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Coral (RESEARCHED BY: Chelsea Nicole B. Kansi)

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URL:
https://open.spotify.com/episode/11HE97hX9PNthTjN2X6qj7?si=8RMGz5umQrC1hf7Ya0UICA

TITLE: Coral

AUTHOR: Peyton Taylor

DATE PUBLISHED: November 6, 2020

KEY POINTS
Coral reefs are one of Earth's most biologically diverse and economically valuable ecosystems. They play a significant role by forming a habitat in the ocean, being a food source, protecting the coastline from storms and erosion, and providing jobs and income to fishing economies. Most coral reefs are now dying due to a process called coral bleaching, which makes the corals look bland and lifeless compared to their standard, vibrant colors. Coral bleaching serves as one of the biggest threats to aquatic health. This podcast can be related to our SDG, because it serves as a guide to the negative impact of coral bleaching on the ocean and marine life; it also talks about the benefits of coral reefs not just in the marine biodiversity but as well as how we can benefit from healthy coral reefs.

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The Hidden Dangers of Plastics Pollution for Marine Animals (RESEARCHED BY: Dwayne Marcus S. Hernandez)

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URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HGxBRTV3ejo

TITLE: The Hidden Dangers of Plastics Pollution for Marine Animals

AUTHOR: Matthew Savoca

DATE PUBLISHED: February 18, 2022

KEY POINTS: The vlog talks about the harmful effects of plastic pollution on marine animals, particularly microplastics and nanoplastics. These tiny particles can be ingested by marine species and can contaminate their tissues. Plastic also attracts contaminants and marine life, making it appear as food. The importance of reducing plastic use, reusing items, recycling, and supporting environmentally friendly legislation is emphasized. This vlog is relevant to our SDG social issue since it highlights the dangers of microplastics and nanoplastics on marine animals.

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The Hidden Dangers of Plastics Pollution for Marine Animals

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IAEA's NUTEC Plastics Featured at INC-2 Meeting, Working Towards International Legally Binding Instrument on Plastic Pollution (RESEARCHED BY: Chelsea Nicole B. Kansi)

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URL: https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/iaeas-nutec-plastics-featured-at-inc-2-meeting-working-towards-international-legally-binding-instrument-on-plastic-pollution

TITLE: IAEA’s NUTEC Plastics Featured at INC-2 Meeting, Working Towards International Legally Binding Instrument on Plastic Pollution

AUTHOR: Ellie McDonald, IAEA Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications

DATE PUBLISHED: June 5, 2023

KEY POINTS

According to the international news report, plastic pollution in the ocean poses a significant threat, with one garbage truck of plastic entering the ocean every minute. The IAEA then emphasized its NUTEC Plastics initiative during a recent gathering on plastic pollution. The event aimed to shape an international treaty on plastic pollution by 2024. The Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC-2) met in Paris to define the instrument's features and scope, focusing on reducing plastic waste throughout its lifecycle. The IAEA's NUTEC Plastics initiative addresses ocean plastic pollution, emphasizing new recycling technologies. This article relates to our SDG, the plastic pollution in the ocean.

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The IAEA highlighted its NUclear TEChnology for Controlling Plastic Pollution (NUTEC Plastics) initiative at last week's major gathering of scientists, policymakers and civil society representatives working towards the end of plastic pollution and a globally concerted effort to forge an international legally binding instrument on plastic pollution, including in the marine environment, by 2024.

Held from 29 May to 2 June in Paris, France, the second session of the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC-2) on Plastic Pollution was held to define the main features and possible scope of the future instrument, as well as to build upon previously outlined frameworks to curtail the amount of plastic waste generated by human activities and establish work streams to support monitoring programs and analytical research. The committee was formed in 2022 to develop a treaty to address the full lifecycle of plastic - from source to sea.

A side event co-organized with partners featured the IAEA's NUTEC Plastics initiative, aimed at facilitating cooperation to fight plastic pollution on two fronts: on land, at the point of source, by introducing new technologies to improve plastic recycling; and in the ocean, where the bulk of plastic waste ends up.

The side event brought together speakers from civil society, government and public and private research bodies to exchange insights on potential solutions to mitigate current levels of plastic pollution and key considerations for negotiators of the INC process to prevent further damage to ocean health from microplastic pollution.
One truck of plastic dumped into the ocean - every minute
Plastic pollution in the ocean is a threat to the health of the ocean and the organisms that rely on it. Every minute of every hour of every day, the equivalent of one garbage truck of plastic is dumped into the ocean. This plastic can then be ingested by marine organisms or leach chemicals into seawater, endangering the health of marine plants and corals. Microplastic pollution presents particular challenges, as their variety in size and shapes and lack of concrete visibility requires more resources to assess.

Additionally, while scientific research on the prevalence of microplastics has made great strides since the introduction of plastics into terrestrial and marine environments, this progress has not kept up with the expanding diversity of microplastics and their respective capacities to adsorb and leach harmful chemicals. Potentially more concerning, even less research exists on the additives and co-formulants that leach out of plastic products; additives such as flame retardants, which keep household items from catching on fire, but can cause harm to human health if ingested.

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IAEA's NUTEC Plastics Featured at INC-2 Meeting, Working Towards International Legally Binding Instrument on Plastic Pollution

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The IAEA highlighted its NUclear TEChnology for Controlling Plastic Pollution (NUTEC Plastics) initiative at last week's INC-2 Meeting that gathered scientists, policymakers and civil society representatives working towards the end of plastic pollution and a globally concerted effort to forge an international legally binding instrument on plastic pollution, including in the

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The diverse marine ecosystem of the WPS: Observations from space - Philippine Space Agency (PhilSA) (RESEARCHED BY: Chelsea Nicole B. Kansi)

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URL: https://philsa.gov.ph/news/the-diverse-marine-ecosystem-of-the-wps-observations-from-space/

TITLE: The diverse marine ecosystem of the WPS: Observations from space.

AUTHOR: Philippine Space Agency

DATE PUBLISHED: July 6, 2021

KEY POINTS
According to the national news article, the West Philippine Sea (WPS) is a vital marine ecosystem, contributing 30% of the nation's coral reefs and 27% of commercial fisheries production. Its ecosystem is vital in global biogeochemical cycling, offering crucial ecosystem services. Satellite remote sensing, initiated in the 1970s, is instrumental in monitoring the WPS, providing a global perspective on changing patterns impacting human activities. Satellite images track changes in island features, particularly expanding reclaimed areas like port construction and airstrip repair, monitoring, proactive evaluation of infrastructure projects, and potential investigations into environmental impacts on the coastal ecosystem. This article can be connected to our research topic, life below water, because it discusses how nature works and the impact of human actions.

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The West Philippine Sea (WPS) is home to a diverse marine ecosystem that comprises an estimated 30% of the coral reef in the country with its Kalayaan Group of Islands [1]. It also contributes to around 27% of the country's commercial fisheries production [2], which serves as a crucial source to support the country's economy and food security. The whole marine ecosystem has structures and functions that play a key role in the biogeochemical cycling of the life's building blocks (nitrogen, carbon, oxygen, silica, and sulfur) and the overall biological productivity, all of which leads to ecological production of ecosystem services such as pollution control through carbon sequestration, habitat for many marine species, and shoreline stabilization and erosion control, among many others [3].

The ocean covers 70% of our planet that even ships alone cannot cover rapidly enough to provide a global picture. This is where the critical role of satellite remote sensing comes in. The appreciation of remote sensing on marine environment applications started as early as the 1970s with the promise of global coverage that matches the global nature of ocean processes [4]. With Earth observation satellites covering the Earth 365 days a year, it reveals vital information on changing patterns of behavior, especially those observed at the surface that impacts human activities. With our increasing ability to monitor the vast marine ecosystem, we can maximize our technological resources to protect the ecological integrity of the marine environment amidst the changing climate and man-made impacts.

The Philippine Space Agency, since its establishment in 2019, leverages previous research activities that demonstrate our capability to mobilize space data to address national security and development, and hazard management and climate studies. One of the PhilSA's current initiatives is to understand the ecological and economical functions of the WPS, a region that comprises ~40% of the whole maritime domain of the country. Through the utilization of space-borne data complemented by ground measurements, the PhilSA aims to look at key variables of the marine environment such as chlorophyll-a to measure ocean productivity, sea surface temperature to study the interaction between the ocean and atmosphere, and sea surface salinity. Weather conditions are also monitored through cloud imagery over relevant areas in the WPS.

The PhilSA, in coordination with the Space Technology and Applications Mastery, Innovation and Advancement (STAMINA4Space) Program, the Advanced Science and Technology Institute (ASTI) of the Department of Science and Technology, and the Institute of Environmental Science and Meteorology (IESM), is collaborating with the UP Marine Science Institute (UP MSI) to better understand the changes and critical processes in the WPS using relevant satellite-based information. Here we explore the added value of satellite imagery to complement the on-site data collection focusing on physical, chemical, and biological research. Satellite data with varying spatial resolution was used for different applications, from change detection to habitat mapping, for a wider scale perspective of the different key features in the WPS. Moving forward with the research collaboration, we pose several research questions that ultimately aim to shed light on the ecological processes in the marine environment and impacts of man-made influences across time. For now, we highlight several applications of satellite imagery, alongside observations, to emphasize uses on change detection, coral reef monitoring, and biophysical parameter assessment in Pag-asa Island, Lawak Island, and Ayungin Shoal respectively. We maximize the use of readily available images and other high-resolution images to extract critical information of WPS features at varying scales.
Historical data for change detection

Figure 1. High-resolution satellite images of Pag-asa Island highlighting the yearly changes associated with island developments ( e.g. port construction and airstrip repair), visible from space from 2019 to 2021 (earliest reference date 2017 and latest available date in 2021).
Image source: Planet
Image processing: STAMINA4Space

The added value of satellite information is demonstrated in its ability to capture images of the same location regularly. Utilizing the historical data from daily Planetscope images allows us to easily detect the changes in features of an island at a larger scale, compared to using ground information alone. With satellite imagery, never-before-seen images from this perspective show the extent of changes in built-up features. At a finer resolution of 3m, satellite images allow for easier identification of the island's distinct features as seen in Figure 1. Reclaimed areas have expanded in the past years as the island gets modified to accommodate the increasing presence of human activities. In particular, we are able to see the progression of port construction and airstrip repair. Having a better view of the changes allows us to not only efficiently monitor these developments and changes, but it also provides us with a quicker and a more proactive approach in evaluating infrastructure development projects in the area. In addition, the potential impacts of reclamation on the coastal ecosystem can be further investigated using satellite data.
Classification of benthic habitats
(a)

(b)
Photo courtesy of Dr. Wilfred John E. Santiañez
Figure 2. a) Lawak Island benthic habitat maps derived from Diwata-2 High Precision Telescope (HPT) images at 5m (left) cross-referenced with PlanetScope images at 3m (right). Different features are color coded to show distinction among seagrass (green), corals (yellow), bare (pink), shallow water (light blue), and deep water (dark blue); b) One of the examples of an on-site survey is a benthic survey of the coral reefs, conducted along a transect line with a camera mounted on a tetrapod to take actual photos of the benthic cover. This particular survey was conducted in Pag-asa Island taken on April 28, 2021 by Dr. Wilfred Santiañez.

