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This is a useful overview of where the Symphony came from and it's early development.

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Chord-generated melodies (those arising from arpeggiated triads, or three-note chords) abound in 18th-century symphonies, among which a number of stereotyped " theme families" can be distinguished. These furnished raw material for further development. In fact, composers' originality found expression not so much in their original themes as in the realization of the implications of those themes later in the composition. Certain tunes are by nature not highly implicative; they are perfect closed units that cannot be easily developed and so are superficially inappropriate for symphonic use. Such, for example, are many folk tunes, and this explains why great symphonists rarely use folk tunes without at least distorting them so as to open them to development. On the other hand, motivic melodies, such as those in the intermezzi, coupled with slow harmonic motion, lend themselves well to fragmentation, recombination, extension, elision, reharmonization, and other developmental techniques. By the 1740s, Italian symphonists had learned to sustain interest by these means and to obtain contrast by dramatically apposing tunes of different character in different keys (usually the tonic, or home key, and the dominant, located five tones above the tonic, or related major or minor keys).

Among Italians influenced by these factors was Tomaso Albinoni (significantly, a composer of 48 operas). The third movement of his Sinfonia in D Major, fifth of the Sei sinfonie a quattro (1735), displays a simple sonata form. Sonata form, crucial in the symphony's evolution, is based on the dramatic apposition and eventual reconciliation of contrasting keys. In essence it consists of an exposition in which one or more themes are presented, the first (often forceful in character) in the tonic key and the second (often lyric) in the dominant. Sometimes a third, closing theme follows in the dominant. The two key areas contrast not only harmonically and melodically but often in instrumentation, loudness, and texture. So-called monothematic sonata movements lack a contrasting second melody; indeed, it is not so much the character of the tunes but the dynamism of the opposed key areas that is essential to the dramatic structure. The transition between tonic and dominant areas was to become a focus of interest to later composers, but in early symphonies the transitions were brief and simple.

The exposition, often marked to be repeated, comes to a close on a key other than the tonic (usually the dominant) and is followed by a development section, beginning on the dominant, in which themes previously heard are reharmonized, fragmented, or otherwise reshaped. Again it is not melodies so much as harmonies that arouse tension in the development. The composer confronts the problem of returning to the tonic via more distant chords, and this is sometimes accomplished by modulations that bear no thematic relation to the exposition. In early symphonies this process is only tentatively exploited, and developments are brief, sometimes involving merely transposition of the original first theme to a new key. Later the development assumed the character of the meat in the sandwich, as it were.

Following the development comes a recapitulation of the exposition, this time all in the tonic key (before c. 1770 the recapitulation sometimes retained the key scheme of the exposition, except for the closing bars), resolving the harmonic tension of the development. The recapitulation may be simply a virtual repetition of the exposition, with appropriate key changes, or may be truncated, expanded, or otherwise varied so as to continue developmental processes. Many early symphonies take advantage of the implications of a varied recapitulation, literal repetition being abhorrent to imaginative composers. It will be observed that when both themes appear recapitulated in the tonic, the function of the transition between themes differs from that in the exposition, in which it leads from one key to another. After the 1750s, however, the first theme was often omitted in the recapitulation. Obviously, the recapitulation's tonal scheme allows extended treatment of the tonic, but sometimes a coda (tail) is added after the recapitulation to consolidate further the focal nature of the tonic.

It is important to understand that sonata form was subject to great variation and deviation from "textbook" norms throughout the symphony's history. Ideas of a "typical" sonata form did not evolve until about 1830. Nevertheless, the vocabulary of exposition, development, recapitulation, transition, and so on is capable of wide application and will simplify the remainder of the present section.

Albinoni's Sinfonia in D Major as a whole is forward-looking. The orchestra lacks a continuo, harmonic orientation replaces counterpoint, and the movements are of larger scale than typical Baroque dance movements. The central minuet-and- trio movement, surprisingly modern-sounding, contrasts lightheartedly with the sonata form. Minuets and song-form movements relieve the dramatic tension of sonata movements, and from this time on minuets appeared frequently in symphonies. Gradually losing dance character, they moved from the last or middle position to penultimate place when, later, a fast fourth movement appeared as finale.

