of the Great Mosque of Djenne, located in Mali.

# data[].attributes.body
Nubia and Ethiopia were two prominent Christian empires in Africa, with Christianity playing a central role in their societies. In Egypt, Christians were known as Copts, continuing the legacy of early Christian communities, while in Nubia, historically the land of the Kingdom of Kush, Christianity was adopted around the 6th century, with powerful Christian kingdoms like Makuria. In contrast, the Sudanic states of West Africa were heavily influenced by Islam, which spread primarily through merchants and trade routes. Islam spread through the extensive African trade networks, such as the gold-salt trade across the Saharan desert, where Muslim traders played a key role in its adoption by kingdoms like Ghana and Mali. On the East African coast, the Indian Ocean trade networks facilitated the spread of Islam through Arab and Swahili merchants, particularly in the Axum Empire. Though Islam was adopted by the elite in East Africa, much of the population retained indigenous beliefs.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
A diagram of global maritime trade routes, as of the late 17th century.

# data[].attributes.body
During this period, the growing global maritime trade network played a crucial role in shaping economic dynamics across various regions. Silver, which became the universal currency, surged in availability, leading to inflation across Europe. The influx of silver, along with the expansion of trade, made finer goods more accessible, as cheap labor from colonies made production more efficient. However, the global system also created vast inequalities, particularly between Europe and Mesoamerica, where coerced labor fueled the extraction of resources. As European nations sought to expand their influence, countries in Asia, such as China and Japan, deliberately limited trade with the West to maintain political and economic autonomy. India, on the other hand, focused on exporting goods to balance its trade and acquire more silver, strengthening its role in the global economy. Meanwhile, the Middle East and Russia remained largely agricultural and less integrated into the rapidly expanding maritime trade networks, maintaining more localized economies. This constantly evolving and changing system of global exchange set the stage for the complex interconnections of the early modern period.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
An artistic illustration showcasing a first contact between the Spanish and the indigenous populations inhabiting the island.

# data[].attributes.body
The Columbian Exchange was the transfer of plants, animals, people, ideas, and diseases between the New and Old Worlds after Columbus’s 1492 voyages. It introduced crops like potatoes and maize to Europe and wheat and sugar to the Americas, transforming global agriculture. The exchange also fueled the transatlantic slave trade and spread diseases like smallpox, which devastated indigenous populations. Its ecological and sociological impacts are among the most influential in history, with its effects remaining permanently etched into human history.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
An artistic illustration of a Portuguese colony in modern-day Brazil, with a combination of African and indigenous slaves.

# data[].attributes.headline
Spanish & Portuguese Colonization of the Americas

# data[].attributes.subject
Spanish & Portuguese Colonization of the Americas

# data[].attributes.body
After Columbus's discovery of the Americas, Spanish and Portuguese conquests quickly accelerated. The fall of the Aztec and Inca Empires under Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro established centralized Spanish rule through the viceroyalties of New Spain and Peru. The encomienda system organized Indigenous labor, especially in silver mining, while expanding plantations required large-scale labor. Throughout all of this, the Catholic Church shaped colonial society by converting indigenous peoples and blending cultures. As diseases decimated Indigenous populations, reliance on enslaved Africans grew, setting the stage for the transatlantic slave trade, which will tie into the next major historical event.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
A diagram of how slaves would be situated on the transatlantic slave ships.

# data[].attributes.body
The Transatlantic slave trade forcibly transported millions of Africans to the Americas from the late 15th to the mid 19th century to provide labor for European colonies, particularly those of Spain, Portugal, and later the United States. Driven by the demand for labor on plantations and in mining, it was central to colonial economies, especially in sugar, coffee, and silver production. The trade would devastate African societies during its existence, contributing to political instability and population loss, while making those who facilitated the trade extremely rich. This brutal system would ultimately end in the mid 19th century after abolitionist movements prohibited the trade, banning all imports of slaves, with the last slave ship crossing the Atlantic in 1860.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
A photo taken of St. Petersburg Catholic Cathedral.

# data[].attributes.body
From the 15th to the early 18th century, Russia rose as a major European power, centered initially around Moscow. Through military conquests, it expanded its territory to secure borders against nomadic invaders and to grow its lucrative fur trade, particularly in far Eastern Siberia. Throughout Russia's history, Ivan the Terrible centralized power and established autocracy, while Peter the Great modernized the state with reforms and founded St. Petersburg as Russia's "window to the West." Russia's imperial ambitions were driven by security concerns and economic wealth, leading to a militarized and diverse empire, with smaller but still extremely influential minorities like the Cossacks and Tatars. This expansionist autocracy laid the foundation for Russia’s dominance for over 300 years, until the Romanov dynasty's fall in 1917.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
A map showcasing the location of the three consecutive gunpowder empires.