Collecting field information in the marine environment can be very challenging due to additional constraints related to the actual collection on site and logistical concerns of field campaigns. The availability of high-resolution images led to an increase in the use of remote sensing approaches in studying coral reef habitats [5], as finer scales characterize reef features and allow observation of important events such as bleaching at a far distance. At larger scales, benthic habitat maps can provide insights in classifying the extent of different reef communities.

The Philippines' microsatellite, Diwata-2, provides finer resolution images at 5m using its High Precision Telescope (HPT) to generate classification maps (Figure 2a). Through satellite tasking, as Diwata-2 passes the area of interest, the camera can be pointed to acquire images of the specific key sites. Here, we were able to focus on Lawak Island, located east of Pag-asa Island. Simultaneously, PlanetScope images at a higher resolution of 3m were utilized to generate similar benthic habitat maps for cross referencing. The Diwata-2 classification map agrees with the PlanetScope with identified seagrass beds surrounding the island within its shallow waters, and coral reefs parallel to its shore. This demonstrates our capability to derive benthic habitat maps from high resolution data such as from Diwata-2.

Validation using on-site data collected from benthic surveys is necessary to improve accuracy and to create a reliable map (Figure 2b). Collaboration with UP MSI researchers conducting the field survey strengthens our understanding of these important features at various scales. Matching information between field data and remotely sensed images is key to ensuring consistency in the validation of the classification maps. This combined approach of on-site and remote information further provides an efficient assessment of the potential impacts of natural and man-made factors on ecologically and economically important areas in the WPS.
Assessing the spatial variability of biophysical parameters
(a)

Photo courtesy of Adonis T. Gallentes
(b)
Figure 3. a) Chlorophyll map from a medium-resolution image (Landsat-8) and corresponding Truecolor or RGB image show Ayungin shoal in different perspectives. b) In situ water sample collection by the UP MSI Expedition Team in Quezon, Palawan using Niskin bottle sampler, taken on May 8, 2021.

The importance of understanding the biological processes in the ocean cuts across several aspects, from managing fisheries to mitigating the impacts of harmful algal blooms. Through satellite imagery, we generate maps to look at the spatial variability of important parameters such as chlorophyll, which can be used as a proxy to assess water productivity. Here, we use multispectral 30m resolution images from Landsat-8 to estimate chlorophyll-a values. Higher chlorophyll-a values are generally observed in the inner part of the shoal, especially in shallower areas (Figure 3a). The higher chlorophyll-a values may be associated with higher productivity in these regions. With these spatial variability maps, we can prioritize areas for investigation and also confirm the information using water samples collected on site.

Satellite-derived parameters and products have uncertainties or errors. Global products such as chlorophyll-a are usually calibrated using ground data acquired from the US and European waters. However, the water characteristics in those regions may differ from our coastal waters, which may prompt a regional calibration for a more accurate product. More calibration points can represent the Western Pacific region, where coastal waters can be influenced by processes such as tectonics, exposure to waves, winds and ocean currents, tidal range and intensity of current, supply of sediment and its transport along the coast, and coastal climate [6]. Different water classes must be considered to further account these similarities and differences in coastal water properties. The data collected by the UP MSI during their expeditions add valuable sampling points for validation and calibration, which can improve the accuracy and reliability of the satellite-derived data products.

The PhilSA continues to work closely with MSI through integrated analyses of satellite and ground data for more robust understanding of the key variables of the marine environment. Outputs from the collaboration reinforces the added value of satellite imagery in complementing ground information, and most importantly, opens up new research opportunities. With calibrated satellite data, we can further look at the trends and variability of biophysical parameters to gain more insights on the oceanic processes in the WPS. This vital information can then be mobilized to address environmental concerns and climate change impacts as we come up with efficient approaches in managing and ensuring the sustainability of our marine resources.

References:

[1] Ong, P.S., Afuang, L., Rosell-Ambal, R.G. 2002. Philippine biodiversity conservation priorities: a second iteration of the national biodiversity strategy and action plan. Quezon City, Philippines: Department of Environment and Natural Resources - Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau, Conservation International Philippines, Biodiversity Conservation Program - University of the Philippines Center for Integrative and Developmental Studies, and Foundation for the Philippine Environment. 113p.

[2] Pauly, D., Liang C. 2020. The fisheries of the South China Sea: Major trends since 1950. Marine Policy, 121.

[3] Barbier, E. 2017. Marine Ecosystem Services. Current Biology, 27.

[4] National Research Council. 2011. Assessing the Requirements for Sustained Ocean Color Research and Operations. The National Academies Press.

[5] Eakin, C., Nim C., Brainard, R., Aubrecht, C., Elvidge, C., Gledhill, D., Muller-Karger, F., Mumby, P., Skirving, W., Strong, A., Wang, M., Weeks, S., Wentz, F., Ziskin, D. 2010. Monitoring Coral Reefs from Space. Oceanography, 23(4), 118-133.

[6] Inman, D. L., 1994. Types of coastal zones: similarities and differences. In K.F. Turekian and D.F. Boesch, chairmen. Environmental Science in the Coastal Zone, National Research Council, 67-84.

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The diverse marine ecosystem of the WPS: Observations from space - Philippine Space Agency (PhilSA)

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The West Philippine Sea (WPS) is home to a diverse marine ecosystem that comprises an estimated 30% of the coral reef in the country with its Kalayaan Group of Islands [1].

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Ocean's silent threat (RESEARCHED BY: Chelsea Nicole B. Kansi)

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URL: https://www.sunstar.com.ph/davao/local-news/oceans-silent-threat

TITLE: Ocean's silent threat

AUTHOR: David Ezra M. Francisquete

DATE PUBLISHED: December 9, 2023

KEY POINTS

According to the local news report by Sunstar, fishing nets are causing a major threat to Marine wildlife. Approximately 640,000 fishing nets lost/abandoned in the ocean have affected oceanic life, accounting for 10% of maritime litter. Around 1,144 mi2 (2,963 km2) of gill nets, roughly the size of Rhode Island, are lost at sea each year. Davao Gulf has thriving corals and hydra coral reefs spanning 308,000 hectares. It is a vital part of Mindanao's marine life and is classified as one of the world's biodiversity hotspots; unfortunately, approximately a 100-meter fishing net is found by Davao Gulf Divers and the Department of Environmental and Natural Resources-Protected Area Management Office (DENR-Pamo) in Punta-North, adjacent to the DGD Marine Park on Kopiat Island that has led to the destruction of corals and marine creatures. This article can be related to our SDG, for it talks about the destruction of fishing nets in the ocean that has greatly affected marine biodiversity.

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Despite decades of grappling with this environmental issue and recognizing its silent menace to our present and future, collective actions have remained elusive.

Debates persist over whether plastics are truly responsible for the demise of maritime fauna.
ALARMING STATS
A joint report from the Food and Agriculture Organization and the United Nations Environment Program (Unep) estimates that approximately 640,000 tons of these abandoned materials are strewn across oceanic life, accounting for 10% of oceanic litter.

4Ocean reports alarming statistics, indicating that each year, around 1,144 mi2 (2,963 km2) of gill nets, roughly the size of Rhode Island, are lost at sea.

Additionally, an estimated 84 mi2 (218 km2) of trawl net, equivalent to the size of Guam, and about 115,540 mi2 (739,583 km2) of longline mainlines are lost-an expanse that, in physics terms, could allow one to travel to the moon and back.
LOCAL ACTION
On November 25, Davao Gulf Divers (DGD) and the Department of Environmental and Natural Resources-Protected Area Management Office (DENR-Pamo retrieved approximately 100 meters of net abandoned by fisherfolks in Punta-North, adjacent to the DGD Marine Park on Kopiat Island.

Davao Gulf, home to thriving corals and hydra coral reefs spanning 308,000 hectares, is a vital part of Mindanao's marine life, classified as one of the world's biodiversity hotspots.

Unfortunately, a 2006 report indicates that Davao Gulf's coral reefs have deteriorated significantly, disrupting the dynamic system and posing a threat to marine wildlife, including toothed whales, dolphins, whale sharks, sea cows, and endangered turtles.

SunStar Davao interviewed the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources-Davao Region (Bfar-Davao Region) officer-in-charge Relly B. Garcia, who expressed gratitude for the report and emphasized the need for conservation and attention to Davao Gulf's coral reefs.

"Ito po ang unang ulat na natanggap ko simula ng aking panunungkulan bilang officer-in-charge regional director ng Bfar 11. Salamat for bringing this concern to our agency's attention. Davao Gulf is home to coral reefs that require conservation and proper attention, and we are looking into this matter (This marks the first report I've received since assuming the role of officer-in-charge regional director of Bfar 11. Thank you for highlighting this matter for our attention. The coral reefs in Davao Gulf demand conservation and proper consideration, and we are actively addressing this issue)," Garcia said.

In the Davao Region alone, there are 75 locally managed marine protected areas/fish sanctuaries covering 5,945.85 hectares with restricted fishing to manage, protect, and conserve marine resources. These areas face pollution, not only from plastics but also from fishing gear, making it challenging to identify perpetrators.
LEGAL GAPS
Bfar-Davao Region said that the Philippine Fisheries Code lacks specific provisions for abandoned fishing nets or gears, but stringent penalties exist for coral destruction and aquatic pollution.

"It is very important to educate the fishermen of the dangers of abandoning nets in the open ocean," Bfar-Davao said.

Unlike nets made from biodegradable materials in the past, modern synthetic materials like nylon can persist in the ocean for hundreds of years. When these gears break, marine life ingests plastic fragments, releasing toxins into the water.

Unlike other forms of plastic pollution, fishing gear is intentionally designed to harm fauna. While there are global laws addressing this, individual responsibility becomes paramount since there is no foolproof system to trace errant fishermen. DEF

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Learn about local conservation efforts and the legal gaps in addressing this silent menace. Dive into the urgent need for collective action to protect our oceans.

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URL: https://www.facebook.com/story.php?story_fbid=129096212848980&id=102406838851251&mibextid=WC7FNe

TITLE: Be the change you want to see in the world.
It starts with you.

AUTHOR: Carl Joseph M. Ocampo

DATE PUBLISHED: November 19,2021

KEY POINTS:
As seen on the advocacy poster, to protect oceans and marine life, one must educate themself about oceans and marine life, reduce carbon footprint by recycling, minimizing energy use, carpooling, and driving less. Properly dispose of waste by following proper disposal rules and being mindful of your waste. Additionally, make responsible sustainable seafood choices to reduce demand for overexploited species and protect the healthy balance of our oceans, as habitat loss and unsustainable fishing practices are causing rapid depletion. This advocacy poster is related to our SDG topic since it gives information about how we can help lessen the pollution in the ocean which is causing serious effects to the marine life.