A leading early symphonist, the Italian Giovanni Battista Sammartini, is known from some 77 extant symphonies, some of them available in modern editions. A prolific composer of instrumental chamber music, his use of incipient sonata form, restricted harmonic vocabulary, and motivic, not highly ornamented melodies pointed to the future. Though dependent on Baroque models for inspiration during his first period of activity (to c. 1740), he had abandoned the continuo by about 1760, filling the harmony instead with horns or trumpets-which, however, were restricted in their ability to play in certain keys and therefore operated to constrict the available harmonic vocabulary. More than many contemporaries, Sammartini infused inner parts with contrapuntal life, especially in earlier works, although he rarely used extended imitation. His rhythmic energy was appreciated by opera-writing contemporaries, from whom (especially the Italians Niccolò Jommelli and Rinaldo di Capua) he perhaps drew inspiration for the long, expressive cantabile (songlike) phrases that, along with a firm grasp of modulation, characterize his later works. His slow movements are especially rich. Another late characteristic is the extended role of wind instruments, which are given independent, idiomatic parts. Sammartini wrote for oboes, flutes, and bassoons among the woodwinds (bassoons doubling the bass line); clarinets were also in use at this time, usually interchangeably with oboes. Significantly, Mozart heard Sammartini's music during a visit to Milan.

A third Italian, Giovanni Battista Martini, renowned as a teacher and music historian, left 24 symphonies dating roughly between 1736 and 1777. There is remarkable consistency within this corpus. All but one of the symphonies are in the then-normal three movements (Sammartini wrote a number in four), and all have outer movements in a major key, whereas the middle slow movements are nearly always minor. Music of the Classical period greatly favours major keys; according to one investigator, all but about 2 percent of 18th-century symphonies are major (excepting their expressive slow movements). Martini, although trained in counterpoint, avoided it in these works, favouring instead a treble-dominated texture over a simple, slow-moving bass. His chord vocabulary was restricted, his orchestration elementary. His melodies reflect a number of banal formulas in current use, but his manipulation and development of these formulas was skillful. Mozart visited Martini several times in Bologna in 1770.

In the hands of these and other Italian composers, symphonic style evolved considerably by 1740, and there was continued fruitful experimentation through the 1750s. That Italians influenced contemporary and later German and, especially, Austrian symphonists cannot be doubted, but the extent of indebtedness and mutual influence cannot now be fully determined, because of the scarcity of available scores. Relatively few of the surviving early symphonies have appeared in reliable modern editions, and those known to survive in manuscript represent but a fraction of the thousands composed. The early history of the symphony remains, therefore, a matter of speculation and debate, despite the enormous progress in research and publication since the mid-20th century.

Germany and Austria were important centres of symphonic composition after about 1740. In Mannheim, Germany, the Bohemian Johann Wenzel Stamitz developed a remarkably well-trained orchestra that by 1756 comprised (in addition to 30 strings) four horns, pairs of flutes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons, trumpets, and timpani. With this ensemble, independent wind writing and creative orchestration flourished. Stamitz-himself a violinist and composer of more than 70 symphonies, chiefly mature works-and his contemporary Ignaz Holzbauer evolved a bold style born of the confluence of Italian melody and German seriousness. Counterpoint is abandoned; expression arises from orchestral crescendos and diminuendos (anticipated by Jommelli), characteristic melodic effects such as sighing appoggiaturas (short ornamental notes that resolve into principal notes) and rocketing arpeggiated (broken) chords, and strong dynamic, thematic, and textural contrasts. This style degenerated into mannerism with Stamitz's son Carl (composer of about 80 symphonies) and Johann Christian Cannabich, who enlarged the Mannheim orchestra.

Mannheimers paid special attention to their development sections, which have been described as a "mosaic of fragments." They tended toward incomplete recapitulations, wrote tender slow movements, and extended the number of movements to four-allegro (lively), andante (slow), minuet, and presto (rapid). Insisting on disciplined and precise performance, they wrote all parts out in full instead of leaving some to be realized by the players. With the rise of independent wind parts after about 1770, the continuo became redundant and was abandoned; in outdoor music and in huge orchestras it had become inaudible anyway. Musical textures, which in early works were equally appropriate for string quartet or orchestra, became truly symphonic. Holzbauer occasionally features bassoon solos (as in the Symphony in E-flat Major, Opus 4, No. 3), liberating that instrument from simply doubling the bass. The elder Stamitz and Holzbauer were particularly highly regarded in Paris and strongly influenced symphonic activity there.

