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Information Processing: Learning is a process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information.

Active Learning: Learners are active participants who construct their understanding and knowledge of the world through their own experiences.

Mental Structures: New information is connected to existing knowledge, helping learners refine their mental structures for better comprehension and recall.

Metacognition: Self-monitoring, goal-setting, and reflection helps learners manage their cognitive processes more effectively.

Assigning Meaning: Learning should be meaningful and relevant, facilitating deeper understanding of a subject.

Cognitive Load Theory: Extraneous cognitive loads should be minimized. Learning should be presented in a clear and organized manner to manage intrinsic load.

Learning Transfer: Learners should be able to apply knowledge and skills learned in one context to a new and varied situation.

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Areas of the brain responsible for learning

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Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980): Known for his theory of cognitive development, which outlined how children develop intellectual abilities through distinct stages.

Lev Vygotsky (1896 – 1934): Developed the theory of socio-cultural development, emphasizing the role of social interaction and cultural context in cognitive development.

Jerome Bruner (1915 – 2016): Contributed to the development of cognitive psychology with his theories on discovery learning.

George A. Miller (1920 – 2012): Known for his work on the capacity of working memory, proposing that an average human can hold seven objects in working memory.

David Ausubel (1918 – 2008): Known for his theory on meaningful learning and advance organizers. He proposed that new information is more effectively learned when it is related to existing cognitive structures.

Alan Baddeley (1934 – 2023): Known for his model of working memory, influencing our understanding of how different types of information are processed and maintained in short-term memory.

Richard E. Mayer (1947 – ): Known for his research on multimedia learning and cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML).

Noam Chomsky (1928 – ): Famously known for his theory of generative grammar and contributions to our understanding of language acquisition. Chomsky's ideas on innate cognitive structures and language development have influenced cognitive theories of learning and knowledge representation.

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A middle school mathematics teacher breaking down a complex problem

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Scenario: A middle school mathematics teacher is helping her students understand polynomial operations.

Implementation: The teacher uses a cognitivist approach that incorporates schema theory, cognitive load management, and meaningful learning. The teacher helps activate and build on the students' existing knowledge (schemas) about polynomial operations before introducing new concepts. The teacher presents step-by-step instructions in a structured manner, gradually progressing towards more complex problems. She engages students in real-world scenarios, making learning more meaningful and relevant to their everyday experiences. The teacher also provides timely feedback on students' problem-solving approaches and helps them adjust their strategies.

Outcome: Students gain a deeper understanding of polynomial operations by actively engaging with the content.

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Observable and Measurable Learning Outcomes: Instructional objectives are specific and learners are expected to demonstrate competence.

Stimulus-Response Connections: Learning happens when associations are formed between stimuli and responses.

Reinforcement and Punishment: Positive and negative reinforcement is used to encourage learning.

Behavioral Objectives: Clear, specific, and measurable objectives are utilized. These objectives outline what learners should be able to perform.

Direct Instruction and Drilling: Practice sessions are utilized to ensure learners acquire the desired skills and knowledge through repetition and reinforcement.

Immediate and Specific Feedback: This is a key component of Behaviorism. This guides learners to change their behavior towards desired learning outcomes.

Task Analysis: Complex tasks are broken down into more manageable components. This way, learners gradually master more complex skills.

Classical Conditioning: Neutral stimulus is associated with meaningful stimulus to elicit a response while operate conditioning utilizes reinforcement or punishment to influence behavior.

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John B. Watson (1878 – 1958): Considered to be the founder of Behaviorism. Watson performed the famous "Little Albert" experiment.

B.F. Skinner (1904 – 1990): Central in the development of operant conditioning. Skinner was known for his use of the Skinner Box in understanding how behaviors are acquired and maintained.

Ivan Pavlov (1849 – 1936): Central in the development of classical conditioning. Pavlov was famously known for his experiments with dogs in demonstrating how conditional responses are elicited.

Edward Thorndike (1874 – 1949): Proposed that positive reinforcement decreased negative behavior. Thorndike's animal research laid the groundwork for later behaviorist theories.