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Dark Side of the Ocean: The Destruction of Our Seas, Why It Matters, and What We Can Do About It (Planet in Crisis) (RESEARCHED BY: Carl Xyruz L. Frias)

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URL: https://www.amazon.com/Dark-Side-Ocean-Destruction-Matters/dp/1570673942#:~:text=Bates

TITLE: Dark Side of the Ocean: The Destruction of Our Seas, Why It Matters, and What We Can Do About It (Planet in Crisis)

AUTHOR: Albert Bates

DATE PUBLISHED: August 10, 2020

KEY POINTS:
Albert Bates is a climate author who wrote "Dark Side of the Ocean: The Destruction of Our Seas, Why It Matters, and What We Can Do About It (Planet in Crisis)" and in the book, he explains the importance of the world's oceans in sustaining life in this planet. The ocean life maintains adequate oxygen levels, provides a vital food source, and many more benefits, however, it faces destruction due to irresponsible human activities. Bates wants to open the eyes of his readers into the current situation of the oceans and to aid in the preservation of ocean life. This book is related to our SDG topic since it sheds light to the issues faced by our planet's oceans due to the neglectful acts of humans such as throwing plastics and destroying marine habitats.

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PH urges world leaders to adopt ocean-climate solutions to safeguard marine ecosystems; creation of rules to govern deep-sea mining (RESEARCHED BY: Ashley Zach D. Rivera)

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URL: https://www.denr.gov.ph/index.php/news-events/press-releases/6007-ph-urges-world-leaders-to-adopt-ocean-climate-solutions-to-safeguard-marine-ecosystems-creation-of-rules-to-govern-deep-sea-mining-2

TITLE: Ph urges world leaders to adopt ocean-climate solutions to safeguard marine ecosystems; creations of rules to govern deep- sea mining

AUTHOR: Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR)

DATE PUBLISHED: December 03, 2023

KEY POINTS:
As stated on the article made by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), the Philippines has urged other nations to adopt ridge-to-reef approaches to protect and restore the 'blue carbon ecosystem', particularly addressing deep-sea economic activities like mineral extraction. Secretary Loyzaga stressed the need for further study and establishment of governing policies and rules at the "No Paris without the Ocean" forum at COP28.The Philippines is working to address the lack of knowledge about marine environments and their impact on climate goals and equitable relations between nations. The country has scaled up ecosystem-based adaptation efforts and nature-based solutions to manage coastal marine ecosystems across 36,000 kilometers of coastline and 2.2 million square kilometers of territorial seas. The government works with 35 nationally-managed Marine Protected Areas and supports local governments in managing thousands of protected areas. The high-level dialogue highlighted ocean's role in Paris Agreement success and ambitious partnerships for ocean ecosystem conservation. Secretary Loyzaga emphasized multilateralism, aligning efforts with goals, and urging global cooperation for future survival. The article is connected to our SDG issue since it talks about the environmental impacts of deep-sea mining and how it can severely impact marine ecosystems.

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Plastic Pollution in the Philippines: Causes and Solutions | Earth.Org (RESEARCHED BY: Ashley Zach D. Rivera)

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URL: https://earth.org/philippines-plastic/?fbclid=IwAR2gVHrkY9oK-Cj2Nak7EPwY1b6KHw0w9yVAJg2KodAmzjIsJ2QyhMpmLiM

TITLE: How Did the Philippines Become the World’s Biggest Ocean Plastic Polluter?

AUTHOR: Denise Ramos

DATE PUBLISHED: June 12, 2023

KEY POINTS:
Based on the content of the magazine article, the Philippines accounted for 36.38% of global ocean plastic waste in 2019, surpassing India. Most plastic waste originates from smaller water streams, with 80% coming from rivers. The Philippines has seven of the top ten plastic-polluted rivers, including the Pasig River.The Philippines, known for its diverse marine biodiversity, has a system of coral reefs, the "rainforest of the sea," which are essential for marine ecosystems. However, rising ocean temperatures and plastic pollution threaten these reefs, increasing the risk of disease transmission. Microplastics, smaller plastic particles generated through weathering and wave action, are also consuming these reefs. Nearly half of all rabbitfish in the Philippines contain traces of microplastics. The impact of microplastics on the environment and human health is still unknown, but they contain toxic chemicals. The Philippines' plastic pollution crisis is attributed to its small-quantity consumption culture and lack of access to proper disposal facilities. Large corporations exploit this, leading to a "sachet economy" and plastic pollution. Government mismanagement and inadequate enforcement of waste disposal laws contribute to the issue.Government intervention can address plastic pollution by following examples from Asian regions like Taiwan, China, and the Philippines. Taiwan has implemented legislation to protect its waters from plastic, while China has reduced plastic imports. The Philippines' Boracay island closure in 2018 led to a cleaner environment. Short-term efforts, such as increasing recycling bins and imposing fees, can lead to long-term improvements in environmental protection. The magazine article is relevant to our topic since it shows how big plastic pollution is in the country and how it is affecting the oceans.

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As summer vacation commences, tourists are bound to flock to the Philippines, a nation known for its iconic islands that house some of the world's whitest sands and most transparent waters. Unfortunately, the Asian nation has also made waves by being crowned as the world's biggest ocean plastic polluter. In this article, we dive into the persistent plastic pollution in the country's waters.
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Assessing Ocean Plastic Pollution in the Philippines

Contrary to popular belief, most plastic waste does not enter the sea directly. Conversely, it makes its way to the sea from smaller water streams.

According to a 2021 study , 80% of plastic waste comes from rivers and seven of the top ten plastic-polluted rivers in the world are in the Philippines. Pasig River even dethrones the previously most polluted river in 2017 , the Yangtze River of China.

How Does Plastic Pollution Affect the Environment?

Unfortunately, this centralisation of dependence is easily overthrown once coral reefs encounter threats such as rising ocean temperatures and plastic pollution.

By dumping plastics into the sea, these eventually enter our bloodstream. According to the United Nations, more than 51 trillion microplastic particles litter the world's seas, a quantity that outnumbers the stars in our galaxy by 500 times.

While we are increasingly aware of where microplastics can be found, we are still relatively in the dark about their impact on the environment and especially on human health. Yet, there is no doubt that microplastics contain highly toxic and harmful chemicals.
You might also like: 5 Coral Reefs That Are Currently Under Threat and Dying
What's Behind the Philippines' Plastic Pollution Crisis?

The Philippines has a peculiar culture of consuming products in small quantities. For example, instead of buying a regular bottle of shampoo, many people opt for sachets sold at local stores at a much lower price.

You might also like: 4 Biggest Environmental Issues in the Philippines in 2024
This highlights another problem: The lack of government action.

How Do We Fix This?

In the grand scheme of things, most of the causes of plastic pollution could be addressed with proper government intervention. Instead of feeding into the corporate agenda that maximises plastic production, the government could take notes from its surrounding Asian regions.

For example, Taiwan was responsible for a meagre 0.05% of global oceanic plastic waste in 2019, owing to numerous legislation to protect its waters from plastic that the country enforced in recent years, including the Marine Pollution Control Act in 2000 and the Action Plan of Marine Debris Governance in 2018. In 2020, the Environmental Protection Administration declared a ban on all free plastic straws and has now pledged to ban all single-use plastics by 2030. With years of revising and enforcing plans, Taiwan can now aim for bigger environmental goals.

Additionally, the Philippine government could extend its success from the six-month closure of its tropical landmark Boracay in 2018, following former President Duterte's order to carry out rehabilitation works to restore the island's pristine condition from pollution.
You might also like: 10 Plastic Pollution in the Ocean Facts You Need to Know
A survey conducted in February 2018 by the Philippines News Agency found that a staggering 716 out of 834 businesses had no discharge permit and were draining contaminated water into the sea.

As this example shows, short-term efforts can lead to long-term improvements.
Featured image: Wikimedia Commons.
Especially if aided by government measures, the actions of an entire nation can go a long way. By increasing the number of accessible recycling bins, people would be one step closer to classifying their trash. By imposing fees or even bans on the use or production of plastics, people would have no plastic to throw into the seas. By simply raising awareness, more Filipinos would act against plastic pollution.

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Plastic Pollution in the Philippines: Causes and Solutions

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The Philippines was crowned the world's biggest ocean plastic polluter. How did we get here and what are the solutions?

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From Land to Sea: The Effects of Ocean Pollution (RESEARCHED BY: Farhan Fredj S. Pasod)

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URL: https://www.behance.net/gallery/116182411/From-Land-to-Sea-The-Effects-of-Ocean-Pollution

TITLE: From Land to Sea: The Effects of Ocean Pollution

AUTHOR: Stephanie Phung

DATE PUBLISHED: March 25, 2021

KEY POINTS:
The infographic shows the alarming effects of ocean pollution not just to marine animals, but also to humans. The numbers on the infographic tells us just how large plastic pollution is on the ocean and how threatening it is to sea creatures. According to the infographic, around 70% of litter ends up on the sea, 55% of fish have ingested plastic, around 100 thousand sea animals die every year due to plastic entanglement, and many other horrifying but true statistics. The said infographic is relevant to our topic since it sheds light as to how big of a problem plastic pollution is to marine life.

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From Land to Sea: The Effects of Ocean Pollution

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From Land to Sea: The Effects of Ocean Pollution

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MediAction (RESEARCHED BY: Ashley Zach D. Rivera)

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URL: https://www.facebook.com/permalink.php?story_fbid=pfbid0MuSL76grU8DAapvMX6hbHEKjerbRTkZFaRaQgMjkT8M3xqrAxLmVNGuCj3KSqv7Cl&id=100092732821441

TITLE: MediACTION: Practicing Sustainable Drug Manufacturing and Disposal

AUTHOR: MediAction

DATE PUBLSIHED: May 21, 2023

KEY POINTS:
Based on the Facebook post, the SDG 14 of the UN's 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development aims to conserve oceans, seas, and marine resources, but water pollution threatens this goal due to industrial processes, agricultural runoff, untreated sewage, and oil spills. Pollution issues include water contamination, marine pollution, industrial pollution, and developing countries' lack of access to clean water sources, inadequate sanitation facilities, and weak environmental regulations, causing waterborne diseases and health issues. The project promotes sustainable practices in drug manufacturing, encourages ethical disposal of pharmaceutical waste, and advocates for stricter environmental regulations through public awareness campaigns and policy influence. This is related to our SDG topic since it informs people about the problems faced by the world's oceans as well as the possible actions that can be taken to stop and prevent these problems from happening.

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🌊 Dive into the Depths of Sustainability with MediACTION! 🐠💊 Join us in our noble cause of "MediACTION: Practicing Sustainable Drug Manufacturing and Disposal" and become a guardian of life beneath...

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Ghost Gear: The Abandoned Fishing Nets Haunting Our Oceans - Greenpeace International (RESEARCHED BY: Farhan Fredj S. Pasod)

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URL: https://www.greenpeace.org/international/publication/25438/ghost-gear/?fbclid=IwAR0D4sdadSA-9h8OfZITrDR1YTi2RQfd1gbrpg0X2K5zSzhUGMgRKF4kWW8

TITLE: Ghost Gear: The Abandoned Fishing Nets Haunting Our Oceans

AUTHOR: Greenpeace International

DATE PUBLISHED: November 06, 2019

KEY POINTS:
The article talks about the loss of fishing nets, traps, and other equipment that if still function, cause damage to marine life. These lost equipment cause damage to marine environments and can cause disruptions for people who rely on the ocean and its resources for their daily bread which can be seen among the people of Mindanao who rely on fishing.

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Pollution of the world's oceans is a growing and pervasive problem, and that is especially true of the increasing volume of ocean plastic. A staggering 12 million tonnes of plastic ends up in the ocean every year, the equivalent of emptying a rubbish truck into the ocean every minute. All plastic in the oceans can trap, entangle, smother or kill animals. However there is one particular type of plastic pollution that is especially deadly because it is specifically designed to catch and kill marine wildlife: Abandoned, lost or discarded fishing gear, or so-called 'ghost gear'.