In Berlin and northern Germany another school arose, dominated by Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (a son of Johann Sebastian Bach), Johann Gottlieb Graun, and other musicians reared in a tradition of rigorous counterpoint and formal conservatism. Retaining three-movement format and avoiding strongly contrasting themes, they maintained contrapuntal interplay in the prevailingly homophonic texture. Even more than the Mannheimers, they concerned themselves with melodic development and ornamentation and with emotional expressiveness-an aesthetic approach they termed Empfindsamkeit (sensitivity). C.P.E. Bach's set of six symphonies commissioned by Baron Gottfried Bernhard van Swieten (completed 1773) aroused enthusiasm for their humour, technical challenge, and novelty of harmonic invention. Even more intensely passionate are the late Orchestral Symphonies for Twelve Obbligato Parts (1780), with their clever instrumentation and affective harmonies punctuated by unison passages. Reflecting the literary Sturm und Drang ("Storm and Stress") movement, the Berliners powerfully influenced Haydn and Mozart and even Beethoven.

Another son of J.S. Bach, Johann Christian, the so-called London Bach, was perhaps yet more important for the future, influencing Mozart, who met him in London (1764) and again in Paris (1778). His 50 or so symphonies lack the passionate gestures of the Berliners' but are finely wrought and sophisticated in melody and orchestration. The Sinfonias for Double Orchestra, Opus 18, reflect in their style galant tunes the influence of his study with Martini in Italy, as well as French and Mannheim characteristics ( galant was the 18th-century term for modern, light, elegant style). Numbers two and three of the set served as opera overtures. Simple in form, complex in texture, J.C. Bach's works are now considered to epitomize elegant, fashionable chamber music.

The style most influential on Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven was that of the Viennese school, headed by Matthias Georg Monn and Johann Joseph Fux's pupil Georg Christoph Wagenseil. The Viennese experimented further with orchestration and tone colour, emphasized the violin's melodic role, and displayed popular influence in their playful minuets. Monn, though perfectly at ease with counterpoint, ignored it in his symphonies. His four-movement Symphony in E-flat Major for pairs of oboes and horns, strings, and continuo is noteworthy for its wide dynamic range and gracious melody so characteristic of Viennese music. The first movement's first theme recurs in the recapitulation transformed into a virtuoso horn duet, reflecting the skill of the players at his disposal and the liberation of horns from a mere harmony-filling role. Elsewhere in the movement are found the slow, repeated-note bass and inconsequential viola part common in early symphonies. As yet the development is quite short and thematically limited, and the movement's scale is small-only a little more than three minutes. But as is often the case, the first movement is the most extended of the four, first movements having gained importance beyond the first movements of opera overtures. In later works Monn dropped the continuo and extended the role of the winds. Together with Johann Stamitz he has been considered highly influential in establishing modern symphonic style, although perhaps Wagenseil, an experienced keyboard player and opera composer, was a more successful composer, especially notable for skillful thematic construction and manipulation, working ornamentation into structure. Also active in Vienna was Haydn's friend Karl Ditters von Dittersdorf, who contributed no fewer than 115 symphonies.

The Viennese style became widely disseminated in Europe. As many as 25 Viennese composers migrated to Paris; others moved to Dresden, Mannheim, and Munich and even as far as Dublin, Saint Petersburg, and North America. Their style thus became truly international, and the innovations of these minor masters paved the way for the fully developed symphonic style of Haydn and Mozart. The music of the Viennese composers, mainly intended for elite entertainment, reflects the virtuosic attainments of many private orchestras and the cultured taste of aristocrats who commissioned a constant stream of symphonies and lighter chamber music.

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Symphony - Classical, Orchestral, Structure | Britannica

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Symphony - Classical, Orchestral, Structure: Chord-generated melodies (those arising from arpeggiated triads, or three-note chords) abound in 18th-century symphonies, among which a number of stereotyped "theme families" can be distinguished. These furnished raw material for further development.

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What was Sturm and Drang and how did it manifest in music?

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250 years ago, the Sturm und Drang movement captured the imagination of the German-speaking world. Composers used every technique at their disposal to express obsession, longing, terror, shock, and other intense emotions. They pushed the boundary of the art to darker and more dramatic places. As artistic movements go, Sturm und Drang was short-two decades at most-but in music it was a small dose of lively experimentation between two major stylistic periods: the Baroque and Classical.