# data[].attributes.headline
The Establishment of the Gunpowder Empires

# data[].attributes.subject
The Establishment of the Gunpowder Empires

# data[].attributes.body
The three gunpowder empires- the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal empires- dominated large parts of Europe and the Middle East from the 14th to the 18th centuries, thanks to the military advantages provided by gunpowder. The Ottomans, based in the Anatolian Peninsula, expanded into the Balkans and captured Constantinople in 1453 under Mehmed II, establishing a vast empire ruled by powerful sultans like Suleiman the Magnificent. Meanwhile the Safavids, centered in Persia, flourished under Shah Abbas I, who strengthened both the economy and military while promoting their distinct Shi’a Islam identity. Lastly the Mughal Empire, founded by Babur in 1526, reached its peak under Akbar, who implemented religious tolerance and administrative reforms. Despite their initial successes, these empires would decline over time and eventually collapse due to internal strife, succession crises, and growing challenges caused by Europe, leaving behind a lasting influence across the Islamic world, Europe, and the Middle East.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
An image taken of gunpowder and an illustration showcasing how it was made back in the 16th century.

# data[].attributes.body
Between 1450 and 1750, technological innovations revolutionized navigation, trade, and empire-building, fueling the Age of Exploration. Tools like the magnetic compass and astrolabe improved navigation. The printing press spread knowledge of geography and science, fostering exploration. Gunpowder technology led to powerful cannons and firearms, giving European powers a military advantage in colonizing new lands.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
An artistic illustration of a Portuguese galleon, a large treasure-carrying ship, typically transporting silver or gold.

# data[].attributes.body
The Age of Exploration, spanning roughly from the 15th to the 17th centuries, was a period marked by European global exploration and expansion. Driven by a desire for wealth, trade, and the spread of Christianity, explorers sought new sea routes to Asia and discovered unknown lands. Portugal and Spain led the charge, with figures like Vasco da Gama reaching India and Christopher Columbus landing in the Americas. This era saw the establishment of overseas colonies, the exploitation of indigenous populations, and the exchange of goods, ideas, and technologies through the Columbian Exchange. The Age of Exploration not only expanded European influence but also reshaped global trade, culture, and geopolitics, setting the stage for the modern interconnected world.

# data[].attributes.body
We organized our timeline in a way that is easy to understand, with three main era's splitting up the timeline. Out of these three eras, we have various key events and historical advancements, all of which are central to human development and history. The farther down in each era, the more recent the historical event/advancement, with an illustration and caption included in each one to help the viewer better comprehend every subject. We also included a color code to categorize the text boxes- green is for the actual historical events, blue is historical developments, and yellow is for empires/dynasties themselves.

# data[].attributes.body
From 12,000 years ago to the early 18th century, the world underwent significant transformations as humans transitioned from nomadic to sedentary lifestyles, leading to the rise of powerful empires. These empires, such as those of Egypt, China, the Roman Empire, and the Mongols, played key roles in shaping trade, culture, and governance across vast regions. Their expansion and innovations in military strategy, infrastructure, and administration not only influenced their own territories but also fostered interconnected global networks that reshaped the flow of goods, ideas, and religions.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
An artistic illustration of Marco Polo and his advent on the Silk Road.

# data[].attributes.body
After 1200 C.E., interactions between civilizations became one of the most significant factors in global history, shaping economies, cultures, and religions. Although the foundations for these interactions were laid during the Middle Ages, they exponentially grew in scale and complexity in the centuries that followed. The rapid increase in global contacts during this period resulted from a combination of political stability, economic growth, and technological advancements. The rise of large, stable empires, such as the Song dynasty in China and the Abbasid Caliphate in the Middle East, not only promoted regional stability but also fueled a growing demand for interregional trade networks like the Silk Road and the Indian Ocean trade routes. To support this, innovations such as dhows- maneuverable ships used for Indian Ocean commerce- and improved caravan technologies were developed, facilitating long-distance trade. The increased trade not only exchanged goods like silk, spices, and precious metals but also ideas, technologies, and cultural practices, resulting in greater global integration. However, this era of connection also heightened religious tensions, such as the Crusades’ ventures to spread Christianity and, conversely, the Abbasid Empire's attempts to expand Islam through military conquests of Christian territories in Europe. Despite these conflicts, the period after 1200 C.E. was characterized by an unprecedented level of cultural and economic exchange, making the world increasingly interconnected and complex.