Over the past few decades, the fishing industry worldwide has increasingly used plastic in ropes, nets and lines, as well as other fishing equipment. Plastic's lightness, buoyancy, durability and cheapness make it ideal for fishing. Unfortunately, the same qualities also make ghost nets and lines a fatal and growing threat to marine life, and the communities that depend on healthy oceans thriving with life.

Fishing gear can be lost by accident or abandoned at sea deliberately. Once there, nets and lines can pose a threat to wildlife for years or decades, ensnaring everything from small fish and crustaceans to endangered turtles, seabirds and even whales. Spreading throughout the ocean on tides and currents, lost and discarded fishing gear is now drifting to Arctic coastlines, washing up on remote Pacific Islands, entangled on coral reefs and littering the deep sea floor.

Download the full report: Ghost Gear: The Abandoned Fishing Nets Haunting Our Oceans

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Ghost Gear: The Abandoned Fishing Nets Haunting Our Oceans - Greenpeace International

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The Abandoned Fishing Nets Haunting Our Oceans Pollution of the world's oceans is a growing and pervasive problem, and that is especially true of the increasing volume of ocean plastic.

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Plastic pollution in the marine environment (RESEARCHED BY: Farhan Fredj S. Pasod)

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URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2405844020315528

TITLE: Plastic pollution in the marine environment

AUTHOR: G.G.N. Thushari, J.D.M. Senevirathna

DATE PUBLISHED: August 2020

KEY POINTS:
The research paper talks about the different plastics such as microplastics, macroplastics, and others. It talked about the different sources, where they could accumulate, and where they come form, all of this accumulated plastics then cause disruptions for the aquatic ecosystems and since some land-based ecosystems rely on the aquatic ones and with one being damaged, this leads to damage for the other one. This causes damage to species in each ecosystem, with some aspects of the ocean and land being relied upon by people for their livelihood. This research paper is related to our SDG issue since it informs its readers about the effects of plastics to the marine environment.

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Heliyon. 2020 Aug; 6(8): e04709.

Abstract

Plastic pollution is recognized as a severe anthropogenic issue in the coastal and marine ecosystems across the world. Unprecedented and continuous accumulation of growing plastic contaminants into any respective aquatic ecosystem by the anthropogenic sources causes direct and/or indirect interruption to ecosystem structure, functions, and consequently, services and values. Land-based and sea-based sources are the primary sources of these contaminants in various modes that enter the ocean. In this review paper, we focused on highlighting different aspects related to plastic pollution in coastal and marine environments. Plastic pollutants are distributed in the ecosystems in different forms, with different size variations as megaplastic, macroplastic, mesoplastic, and microplastic. Microplastics in primary and secondary forms reveal a widespread distribution in the water, sediment, and biota of the marine and coastal habitats. The microplastic level of different coastal and marine ecosystems nearly ranged from 0.001-140 particles/m ³ in water and 0.2-8766 particles/m ³ in sediments at different aquatic environments over the world. The microplastic accumulation rate of coastal and marine organisms varied at 0.1-15,033 counts. Accordingly, plastic pollution creates several kinds of negative consequences combined with ecological and socio-economic effects. Entanglement, toxicological effects via ingestion of plastics, suffocation, starvation, dispersal, and rafting of organisms, provision of new habitats, and introduction of invasive species are significant ecological effects with growing threats to biodiversity and trophic relationships. Degradation (changes in the ecosystem state) and modifications of marine systems are associated with loss of ecosystem services and values. Consequently, this emerging contaminant affects the socio-economic aspects through negative impacts on tourism, fishery, shipping, and human health. Preventing accumulation sources of plastic pollutants, 3Rs (Reduce-Recycle-Reuse), awareness & capacity building, and producer/manufacturer responsibility are practical approaches toward addressing the issue of plastic pollution. Existing and adopted policies, legislations, regulations, and initiatives at global, regional, and national level play a vital role in reducing plastic debris in the marine and coastal zones. Development of proposals/solutions on key research gaps can open a novel pathway to address this environmental issue in an effective scientific manner. In conclusion, this paper demonstrates the current status of plastic pollution in the marine ecosystem to make aware people of a plastic-free, healthy blue ocean in the near future.

Keywords: Aquatic ecology, Ecological health, Ecological restoration, Marine biology, Environmental analysis, Environmental assessment, Environmental hazard, Environmental health, Hydrology, Oceanography, Pollution, Microplastics, Plastic sources, Environmental management, Producer responsibility

Aquatic ecology; Ecological health; Ecological restoration; Marine biology; Environmental analysis; Environmental assessment; Environmental hazard; Environmental health; Hydrology; Oceanography; Pollution; Microplastics; Plastic sources; Environmental management; Producer responsibility.

1. Introduction

Marine and coastal environment acts as a highly productive zone that consist different kinds of subsystems, such as coral reefs and seagrasses. It is a complex environment with rich biodiversity ranging from various primitive (horseshoe crab) to the advanced organisms (dolphins). The marine environment is the vast body of water that covers 71 percent of the earth's coverage. However, the global ocean system divides into five major oceans and many seas based on historical, cultural, geographical, scientific characteristics, and size variations. Five ocean basins, i.e., Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and the Antarctic, are the most known marine systems invaded by humans. The Southern Pole (Antarctic) ocean basin was recognized as the fifth ocean basin by the International Hydrographic Organization. All ocean basins act as ecologically and economically important systems for the betterment of humans. Freshwater lotic systems connect with oceans and seas, creating unique, transitional ecosystems like lagoons and estuaries ( Reddy et al., 2018). The continental shelf of the marine environment is the mixing place of seawater and freshwater; therefore, this area creates a unique coastal ecosystem.

Marine and coastal ecosystems provide different priceless services and values for human wellbeing and other kinds of vertebrate and invertebrate organisms. Provisioning (the domain of food, fiber, wood, water, pharmaceutical components, oil, mineral sources), regulating (carbon sequestration, maintain water quality, climate regulation), supporting (photosynthesis, nutrient cycling, nursery and breeding grounds, oxygen production), and cultural (spiritual and cultural importance, recreation and tourism) services gained from oceans and coastal ecosystems are ecologically and socio-economically imperative. Due to the massive contribution by services of the aforesaid ecosystems on the human wellbeing component, this paper will mainly focus on emerging anthropogenic threats on the marine environment as an initial step to concern conservation and sustainable management of the aquatic environment.

Aquatic ecosystems are inter-connected with the terrestrial environment; therefore, changes in one system have impacts on another. For decades, different factors, including anthropogenic activities, have stressed the coastal and marine ecosystems ( Adams, 2005; Richmond, 2015). These stresses include pollution and the physical destruction of the environment. Debris or litter accumulation is one of the human-created severe threats on marine and coastal systems due to unsustainable development and construction activities. Compared with other categories of debris such as glass, cloth, paper, food waste, metal, rubber, medical/personal hygiene-related items, smoking/firework items, and wood ( Nualphan, 2013; Rosevelt et al., 2013), plastic litter is persistent in the ocean basins due to unique characteristics of plastics (e.g., the potential of ready transportation by water current and wind due to long shelf-life). Plastic debris with counts of five trillion, weighing more than 260,000 tones, is floating over the world's ocean surface as a result of improper waste disposal ( Eriksen et al., 2014). Currently, plastic pollution has become a serious concern over almost all parts of ocean basins irrespective of developed or underdeveloped regions in the world ( Figure 1 ).

The accumulated plastics in the ocean basins can be broadly classified into four levels based on their sizes: megaplastics, macroplastics, mesoplastics, and microplastics. Microplastics are found in commonly manufactured, commercial products such as personal care and cosmetic products or microplastic particles produce from in-situ environmental degradation and subsequent fragmentation of larger size plastics by physical, chemical, and biological processes ( Browne et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2018). Microplastics are mostly abundant in marine and coastal systems, while synthetic pollutants chemically interact with organic pollutants and metals ( Guo and Wang, 2019a). The density of microplastics also affects the distribution of microplastics in the water column. Polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene (PE) float in water due to low density of plastics, while polystyrene (PS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyamide (PA), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) with higher density do not float in water, but deposit by inclination through the water column ( Guo and Wang, 2019a). Accordingly, microplastic pollutants are widely distributed in every sub-zone/layer (pelagic and benthic) of coastal and marine systems. Salinity is one of the key factors affecting on chemical degradation of plastic. Hence, coastal and marine systems, which range at approximately 0.5-35°/00 (ppt: parts per thousand) of salinity, are highly susceptible to the formation of microplastics. Accordingly, scientific evidence of the distribution and persistence of microplastic pollutants must focus on ocean basins and coastal ecosystems to identify the nature of the emerging issue.

Plastic pollutants are abundantly accumulating in these zones with adverse effects on ecological aspects, including biodiversity, economic activities, and human health ( Galgani et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2018). Microplastics are ingested by different kinds of marine organisms ( Cole et al., 2013; Leslie et al., 2017). Evidence on microplastics in the aquatic environment ( Cozar et al., 2014; Martin et al., 2017) signifies the alarm on environmental issues by plastic pollution. They mark the importance of an integrated approach with international, regional, and national efforts as mitigatory strategies to improve plastic waste management by reducing the load of plastic garbage patches in the world ocean basins. Monitoring and dissemination of scientific information on distribution, contamination levels, sources, and possible effects by plastic pollution are required to identify management priorities and implementation of mitigation measures accordingly. Stakeholders should especially be aware of the current situation of the problem, degree of severity and harmfulness of the problem, novel trends, and present scenario and scientific approaches for strategies of prevention or reduction of plastic waste accumulation ( Law, 2017). Thus, scientific reviewing of plastic pollution in the ocean basin and coastal zones are essential to derive a clear overall picture. The systematic study of the sources, pathways, transformation modes, adverse effects, and sinks of plastics in the marine environment has been conducted only during the last decade ( Browne et al., 2015; Law, 2017). This study aims to address the above gap by comprehensively reviewing reliable scientific data on all aspects of plastic pollution in the marine and coastal habitats to give insight into protecting the world ocean basins and coastal zones. Hence, this review paper focuses on (I) seeking the sources of plastic pollution, (II) identifying the current status of the effects of plastic debris accumulation with a clear picture over the world ocean basins and coasts, (III) present an overview of the current situation and recommendations of initiatives on controlling plastic pollution at international, regional, and national levels, rules & regulations and legislation, possible management measures for the awareness of stakeholders such as politicians, decision-makers, researchers, scientists, environmental authorities, the general public, and industries, and improving the capacity building of stakeholders toward the plastic waste management.