Albert Bandura (1925 – 2021): Best known for his work on social learning theory that was influenced by behaviorist theories. His work showed how behaviors are learned by observing others.

Clark L. Hull (1884 – 1952): Developed a systematic theory of learning and motivation based on reinforcement principles.

Jerome Bruner (1915 – 2016): Made important contributions to understanding how learning intersects with behaviorist ideas, especially in structured learning environments.

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Scenario: An elementary school teacher is trying to encourage her students to finish their homework on time.

Implementation: The teacher sets a clear and specific objective, which is: "Students will complete and submit their homework on time." The teacher introduces a reward system to reinforce timely submissions. Each time a student submits their homework on time, they earn a point. This point can be saved and redeemed on Friday to "buy" a treat.

Outcome: Students are motivated to consistently submit their homework on time. The positive reinforcement and immediate feedback helps establish and reinforce the desired behavior.

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Active Learning: Learners are active in their learning process rather than passive participants.

Knowledge Construction: Learners build their own understanding based on their experiences and prior knowledge.

Social Interaction: Learning is viewed as a social process. Social interaction helps learners refine their ideas, gain multiple perspectives, and build a deeper understanding of concepts.

Authentic Contexts: Learners should be provided with real-world problems and scenarios that are meaningful and relevant.

Scaffolding: Temporary support should be provided to learners as they develop new skills or understanding.

Reflection: Learners are encouraged to reflect on their learning experiences and thought processes.

Problem-Based Learning: Learners tackle complex, open-ended problems. Learners should research, analyze, and apply their knowledge to find solutions.

Feedback: Learners need help to understand their own thought processes and strategies. They should be guided to self-assess their understanding rather than just providing correct answers.

Learner Autonomy: Learners should be empowered to set their own learning goals, make choices about their learning processes, and take responsibility for their learning outcomes.

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Learning is shaped by several key contributors and experiences

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Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980): Piaget developed the theory of cognitive development, which describes how children's thinking evolves through distinct stages.

Lev Vygotsky (1896 – 1934): His socio-cultural theory complements and extends constructivism by emphasizing the role of social interaction and cultural context in cognitive development.

Jerome Bruner (1915 – 2016): Contributed to constructivism with his ideas on discovery learning and the spiral curriculum. Bruner introduced the idea of scaffolding, which involves providing support that is gradually removed as learners gain competence.

Ernst von Glasersfeld (1917 – 2010): Known for his work in radical constructivism, which argues that knowledge is actively constructed by individuals based on their experiences and perceptions, rather than being a reflection of objective reality.

Seymour Papert (1925 – 2016): Extended constructivism by focusing on how learning is enhanced when learners create tangible objects in the real world.

David Ausubel (1918 – 2008): His theory of meaningful learning aligns with constructivist principles by emphasizing the importance of relating new information to existing cognitive structures.

Howard Gardner (1943 – ): His theory of multiple intelligences complements constructivism by recognizing that learners have diverse ways of understanding and interacting with the world.

Loris Malaguzzi (1920 – 1994): Developed the Reggio Emilia approach to early childhood education, which is grounded in constructivist principles. This approach is driven by children's interests and collaborative exploration.

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A science teacher presenting microorganisms to her students via microscopes

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Scenario: A science teacher wants students to understand the principles of ecosystems, including how organisms interact with their environments.

Implementation: The teacher uses a constructivist approach to engage students in a project-based learning activity. The teacher introduces the project by presenting a real-world issue related to ecosystems. Students are divided into small groups and each group selects a different local ecosystem to study. To deepen their understanding, students might design and conduct simple experiments. Students collaborate within their groups to collect data, analyze their findings, and discuss their observations. The teacher provides initial guidance on how to conduct research and design experiments. Each group creates a presentation to share their findings. Groups engage in a peer review process to provide feedback for one another. Students individually self-assess at the end.

Outcome: Students gain a deeper understanding of ecosystems and research impacts. The project builds cooperation in the classroom and students learn how to resolve real-world issues.