Post-Baroque Confusion

It began in the 1760s. Music was at a crossroads: Bach and Handel died in the previous decade and with them the Baroque period ended. The old-fashioned style of thick, learned contrapuntal music lived on in academia and the church, but elsewhere composers were searching for change. The galant style emerged as the opposite-thin accompaniments and virtuosic melodies-and it flourished at the end of the Baroque but it was too limited both musically and expressively. The galant was more popular in Italy and France, where they tended toward beauty and virtuosity but not necessarily the same soul searching quality that Germans preferred. A sort-of backlash began toward dark, emotional themes and shocking musical effects.

Anti-Enlightenment Werther

At roughly the same time, a new movement began in literature that challenged the order and rationality of the Enlightenment, the prevailing philosophy at the time. It celebrated subjectivity and, like in the music world, tended toward the macabre. The name came from the play Der Wirrwarr, oder Sturm und Drang(Confusion, or Storm and Stress) by Friedrich Maximilian von Klinger but Goethe was the most famous author. His book The Sorrows of Young Werther, about a young man who falls in love with a woman he can't marry and then commits suicide, was wildly popular and defined a new type of passionately lovesick man.

Wie oft lull' ich mein empörtes Blut zur Ruhe, denn so ungleich, so unstet hast du nichts gesehn als dieses Herz. Lieber! Brauch' ich dir das zu sagen, der du so oft die Last getragen hast, mich vom Kummer zur Ausschweifung und von süßer Melancholie zur verderblichen Leidenschaft übergehen zu sehn? Auch halte ich mein Herzchen wie ein krankes Kind; jeder Wille wird ihm gestattet."
- Die Leiden des jungen Werthers, Goethe

"Often do I strive to allay the burning fever of my blood; and you have never witnessed anything so unsteady, so uncertain, as my heart. But need I confess this to you, my dear friend, who have so often endured the anguish of witnessing my sudden transitions from sorrow to immoderate joy, and from sweet melancholy to violent passions? I treat my poor heart like a sick child, and gratify its every fancy."
- The Sorrows of Young Werther, Goethe

Men dressed like Werther, acted like him, and a string of copycat suicides may have even been inspired by the novel. Goethe had mixed feelings about the Wertherphenomenon, but it defined the time. In the Sturm und Drang, the artist's emotional world, messy as it was, was just as important as the physical world.
"The Shipwreck" by Claude Joseph Vernet, 1772
There was no recognized Sturm und Drang period in visual art. The painters Fuseli and Vernet never thought of themselves as connected to it. However, a similar anti-Enlightenment attitude toward dark, dramatic themes like nightmares, shipwrecks, and storms prevailed through much of the second half of the 18th century.

Another Anti-Hero Shakes Things Up

In contrast, Sturm und Drangin music was a less defined movement than in literature but more so than in visual art. It was a time of change. Composers were trying on different techniques and finding influence in various places but nothing quite fit. As early as 1761, Gluck's Don Juanpremiered in Vienna with a startling portrayal of the title character's descent into hell. The terror in the music inspired and challenged composers for a generation-it was a real moment in music history. Mozart wrote a fair bit of Sturm und Dranginspired music for the theatre under Gluck's influence and the Don Juanfinale was still in the popular imagination in 1787 when Mozart wrote Don Giovanni.

Sturm und Drang music was a natural fit for the theatre but its dramatic effects were soon showing up in instrumental music too. Haydn embraced the new style. The aesthetic showed up first in his symphonies of the late 1760s and then in the string quartets in the first years of the 1770s.

The String Quartet in F minor, Op. 20, No. 5 from 1772 is one of the most famous of the 18 quartets Haydn wrote during that time and, being in a minor key, one of the most dramatic. It takes inspiration from many of the different trends that were percolating at that time, both old and new.
First three measures of Op. 20, No. 5, Mvt. 1
In the first three movements, the virtuosic first violin part has the melody throughout with some assistance from the second violin. The thin-textured accompaniment and occasional commentary from the other instruments are reminiscent of the galant style.

The finale is an elaborate double fugue in the Baroque style

First line of Op. 20, No. 5, Mvt. 4

But the depth of feeling and theatrical effects are from the new Sturm und Drang.