2. Plastic accumulation sources

Plastic wastes are accumulated in the aquatic ecosystems directly and indirectly by different kinds of sources. Land and ocean-based sources are critical sources of plastic pollution in coastal and marine ecosystems through in-situ and ex-situ pathways. Major land-based plastic pollution sources are freshwater input, residential & domestic activities, tourism, and other economic actions, including harbor operations. Over 75% of marine plastic litter items are accumulated from land-based sources ( Andrady, 2011). Coastal zone is a highly residential, urbanized, and industrialized area. Thus, most local communities are aggregated in coastal zones. Accordingly, residential and industrialized activities are highly focused on this transitional zone. Air blasting and cosmetics used by coastal residents could directly discharge into the coastal zone. In some cases, these plastic containers are released into the wastewater treatment systems or drainage systems. Browne et al. (2007) revealed that a significant amount of plastic debris release or escape even from the treatment systems. After that, such plastic debris accumulates into the natural freshwater ecosystems such as river and streams or subject to leachate into the groundwater and finally end up in the ocean. However, lotic freshwater ecosystems with directional, fast flow rates mainly lead to the accumulation of plastic debris in coastal areas. For example, the plastic waste from two freshwater ecosystems is accumulated into the ocean system around California, and approximately two billion plastic fragments release into the sea during three days' time ( Moore, 2008). Primary sources of the microplastics accumulation into the Goiana Estuary, South America, are harmed river basins ( Lima et al., 2014). Furthermore, Thushari et al. (2017b) identified domestic wastes and coastal residential activities significantly contribute to debris accumulation in the coastal environment by in-situ waste accumulating method. Based on the records, tourism and recreational activities have also acted as one of the major sources of marine and coastal plastic accumulation into the ocean and coastal ecosystems. Thushari et al. (2017b) revealed that >60% of beach debris from selected beaches on the eastern coast of Thailand originates from tourism and recreation-related activities. Plastic debris in beaches carries into the ocean as microplastic fragments and secondary plastics ( Cole et al., 2011). In the urban beach of the northeast of Brazil, plastic pellets and fragments have been reported as contaminants. The main source of those fragments was the breaking down of larger size plastic debris accumulated on the beach, while the major sources of plastic pellets were from the operational activities of nearby port facilities ( Costa et al., 2010). Another potential cause of plastic pollutants is persistent fishing fleet, based on the literature records ( Ivar do Sula et al., 2013).

The plastic accumulation rate in the ocean also enhances from land-based sources with prevailing extreme climatic conditions such as storms, hurricanes, and flooding ( Thompson et al., 2005). Microplastic debris density in water collected from California was six times higher compared to the normal situation due to prevailing storm conditions ( Moore et al., 2002). As per Thushari et al. (2017b), the coastal debris level was lower in the wet season compared to the dry season in some beaches (e.g., Angsila) along the eastern coast of Thailand, due to dragging of coastal debris into the offshore or deep-sea region by strong monsoon during the rainy season. On the southern Californian coast, the average debris density level was approximately 18 times higher during a storm compared to the normal situation ( Lattin et al., 2004). In the western coastal water of Sri Lanka, an island in the Indian Ocean, the mean density of total plastic was recorded as 140.34±13.99 No.m −3 by number of items (count), during August-November 2017 (end of south-west monsoon), mainly by the sources of tourism and fishing activities ( Athawuda et al., 2018).

Plastic debris from the beach enters the ocean through coastal water currents. Sometimes, monofilament and nylon fishing nets are disposed of at harbor operations in the shore area and float over the ocean surface. Floated nylon debris drifts over the ocean at different locations by the effect of ocean currents ( Cole et al., 2011).

Offshore activities such as commercial fishery, navigation actions, waste disposal, and shellfish/fish culture are key ocean-based sources that contribute to plastic debris accumulation into the marine and coastal zones. Offshore fishing and aquaculture-related operations have been identified as a significant source of plastic pollution into the ocean basins and coastal ecosystems by the number of literature records. Damaged fishing nets and abandoned, lost, or discarded fishing nets (ALDFG) can enter the offshore by fishers during fishing operations.

Maritime and navigation activities are also another source of plastic accumulation in the offshore area of the sea. Marine vessels, intentionally or unintentionally, dump plastic litters into the ocean, with an accumulation rate of approximately 6.5 million tons per year into the deep sea by early 1990 ( Derraik, 2002). Thushari et al. (2017b) noted that shipping-related debris levels on the eastern coast of Thailand are significantly lower since that area is not close to the international maritime transportation route. Accidental disposal of plastic litter items during transportation through a terrestrial environment or ocean can cause the flowing of plastics into the sea directly or indirectly. Especially, improper use of plastic packaging materials causes the accumulation of plastic litter into the aquatic environment and the ocean systems ( Cole et al., 2011). Synthetic polymers have also been recorded in sub-surface plankton samples around Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago in the Equatorial Atlantic Ocean with an increase in average plastic densities. Plastic materials can be transported over vast distances by ocean currents ( Ivar do Sula et al., 2013). A study conducted by Pruter (1987) revealed that plastic pellet densities are 18/km ² and 3500/km ² in New Zealand coast (1970) and Sargasso Sea (1980), respectively.

Plastic can be categorized as megaplastic (>1 m), macroplastic (<1 m), mesoplastic (<2.5 cm), and microplastic (<5 mm) (defined size varies according to different literature records) according to size variations ( Wang et al., 2018). Another scientific literature categorizes plastic litter according to the different length ranges, as megaplastics (>100 mm), macroplastics (20-100 mm), mesoplastics (5-20 mm), and microplastics (<5 mm) ( Barnes et al., 2009). Mesoplastic is an intermediate size range between visible macroplastic and minute microscopic plastics. Larger size plastics visualized by the naked eye is called as macroplastics or megaplastics. A considerable portion of litter by land-based sources is accumulated in the oceans, and >65% of waste is composed of non-degradable macroplastics.

Plastics can enter the marine ecosystems as primary and secondary plastics. The larger plastic fragments sometimes directly release as megaplastic and/or macroplastic debris and convert into microplastics within the environment. Primary microplastics are the plastic debris manufactured with a microscopic size range, whereas secondary plastics are formed after exposing larger plastic debris for different forces and break down into tiny plastic debris. A fraction of the above light weight larger plastics floats on the sea surface, while the remaining portion with high density sinks into the benthic environment of the ocean due to higher molecular weight. Macroplastics are highly susceptible to degrade into micro size plastics by subjecting to different processes such as degradation (changes the state of plastic); photo-degradation, mechanical degradation, and hydrolysis. Biodegradability of plastics is also essential to understand their fate and destination in the respective environment ( Hartmann et al., 2019) and identify size variations of plastic pollutants accordingly after subjecting to degradation. Hence, we identified importance of scientific investigation on the aforesaid hot topic. Microplastic debris is known as plastic litter, observable only using a microscope ( Table 1 ).

As per Table 1 , microplastic is defined in several ways by scientists using size variations of debris. Microplastics can be further divided into two types as primary microplastic and secondary microplastic. Primary microplastics are the plastic types with a micro-size range and used for a specific purpose or a product. Primary microplastics are mainly used in manufacturing cosmetics (cleansers, shower gel), medicines, and air blasting medium ( Gregory, 1996; Zitko and Hanlon, 1991; Patel et al., 2009). Microscopic size Polyethylene and Polystyrene particles were observed in cosmetic products ( Gregory, 1996). Air-blasting technology also uses blasting of microplastic fragments such as Polyester in different devices such as engines, machines, and vessel/ship hulls ( Browne et al., 2007; Gregory, 1996). Manufacturing the above products using primary microplastics have rapidly increased during the very recent decades. Secondary microplastics are defined as the plastic debris resulting after the breakdown of macroplastic in the terrestrial environment and ocean ( Thompson et al., 2004). In the open environment, macroplastic fragments expose to chemical, biological, physical, and mechanical processes and change the typical properties of plastics such as structure and integrity. As a result, large plastics degrade into minute plastic fragments in the environment ( Andrady, 2011; Barnes et al., 2009). Fundamental forces leading to degradation of macroplastics are ultra-violet (UV) radiation (Photo-degradation) and wave abrasion physically ( Andrady, 2011). During photo-degradation of plastics, sunlight with UV rays subject to degrade large plastics through oxidation of polymer plastic and breakdown of structural integrity. In the beach ecosystem, macroplastic fragments directly expose to the sunlight, and the degradation rate is higher with the presence of more Oxygen ( Andrady, 2011; Barnes et al., 2009). The plastic fragments with reduced structural integrity are further exposed to the physical and mechanical forces such as wave turbulence and abrasion ( Barnes et al., 2009). Finally, macroplastics rapidly convert into minute particles during the degradation process. This process continues until plastics become microscopic in size, and microplastic fragments further cleavage into nano-plastic particles in some cases ( Fendall and Sewell, 2009). Oxidative characteristics in the atmosphere and hydrolytic properties of seawater (salinity) profoundly affect the degradation rate of plastics ( Webb et al., 2013), and a saline environment with prevailing lower temperature reduces the photo-degradation rate of plastics ( Cole et al., 2011).

On the other hand, biodegradable plastic acts as a type of microplastic ( Cole et al., 2011). Biodegradable plastics increase the degradation rate in composting bins under optimum conditions such as proper ventilation, humidity, and higher temperature ( Moore, 2008; Ryan et al., 2009; Thompson et al., 2004). A cooler environment without decomposing microbes (the biological process by microorganisms) reduced the degradation rate and caused the accumulation of biodegradable plastics in the ocean ( O'Brine and Thompson, 2010). The demersal environment is contaminated with microplastic pollution in Spanish coastal waters ( Bellas et al., 2016), and the presence of microplastics in the estuarine ecosystem was confirmed by the study of Abbasi (2018). According to that study, Musa Estuary, Persian Gulf, was affected by microplastic accumulation and recorded ingestion of highly abundant microplastic particles by both pelagic and demersal fish. The presence of high-density microplastics in demersal biota is associated with the occurrence of plastic debris in the benthic environment, which is the final destination of plastic contaminants by sinking in the marine and coastal environment ( Neves et al., 2015; Bellas et al., 2016; Jabeen et al., 2017). Microplastics in estuaries are subjected to change due to the dynamic conditions by different environmental factors such as wind, tide, residence time, the geographical location of the ecosystem, and the level of anthropogenic activities within the systems ( Peters and Bratton, 2016). According to Lima et al. (2014), vertical salinity gradient causes changes of the distribution of microplastics in coastal ecosystems, including estuaries. Recently, microplastic has been detected even in the traditional salt producing ponds in Indonesia ( Tahir et al., 2018).

3. Effects of plastic accumulation

The effects of plastic debris on marine life are within the diverse range and reported in several literature records. The degree of impact by plastic pollution on biodiversity is severe in particular marine systems, and it has been identified as one of the top threats on biota ( Gray, 1997). Debris accumulation and potential threats and emerging risks on biota by marine debris, including plastics, is a global concern, and plastic waste has a collective effect on the ecological level and economic aspects.