"Haydn was as interested as anyone else in the disruptive and shocking effects of the music of the 1760s: he retained a taste for such effects to the end of his life, remaining a master of the surprise modulation, the dramatic silence, the asymmetrical phrase; and he added to this aptitude for the facetious that no other composer enjoyed."
-The Classical Style, Charles Rosen

Arguably, Haydn's most ambitious piano sonata from this period was the C minor (Hob. VXI: 20) from 1771. Not coincidentally, it's also in a minor key. It has some of the same effects that Rosen mentions, like the dramatic silence, and some effects that are unique to the piano, like a remarkable cross-hands section.

Music's Sturm und Drang period was brief but hugely influential. It was the last period before the full Classical style and a last burst of dramatic experimentation. Just as Goethe moved on to Weimar Classicism in the 1780s, Haydn too moved into a Classical period-and he eventually brought most of European music with him.

Article by Laura Keller.

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250 years ago, the Sturm und Drang movement captured the imagination of the German-speaking world. Composers used every technique at their disposal to express obsession, longing, terror, shock, and other intense emotions. They pushed the boundary of the art to darker and more dramatic places.

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Here's my boi

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Beethoven Symphony Basics at ESM - Eastman School of Music

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Long regarded as one of the world’s premiere schools of music, the Eastman School of Music offers a uniquely inspiring array of artistic, scholarly, and creative opportunities. Situated in the heart of downtown Rochester, the home of the world-renowned Rochester Philharmonic, Eastman’s stellar faculty, enduring legacy and entrepreneurial edge place our students at the spark point where great music is made to matter.

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An in-depth analysis of movement III

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This is the really detailed teaching notes for Mendelssohn's Italian - try not to feel overwhelmed!!

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Overview of LOADS of symphonies with simple notes

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Overview of LOADS of symphonies with simple notes

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This is a brilliant website where a music teacher has published tonnes of notes on a whole range of different symphonies, especially for our specification.

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These pages offer a selective listening guide to some key milestones in the development of the symphony from 1750 to 1900 for the purposes of the Eduqas A level Area of Study A and in particular for writing the 15-mark essay. It is not a comprehensive history but a brief summary of works that can be used as examples for discussing the development of the symphony in the Classical and Romantic eras (a very short history of the symphony - external link).

At the bottom of this page are a list of broad essay topics outlined in the specification and referred to in the detailed notes on each symphony.

Early Classical

The Galant style originated in France. In comparison to the late Baroque (Bach, Telemann, Handel etc.) textures and harmony were simpler and phrasing more regular. The style strongly influenced composers such as Johann Stamitz, C.P.E Bach and Haydn.

Johann Stamitz (study guide p. 47) was also the leading composer and conductor at the court of Mannheim, which became famous for its energetic rhythms, strong thematic material and powerful use of the orchestra. The influence of this sort of writing can still be seen in Haydn's Symphony 104 (the driving tonic filler material after the first subject in the opening movement, for example).

The Empfindsamer Stil or 'senstitive style') is another early Classical movement, but one which made greater use of dramatic contrasts and chromaticism in order to provoke a strong emotional reaction in the listener.

Mature Classical

Mature Classical is the term used to describe the music typical of Haydn, Mozart and early Beethoven. In this repertoire the Classical orchestra is established as is the four-movement pattern starting with a movement in sonata form followed by a slower movement, a Minuet and a lively finale. The relative predictability of the well-established patterns of Classical music allow composers to play humorous (or sometimes dramatic) games with the listener ( click here for some Haydn humour).

Whilst Haydn's earliest symphonies had tended to be relatively light-hearted showpieces, he started to incorporate more complexity and drama into his works as the symphony as a genre began to be taken more seriously. Influences of the literary Sturm und drang (storm and stress) movement can be found in certain works of Haydn, Mozart and others around 1770. The music tends to be in stormy minor keys and use syncopated rhythms (it is worth noting that although this has been part of music history books for a long time, the dates don't really add up for the literary style to have directly influenced the musical one as they emerged at pretty much the same time).

In their later symphonies, Haydn and Mozart both added more instruments (in particular Clarinets, trumpets and timpani) and their harmony, use of contrapuntal devices and handling of symphonic structure became ever more bold and sophisticated.

The works of Beethoven straddle the mature Classical and Early Romantic periods. Starting in the early 1800s Beethoven began to break new ground in several ways: length of movements, complexity, size of orchestra, increased energy and drama, and a dramatic narrative style. His symphonies were extremely influential, with composers taking their lead from different aspects of his works as discussed below.

One aspect of Beethoven's music was the way it took the basics of the Classical style (simple diatonic themes, clear structures and emphatic cadences) and made them both monumental and dramatic (mostly by increasing the volume and the scale). This is seen particularly clearly in his third symphony, the 'Eroica' which begins with a simple theme based on arpeggios and turns it into a powerful drama. Beethoven's famous fifth symphony is similarly monumental and the composer makes the blazing C major last movement the culminating triumph of a work that starts in a stormy C minor.

1804 - Beethoven Symphony No. 3 (Eroica)

1808 - Beethoven Symphony No. 5

Two other Beethoven symphonies that had a particular impact on later composers were his sixth and ninth. The 'pastoral' programme of the sixth symphony with its bubbling stream, storm and dancing shepherds inspired and helped justify those who wanted to bring more concrete drama and story telling into the symphony. The famous Ninth, on the other hand, was such a monumental work (ending with a huge choral finale) that many composers felt quite intimidated by the task of writing symphonies that could match up to it. It is also worth mentioning Beethoven's Eighth symphony (1812) for its gentler minuet movement.

1808 - Beethoven Symphony No. 6 (Pastoral)

1823 - Beethoven Symphony No. 9 (Choral)

Early Romantic

Early Romantic (up to around 1830 - discussed on p. 60 of study guide). Schubert and Mendelssohn are early Romantic composers who continued to develop the symphony, using a similar sized orchestra to Beethoven and continuing to compose within the conventional classical forms and styles. However, they were a bit more adventurous (particularly in harmony and structure) and both were masters of writing attractive, lyrical melodies. Mendelssohn's symphonies often have an overall program but it tends to be quite vague (e.g. 'Scottish', 'Italian', 'Reformation')

1815 - Schubert Symphony No. 3

1816 - Schubert Symphony No. 5

1833 - Mendelssohn Symphony No, 4 (Italian) [this is another set work - see separate notes on Moodle]

1842 - Mendelssohn Symphony No. 3 (Scottish)

Later Romantic

Later Romantic (1830 onwards - p. 62 of study guide). Berlioz, Liszt and later Strauss all pushed the boundaries of the traditional symphony with much increased programmatic content and development of the orchestra - in the case of the second two they largely abandoned the symphony in favour of the tone poem, which offered a freer form within which to unfold their ideas. Schumann and Brahms, on the other hand, largely developed their ideas within a more traditional symphonic framework as did the later Tchaikovsky. Some later Romantic composers took inspiration from the folk music of their countries, using dance rhythms and folk-like melodies ( Dvorak's symphonies and Smetana's tone poems are good examples). Bruckner and, slightly later, Mahler vastly increased the scale and proportion of their symphonies, with Mahler's third, for example, weighing in at nearly 1 ½ hours, compared to a bit more than twenty minutes for a typical Mozart or Haydn symphony.

1830 - Berlioz Symphonie Fantastique

1834 - Berlioz Harold in Italy

1850 - Schumann Symphony No. 3 (Rhenish)

1854 - Liszt, Les Preludes, No. 3

1874 - Bruckner Symphony No. 4 (Romantic)

1883 - Brahms Symphony No. 3

1885 - Brahms Symphony No. 4

1888 - Strauss Don Juan

1888 - Mahler Symphony No. 1

1888 - Tchaikovsky Symphony No. 5

1889 - Dvorak Symphony No. 8

1893 - Dvorak Symphony No. 9 (New World)

1893 - Tchaikovsky Symphony No. 6 (Pathetique)

1894 - Mahler Symphony No. 2

The detailed notes on symphonies are organised according to the following broad topics:

A) Overall form
B) First movements / Sonata form
C) Second movements / slow movements
D) Third movements / Minuets
E) Fourth movements / Finales
F) Development of the orchestra
G) Development of harmony and tonality
H) Humour, drama, narrative and programme
I) Melody and theme
J) Texture
K) Rhythm
L) Dance, folk and national styles

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These pages offer a selective listening guide to some key milestones in the development of the symphony from 1750 to 1900 for the purposes of the Eduqas A level Area of Study A and in particular for writing the 15-mark essay. It is not a comprehensive history but a brief summary of works that can...

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This is a nice place to start when learning about the origin of the Symphony.

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Music can express almost anything. And when it comes to musical expression, there is arguably no better vehicle than the symphony. But have you ever wondered what a symphony is?

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Remember, Haydn has its own analysis question AS WELL as being in the essay. This covers all four movements.

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For Eduqas A level music