3.1. Ecological effects of plastic contamination in respective ecosystems

Entanglement and ingestion are some of the critical issues associated with macroplastic fragments. According to the records of Gall and Thompson (2015), >13,000 individuals representing 208 species and >30,000 individuals belonging to 243 species have encountered issues related to ingestion and entanglement by macroplastic fragments, respectively. Entanglement cases were mainly recorded between the individual organisms and fishing nets or plastic rope in fishing gears. Ingestion is highly associated with individual organisms and plastic fragments ( Gall and Thompson, 2015) ( Figure 2 ). However, the entanglement effect is comparatively higher than the ingestion by biota in coastal and marine systems. Entanglement and ingestion of macroplastic debris can be lethal or sub-lethal. As the direct results of entanglement or ingestion, coastal and marine biotic organisms die or get injured lethally. Sub-lethal effects cause reducing capturing and swallowing food particles, impairing reproduction ability, loss of sensitivity, the inability to escape from predators, loss of mobility, decreased growth, and body condition. Comparatively, sea turtles, marine mammals, and all types of sea birds are at higher risk of entanglement and ingestion by plastic pollution. Green sea turtle, Hawksbill turtle, Fulmar, Seals, Sea Lions, Puffin, Albatross, Right whale, and Greater shearwater are recorded species negatively affected by the above consequence ( Gall and Thompson, 2015). Fishing hooks are also highly ingestible plastic debris types in birds ( Hong et al., 2013). Hong et al. (2013) noted that Black-tailed gull ingested a hook and entangled in the fishing line by the attachment of head, neck, and wings, thus, failed in moving or foraging. They have also observed >0.1g of plastic content in the gastrointestinal tract of nearly half of the northern Fulmar population. In Norwegian ocean, Nephrops norvegicus, a commercially valuable lobster species, had recorded plastic filaments in 83% of individuals of the population ( Murray and Cowie, 2011). As documented ( Gall and Thompson, 2015), species categorized as critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable, and near-threatened under IUCN red list were negatively affected by the threats mentioned above by plastic litter accumulation. According to the records of Chiappone et al. (2002), 49% of hook and line and lobster traps were responsible for tissue damage, injuries, and death of sessile organisms in Florida Key. Findings of Chiappone et al. (2005) revealed the effect of debris from fishing hooks, and the line increased by 84% with negative impacts on poriferans and coelenterates, causing sub-lethal and lethal consequences.

Microplastic accumulation also causes complicated consequences on individual organisms and ecosystems. The density of microplastic is increasing in all oceans worldwide ( Thompson et al., 2009). Microplastic debris is possible in accumulating in biotic components, seawater, sediments, and coastline ( Athawuda et al., 2018; Thushari et al., 2017a; Zarfl et al., 2011) (Tables 2 and ​and3, 3 , Figures 2 and ​and3). 3 ). Lightweight, low-density plastics float in the water, and high-dense particles sink into the benthic system's bottom sediments. There are literature records on contamination of microplastic particles in sub-tidal and inter-tidal ecosystems and marine and coastal surface water ( Athawuda et al., 2018; Ng and Obbard, 2006; Collignon et al., 2012; Browne et al., 2011). The size of microplastic fragments is similar to the size of feeding matter, such as planktons and suspended particles ( Wright et al., 2013). This characteristic feature allows invertebrates to ingest these synthetic microparticles ( Figure 2 ). The benthic organisms and suspension feeders also feed on microplastics from bottom sediments and contaminated water (Tables 2 and ​and3). 3 ). According to Moore (2008), non-selective feeders collect and ingest all the particles within a similar size range of items without sorting through filter-feeding and/or deposit feeding ( Browne et al., 2007). Ingestion of microplastic by invertebrates depends on several factors such as feeding mechanism, type, shape, and quantity of plastic matter. Ward and Shumway (2004) reported that polystyrene microparticles are highly susceptible to ingesting by filter-feeding bivalves (Figures 2 and ​and3), 3 ), and Browne et al. (2008) recorded the translocation of polystyrene particles between the size ranges of 3-10 mm from the digestive system into the circulatory system of Mytilus edulis. Plastic particles with >80 μm deposit in epithelial cells of digestive tubules in the gastrointestinal tract causing adverse effects such as inflammatory issues on invertebrates ( Von Moos et al., 2012).

Table 3

Species

Ingestion Level

Location

Reference

Brown shrimp: Crangon crangon

1.23 particles/shrimp

Channel area and Southern part of the
North Sea
Devriese et al. (2015)

33 %

Pacific Ocean

Copepods: T. longicornis

77 %

Western English
Channel
Cole et al. (2014)

2.6 % of fish

Netherland

Fishes

205 counts (196 individuals) of 2233 gut contents

Paraiba and Mamanguape, Brazil, South America

Vendel et al. (2017)

Cathorop sagassizii
C. spixii Possatto et al. (2011)
Sciades herzbergii
33%
18%
18%

Goiana Estuary, Brazil, South America

Rock Oyster: Saccostrea cucullata
Periwinkle: Littorina sp.
Limpets: Patella sp.

7.2-2.8 counts/g

Southern coastal water, Sri Lanka
Wijethunga et al. (2019)

Various literature records are available on the accumulation of microplastic in invertebrate groups and vertebrates found on the coastal and marine environment ( Table 3 ). The microscopic size of microplastic fragments is characterized by a higher surface area: volume ratio and increasing the potential of transporting contaminants and accumulate in biota ( STAP, 2011).

Toxic chemicals such as Bisphenol-A (BPA), monomers, flame retardants, oligomers, metal ions, and antibiotics are incorporated with plastics, and these chemical substances can accumulate in the marine organisms that ingested plastics unintentionally ( Lithner et al., 2011). Fish, mollusks, and mammals have potentially toxic effects by flame retardants and phthalates incorporated in plastics ( Teuten et al., 2009; Oehlmann et al., 2009). Based on experimental conditions, BPA and phthalate in plastic causes significant impacts on reproduction, genetic mutations, and growth of organisms ( Oehlmann et al., 2009). Similarly, natural populations cause substantial negative consequences due to the presence of above toxic substances in their diet or surrounding environment. On the other hand, plastic materials can absorb persistent toxic chemical substances with bio-accumulation potential. Such kinds of major toxic substances are Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), which are highly resistant to biodegradation. POPs include DDT like Organochlorine pesticides, by-products of many industrial processes such as dioxins, i.e., Polychlorinated Dibenzo-p-Dioxins (PCDD) and Dibenzo Furans (PCDF), and industrial chemicals like Poly-Chlorinated Biphenyls (PCB). Absorbance efficiency of persistent chemicals into plastic materials is significantly higher compared to surrounding seawater ( Teuten et al., 2009; Rios et al., 2010; Hirai et al., 2011). Contaminated plastic debris with this kind of chemicals has high potential in causing the transportation of persistent chemicals into the marine organisms via feeding. Literature also records the high potential of interacting antibiotics and metal ions with plastics. Both microplastics and Sulfamethoxazole (SMX) are ubiquitous pollutants in aquatic ecosystems; the reaction of these two contaminants with each other is recorded in the respective environment. As a result, the adsorption of SMX into microplastics reached equilibrium within 16 hours. Sulfamethazine (SMT) has the adsorption capacity into six types of microplastics: polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polyamide (PA), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polystyrene (PS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). However, the adsorption rate of SMX and SMT into microplastics gradually decreased with different environmental variables like pH and salinity ( Guo et al., 2019b, 2019c). These kinds of persistent antibiotics can cause adverse environmental impacts due to biological activity and antibacterial characters ( Dlugosz et al., 2015). The presence of antibiotic drugs makes changes in the population of microbes by proliferating antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) in the natural aquatic environment. This would cause hazardous health threats to humans and other aquatic faunal communities ( Baran et al., 2011; Hoa et al., 2011).

The microplastic also has an affinity with metal compounds and possible in causing eco-toxicological effects. The adsorption capacity of Sr ²⁺ on to three types of microplastics, i.e., polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), has been detected according to literature records. The total adsorption rate of Sr ²⁺ into microplastics is regulated by the external mass transfer step ( Guo and Wang, 2019d). Accumulated non-biodegradable metal ions in the ecosystems cause toxic effects in plants and animals even at lower levels, and heavy metals produce adverse health effects on humans ( Ntihuga, 2006).

According to Cole et al. (2013), toxic chemical compounds can accumulate in the organisms in higher trophic levels by ingestion of seafood contaminated with plastics and persistent materials, heavy metals, and pharmaceutical compounds. Accordingly, these chemical substances can enter humans through food webs, creating health issues.

Marine litter, including plastics, is useful as a habitat for aquatic organisms. Those artificial, hard substrates act as a new surface for assemblage and colonization of coastal and marine organisms ( Figure 2 ). Invertebrate species including bivalves, crustaceans, echinoderms, gastropods, bryozoans, coelenterates, insects, sponges, and polychaetes, seagrasses, and seaweeds are the major taxa using the substrate of litter/debris as habitats ( Gall and Thompson, 2015) ( Figure 2 ). Abandoned fishing gears, ALDF, and their parts are used as substrates for colonization of mobile and sessile organisms ( Good et al., 2010; Ayaz et al., 2006). Plastic debris provides functional habitats for different microorganisms ( Zettler et al., 2013). Vibrio bacteria have preferably grown on plastic debris in the oceanic system ( GEF, 2012), and marine plastic waste has also been used as new habitat by observed 47 associated marine species in the Maltese Islands ( Pace et al., 2007). Dispersion via plastic debris is another ecological effect caused by macro- and megaplastics. Plastic debris acts as floating objects and provides a stable substrate for rafting and transportation of mobile and sessile organisms. This effect acts as a mode of introducing invasive species into a new ecosystem. Ecosystem composition, structure, and equilibrium are totally modified due to competition for resources (e.g., Food, Habitat, and Space) between native and non-native species in such systems. Plastic debris acting as rafting agents are plastic fragments, fishing gear parts, nets, ropes, fishing materials, packaging materials, and microplastic matter ( Gall and Thompson, 2015). Crustaceans and Annelids are the frequently observed mobile organisms rafting via litter ( Goldstein et al., 2014). According to Goldstein et al. (2014), a diverse group of plastic rafting organisms was recorded from the western and eastern pacific oceanic regions during the 2009-2012 period, while 134 species belonging to 14 phyla were attached to the substrate of plastic buoys originated from aquaculture operations along the south-eastern Pacific region in Chile during 2001-2005 ( Astudillo et al., 2009). The floating capacity of the plastic buoys is higher and allows transporting a long distance from the place of origin over the water surface. Austrominius modestus, an exotic barnacle species attached to plastic debris, was observed in Shetland Island, United Kingdom ( Barnes and Milner, 2015). In the North Pacific region, various taxonomic groups attached to the floating litter were recorded during 2009-2012, and 87% of total attached debris was hard plastic fragments, as referenced in Goldstein et al. (2014). Barnes and Milner (2015) revealed that assessing the effects of the accidental introduction of organisms by marine debris is difficult.

Assemblage or ecosystem-level effect was recorded as another consequence of plastic pollution. The degree of severity for the ecosystem level by plastic debris depends on several factors: area covered by plastic debris, type and nature of plastic debris, level of sensitivity of the respective ecosystem, and associated organisms. Based on the literature records, plastic debris accumulation modifies the habitats in the marine environment. Further, benthic, submerged ecosystems such as seagrass and coral reefs in the marine environment degrade by deposition of macro and mega plastic debris on the seafloor ( Thevenon et al., 2014). Degraded benthic ecosystems reduce the species richness and composition in the marine environment. Derelict fishing gears are mostly affecting debris type causing assemblage-level impacts ( GEF, 2012). In Oman, 69% of coral sites were negatively affected by abandoned fishing gears, or ALDF, including gill nets, and more than 20 genera of corals were adversely affected by decreasing the coral biodiversity ( Al-Jufaili et al., 1999). Carson et al. (2011) revealed that microplastic fragments are responsible for changing porosity and heat transferring capacity of sediments. Thus, the physical characteristics of benthic habitats will be altered accordingly, and this would make the survival of benthos difficult without optimum conditions. Plastic debris over the surface of seawater reduces the light penetration capacity and Dissolved Oxygen (DO) level in habitats; accordingly, changes of physicochemical water quality parameters affect primary productivity and tropic relationship in water negatively. Biodiversity gradually declines because of the absence of optimum conditions in the habitats and niches, since food availability and DO level are considered as the main factors (habitat factors) affecting biodiversity. Also, the presence of plastic debris on the respective niches negatively affects the behavioral changes of coastal and marine organisms ( Thevenon et al., 2014). Foraging capacity of the intertidal mollusk, Nassarius pullus, reduces rapidly with the presence of plastic debris ( Aloy et al., 2011).

3.2. Socio-economic effects by plastic pollution in respective ecosystems

Plastic pollution causes different socio-economic impacts on various aspects, such as commercial fishery, tourism, shipping, and human health, and negatively affects the national economy of the respective country by allocating an extra budget for waste removal. An overload of plastic contaminants in the ocean basins and coastal zones directly influence the commercial fishery, aquaculture, and tourism. In Scotland, debris removal, including plastic litter such as fishing gears and PVC pipes, causes loss of fishing time and extra expense for cleaning ( Ten et al., 2009). Ghost trapping fishing (accidental fish catch by discarded/abandoned and lost fishing gear: ALDF) was identified as one of the adverse effects on the commercial fishery sector ( Al-Masroori et al., 2004). Ghost fishing significantly reduces fish stocks which play a major role in commercial and recreational fishing ( Anderson and Alford, 2013). According to the literature records ( Al-Masroori et al., 2004), the expenses are approximately US$ 145 and 168 due to ghost fishing for three months and six months, respectively. Cost-benefit analysis has identified the effect of ghost fishing in Puget Sound, USA ( Gilardi et al., 2010), and accordingly, the cost for commercial crab fishery by ghost fishing is nearly US$ 19,656. In Indonesia, severe changes on fishing grounds were recorded by litter accumulation, and fishing gear types were identified as the main component of marine litter. Further, debris accumulation caused negative impacts on the artisanal fishery sector in Indonesia ( Nash, 1992). As per UNEP (2009), an annual loss of US$ 250 million was due to the loss of the lobster fishery sector by the presence of ghost fishing gears.

Marine plastic debris can also act as a key contributor to the distribution of non-native, invasive species. CIESM (2014) has identified algae growth and the proliferation of plastic debris. The overgrowth of these algae has the potential to cause harmful algae blooms and, accordingly, depletion of ecosystem health with economic loss by fishery and tourism-related activities. Further, it induces the depletion of sensitive, submerged ecosystems such as coral reefs, destroy breeding and nursery grounds of seafood sources, and result in a substantial loss of commercial fishery catch ( GEF, 2012).

Moreover, microplastic pollution has a severe negative effect on the fishery sector. Organisms representing lower trophic levels are possible to ingest microplastic with food particles ( Wright et al., 2013). These contaminants pass to the other organisms through food webs and may accumulate toxic chemicals in higher trophic levels, including fish ( Wright et al., 2013), with adverse effects on capture fishery and aquaculture sector. Contaminated fishery sources have low demand, and thus, create an economic loss. If plastic pollution affects negatively on marine biodiversity, seafood safety, and availability, it will create a severe economic impact at the global level, especially in developing countries or islands where marine and coastal fishery resources are a major food source. As an example, food fish contributes, or exceeds, approximately 50% of total animal protein intake in some small islands or developing states: e.g., Bangladesh, Cambodia, Ghana, Indonesia, Sierra Leone, and Sri Lanka. The depletion of fishery resources by plastic pollution directly affects the economy of such countries described above and causes socio-economic crisis and health issues consequently ( Nerland et al., 2014; McKinley and Johnston, 2010; Johnston and Roberts, 2009; FAO, 2016).

Plastic pollution in beaches and marine environment triggers a negative effect on aesthetic value, natural beauty, and health of ecosystems ( Figure 4 ). As a result, the lowered aesthetic and recreational value in coastal shore areas and marine systems lead to a significant reduction in the total number of tourists ( Figure 4 ). On the other hand, the health of ecosystems and the possibility of involvement in most recreational activities in marine and coastal zones are proportionate. For example, offshore ocean basin and sensitive coastal ecosystems (e.g., healthy coral reef ecosystems) are associated with tourism-related activities such as coral watching, snorkeling, whale watching, turtle watching, sport fishing, and scuba diving. Death of a coral cover by plastic debris implies the loss of such kind of tourism activities and reducing the number of tourists visiting a specific region ( GEF, 2012). The ciliated pathogen, which acts as the causative agent of skeletal eroding band disease in corals, was identified in floating plastic in the western pacific region ( Goldstein et al., 2014). Accordingly, infected corals are gradually depleting and severely affect the alteration of ecosystem structure and compositions. Therefore, degraded coral systems may cause to reduce the number of tourists due to loss of aesthetic value and attraction in a certain region. Tourism is related to different parties gaining benefits via direct and/or indirect manner. As an example, a reduced number of tourists causes loss of job opportunities for local communities who depend on tourism-related activities in the respective area. Accordingly, a substantial economic loss directly interconnects with the negative effects of the social aspect. Tourism-oriented islands such as Hawaii and Maldives are economically threatened by declining the annual income through tourism due to this kind of anthropogenic factors ( Thevenon et al., 2014).

Plastic debris can cause direct and indirect health effects on humans through the ingestion of contaminated seafood sources, and the accumulation of poisonous, persistent chemical substances in the human body. Scuba divers have severe health risks in trapping and entangling discarded fishing nets during diving ( GEF, 2012). There is a high risk of loss of lives by accidents due to the accumulation of mega-size marine plastic debris in the ocean ( GEF, 2012). Further, polluted coastal and marine zones are associated with negative health issues on tourists and coastal residents. Polluted seawater with plastic debris has adverse impacts on tourists in recreational activities. There are also records of severe injuries by sharp cuts from plastic debris in the shore area and marine zones. Overload of plastic debris in recreational beaches and ocean systems can raise health issues such as lower blood pressure and reduce mental fitness (e.g., stress, anger, tension) in humans ( GESAMP, 2015). Adverse health effects can reduce the country's productivity and working efficiency with negative impacts on social and economic aspects of the affected area. In India, environmental problems, including pollution, causes serious ecological effects on the coastal ecosystems, and consequently, have a direct effect on the socio-economic status of coastal communities ( Lakshmi and Rajagopalan, 2000).

As the fouling of plastic debris in ships creates disturbances of operational activities, it requires cleaning of ship hulls for proper functioning. APEC (2009) recorded that the annual cost of damage from debris, including plastic litter on shipping, is US$ 279 million. In summary, both ecological and socio-economic impacts of plastic pollution are inter-related.

4. Initiatives on plastic pollution control and prevention

Several kinds of strategies have been identified to address the issue of plastic pollution. Institutional level involvement is such kind of key strategy used in treating the current topic. Global, regional, and national level institutions are essential in controlling and preventing the accumulation of plastic debris in the marine and coastal environments.

4.1. Global-scale initiatives

The United Nations (UN) General Assembly on oceans and the Law of the Sea are examples of such global initiatives that are useful for addressing this issue. The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) provides an international legal framework for controlling plastic contamination. Article 207 and 211 emphasize marine pollution, including plastic debris accumulation with a particular focus on the reduction, control, and prevention of plastic litter. Further, states are provisioning for controlling, reducing, and preventing pollution from different sources like land-based and sea-based sources. UN General Assembly has also delivered essential declarations to make the marine environment cleaner. That includes resolution on making partnership for awareness between the general public and private sector regarding the effects of plastic pollution on ecological, social, and economic aspects and the explicit integration for addressing the issues arising from contamination by plastic debris as aligning with a national strategic framework ( Hirai et al., 2011; Cole et al., 2013).

Further, the same resolution states that ( Chiappone et al. (2002)) international, national, and regional organizations [e.g., International Maritime Organization, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), and sub-regional fisheries management organizations] must involve with finding solutions for preventing the accumulation of lost or abandoned fishing gears/ALDF. Plastic contamination is detected as one of the serious environmental issues ( UNEP, 2011). The conference of the United Nations Convention on Sustainable Development (Rio +20) raised the necessity of plastic pollution control in the ocean basins, including marine zones. It further highlighted (163) the implementation of the framework of the International Maritime Organization (IMO). It states to conduct different initiatives by identifying suitable priorities for the management of marine pollution using scientific data or evidence by 2025. This kind of scientific literature review will act as reference data for prioritizing and implementing management activities accordingly at a global level.

On the other hand, the International Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution (MARPOL) focusing on activities of ships is the legislator's body useful in acquiring the above objective. That convention addresses following key areas which are directly and indirectly related to the plastic pollution control and prevention in the sea: management of garbage including plastic litter, prohibiting dumping and discarding of plastic litter into the sea with the involvement of member states, and responsibilities related to abandoned, lost, or otherwise discarded fishing gears (ALDF) by minimizing the waste (including plastic debris, especially wastes/litter from fishing gears) received from capture fishery sector.

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (Article no. 70) states reducing the effects of plastic pollution on coastal and marine biodiversity using strategies (e.g., Strategic Environmental Assessments: SEAs and Environmental Impact Assessments: EIAs) to prevent marine pollution. Subsidiary party on Scientific, Technical, and Technological Advice (SBSTTA) acts as the Scientific Advisory body of CBD. Following decisions were made at the 16 th meeting of SBSTTA for controlling pollution including plastic accumulation in marine and coastal zones on 2012: (i) monitoring and documentation on effects of debris on biodiversity and ecosystems, (ii) scientific research and feasible studies on management and controlling of plastic and other kinds of debris, (iii) regional level capacity building programs focusing on methods and approaches of preventing and controlling issues related to plastics and different kinds of litter accumulation.

Convention of Migratory Species (CMS) has also come to power with the implementation of following actions: (i) seeking for marine debris hotspots all over the world, (ii) assessing the effects of plastic and other kinds of litter on coastal and marine biodiversity, (iii) identification of methods and mechanism of controlling marine debris accumulating sources at the regional level, (iv) implementing an action plan to mitigate the pollution by debris deposition in the marine environment at the national level. The scientific council further recommended assessing the impacts on migratory species by marine debris, seeking emerging issues related to community awareness on marine debris accumulation, and identify best management practices on waste control for maritime ships and vessels. Although plastic pollution and waste management are interrelated components, international, legal constitution, or agreement focusing on entirely waste management has not been developed ( Thevenon et al., 2014).

However, several kinds of international initiatives focus on waste management, indirectly, or as a part of pollution control and prevention. UNEP council (25/8) has decided to apply a practical approach to waste management. They have addressed the national framework design under the theme of "shift from an end-of-pipe approach in waste management to an integrated waste management approach" ( UNEP, 2011). Mitigation of issues on marine plastic debris accumulation and plastic pollution are associated with waste management practices; thus, an internationally accepted, integrated waste management program has been recommended to address the above issue ( UNEP, 2011). Basel Convention is one of the most critical international legislation focused on hazardous waste and disposal. Solid plastic fragments are considered as hazardous waste with severe risks on human health ( UNEP, 2005). In 2008, the Basel convention implemented the Bali declaration on the theme of "Waste Management for Human Health and Livelihoods." This declaration works for waste management. Since hazardous waste is composed of plastic debris, plastic pollution control is linked with the Basel convention. Global Partnership on Waste Management (GPWM) of UNEP opened a path for working collaboratively with the international and non-government parties for waste management that are considered as an alternative for plastic pollution control in the marine environment in 2010. Following actions were planned for implementation with a special focus on mitigation of waste accumulation and plastic pollution by GPWM: identification of related issues, suggest appropriate solutions to overcome the above-identified issues, disseminate the findings, develop the international support and involvement, awareness, political support, develop facilities, and capacity to trap wastes.

Honolulu Strategy acts as another global international framework and an initiative for working toward preventing and management of debris, including plastic wastes with the collaborative cooperation of the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and UNEP. This initiative guides monitoring and mitigation of litter, including plastic debris. During 2012, the European Commission and 64 government bodies collectively agreed with the Manila declaration that addresses the accomplishment of the Global Program of UNEP's for the management of debris sources from land-based activities. Members of the Manila declaration also collectively agreed to formulate relevant national-level policies in controlling pollution, including marine debris accumulation, which harms marine ecosystems. Also, partners to the Manila declaration adopted in the implementation of the Global Partnership on Marine Litter (GPML) under the guidance of the Honolulu Strategy. It further included reducing pollution from ocean-based sources with following goals: (i) limiting contamination levels and possible effects from ocean-based sources responsible for the accumulation of debris including plastics into aquatic systems, (ii) reducing levels and impacts of marine debris including plastics on coasts, aquatic habitats, and biodiversity, and (iii) limitation of accumulation levels and effects of debris from solid wastes and land-based litter into the aquatic ecosystems.

4.2. Regional-scale initiatives

At the regional level, Regional Seas Program of UNEP proposed relevant activities for 13 regional seas: Mediterranean sea, Baltic sea, Black sea, Caspian sea, East Asian seas, Red sea, Eastern African sea, South Asian sea, Wider Caribbean sea, Northeast Atlantic sea, Gulf of Aden sea, Northwest Pacific sea, and Southeast Pacific sea. Coastal cleanup programs have been completed as a global project in all the above regions. European Union's Marine Strategy Framework Directive, MSFD, established in 2008, focuses on minimizing the amount of marine debris at a regional level. The directive aims at sustainable utilization of resources in the ecosystem while conserving ecosystems through the Ecosystem-Based Approach (EBA). This task is a collaborative effort of all European countries. Members are required to monitor marine zones and identify achievable targets by 2020. It further included the operational program for ensuring the targets are achieved. South Korea conducted a long-term project to address the issue of marine debris: an in-depth survey and monitoring, identification, prevention, elimination, treatment, and recycling of marine waste for ten years ( GEF, 2012). At the regional level, a discarded fishing gear collection project was implemented in Hawaii and South African Coasts through NOAA/MDP. Moreover, scientific studies are recommended to identify the distribution pattern of plastic pollutants in South America's estuarine ecosystems for effective management plans ( Chen, 2015; Costa and Barletta, 2015, 2016). Barletta et al. (2019) also recommended the conservation plans for estuaries in South America focusing on annual variations of ecoline, retention recycling cycles, flush of environmental indicators, and effects on trophic webs over whole coverage of gradients of estuary ecosystems to overcome the emerging issues associated with pollution. Restoration of tidal and river forcing is recommended as the most appropriate decision for ecosystem rehabilitation by improving the quality of the estuarine environment in South America at the regional level ( Storm et al., 2005; Slater, 2016).

4.3. National-level initiatives

Most of the national level legislation addresses the issue of solid waste management and waste production while reducing plastic pollution in marine and coastal ecosystems. In the US, Marine Debris Research, Prevention, and Reduction Act and Marine Plastic Pollution Research and Control Act are key legislative pieces important in mitigation of plastic pollution at the national level. In South Korea, the Practical Integrated System of Marine debris was established to prevent marine debris accumulation from 1999-2009, for ten years. Scotland developed a Scottish marine litter strategy in 2013. In Sri Lanka, national-level regulations on polythene and other types of plastic management were introduced in 2017. This legislation made following efforts under the National Environmental Act No. 47 of 1980 with the 19 th amendment: (i) prohibition of manufacturing polythene products of 20 microns or below, food wrappers (lunch sheets), any bag with high density (grocery bags) and food containers, plates, cups, spoons from expanded Polystyrene (2034/33-35 and 38), (ii) prohibition of the burning of combustible and rejected matters including plastic (2034/36), and (iii) banning the use of polythene products as decorative items (2034/37) ( CEA, 2017).

Marine Pollution Prevention Act No. 35 of 2008 is another national regulation to control, prevent, and manage pollution in the marine environment in Sri Lanka. Marine Environment Protection Authority (MEPA) is the apex party established by the government of Sri Lanka under the above act. MEPA is responsible for finding solutions and remedies for overcoming pollution-related issues in the marine zones of Sri Lanka. With the growth of oceanic pollution by plastics, invasive species, oil spills, ballast water, and maritime traffic in the coastal and marine environments, MEPA has modernized the Policy Strategies and National Action Plan for marine protection in Sri Lanka with the support of IUCN, to suit current scenario during August 2017-January 2018. This Policy Strategies and National Action Plan focus on addressing the issue of plastic pollution in marine water in Sri Lanka as one of grave concern ( IUCN, 2018). The capacity-building project was accomplished to manage the marine debris under four key activities: education and awareness, research and scientific study, creating facilities, and policy formulation ( IUCN, 2018). Short-life plastic bags are a serious concern among all forms of plastics; thus different control and preventive measures (e.g., the prohibition of polythene bags usage, applying charges, levy, and taxes) have been used by several countries: Switzerland, China, Italy, Rwanda, South Africa, Kenya, Congo, Hong Kong, Bangladesh, Mexico, some states in the USA, several states in India, Australia, Ireland, Denmark, South Korea, Romania, Japan, state of Sao Paolo in Brazil, and New Zealand, at a national level ( European Commission, 2013). Implementation of effective national-level initiatives by prioritizing site-specific management needs is recommended toward the plastic-free environment by the current study. Also, the approach on Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) (Please refer to the section of " EPR towards producer responsibility" for more details) includes a scheme of plastic container deposition in Asia, Europe, Australia, US, and Canada as a national-level plastic pollution control measure.

4.4. Eco-friendly concepts for controlling plastic pollutio; Reuse, Recycle, and Reduction (3Rs) of plastic

The 3Rs of plastic wastes are a major environmentally friendly concept toward plastic-free ecosystems. Different strategies have been introduced as aligning with this 3Rs concept. Reducing plastic and packaging material usage is one of the key alternatives under the EPR (Please refer to the section of " EPR towards producer responsibility" for more details). Actions of stakeholders related to plastic production and usage can play a vital role in reducing and reusing plastics. These actions can be either individual or collective activities toward reducing plastic accumulation in the ocean. Product manufacturers and sellers are recommended to follow a sustainable environmental management program with the production and selling. Eco-labeled products allow consumers to distinguish environmentally friendly, non-polluting products for making sustainable decisions during the purchasing of items or goods. Over 25 programs are conducted under the Global Eco-Labeling Network (GEN) toward the plastic-free environment. Ten countries use 43 types of greener packaging labels ( GEN, 2019) by signifying the effort in reducing plastic pollution at the national level. Also, New Zealand has awarded eco-labels for plastic products having recycling potential. The environmentally friendly and pollution-free packaging materials and products can be sustained through green procurement. Accordingly, improvement of recycling capacity and minimum packaging is required on green procurement. Biodegradable plastic packaging materials are also possible options for selected plastic products ( Mudgal et al., 2012) to control plastic debris accumulation.

On the other hand, positive incentives (financial or physical) are useful in promoting the collection and recycling process of plastics. If these initiatives are encouraged further at the national, regional, and global levels, it will provide more economic benefits to the society as an additional advantage, while preventing the accumulation of plastics in marine and coastal ecosystems.

4.5. EPR towards a plastic-free environment

EPR concept addresses the responsibility towards a greener and cleaner environment even after completion of the production chain. The manufacturers of plastic products and packaging items or material can be encouraged to collect packaging (e.g., food and beverage containers) and recycle plastic through funding and operational activities toward the EPR. Currently, developed countries (Japan, Europe, and Canada) use EPR programs, while the developing nations still do not practice this approach on a large scale. However, this approach is one of the best practices for minimizing the plastic accumulation rate in the environment. This paper recommends establishing a sound strategic mechanism focusing on the EPR concept, mainly for developing countries at the national level. Responsibilities for collecting, recycling, reusing, and managing plastic debris are usually held by stakeholder groups such as producers, importers, suppliers, and brand owners. EPR programs can focus on residential areas and public places such as markets, city plaza, pedestrian areas, municipal parks, and city squares, which experience higher accumulation of plastic debris, including packaging matter ( British Columbia Recycling Regulation Amendment, 2011). Segregated litter bins and recyclable plastic collecting centers must be established in a sustainable manner (toward EPR) to prevent plastic waste disposal.

4.6. Collaborative approach for plastic-free zones: engagement with business companies

One of the most crucial strategies for controlling plastic pollution is the engagement with private companies and business associations related to plastic products and packaging items. As stakeholder parties, these internationally recognized companies and associations can play a vital role in the management of plastic litter by working with government agencies collaboratively. In the USA, the American Chemistry Council had conducted awareness programs on reuse and recycle plastic bottles. Plastic Europe is one such internationally recognized association, and they conduct series of programs (e.g., campaign for "zero plastic in landfills" program on plastic pellet treatment at the production line) focusing on prevention and management of marine litter accumulation ( European Commission, 2013). Since there is a lack of more information, this study recommends the establishment of powerful Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) with collective engagement between the government agencies and private-sector for large-scale scientific research projects toward controlling the plastic pollution and waste management in a country level.

4.7. Economic instruments

Ordinances and fees are kinds of instruments or tools to prevent usage of plastic items and containers. Banning and penalties are other options for plastic pollution control, which acts as an enforceable mitigation measure. Some countries designed policies or legislation to ban the use and import of plastic items, including bags, at the national level (please refer to the section of " National level initiatives" for more details). Prohibition of improperly discarding and removal of plastic wastes is another strategy for preventing the accumulation of plastics. Most EPR projects have already introduced a penalty system for producers for violation of rules and regulations related to waste management and improper disposal. The user fee payment system can be introduced to manage plastic wastes based on the concept of charging/fine for consuming plastic items. The introduction of the secondary market for recycled materials is another alternative to reduce the plastic level in the environment. Plastic producers have the responsibility to recycle plastic products and packaging items (EPR) ( UNEP, 2018). As a result, they can financially invest in feasible studies, research, and developments to identify innovative alternatives as secondary materials. Sustainable Materials Management (SMS) is another initiative for pollution control toward a cleaner environment ( UNEP, 2018). Japan is one of the developed countries following the SMS using the legal framework since 1997.

4.8. Awareness and capacity building campaigns

Changing attitudes toward conservation and sustainable management of the environment is one of the potent tools in enhancing the quality of marine and coastal ecosystems. Improving the public awareness on litter generation, removal, and effects on marine and coastal environment is such kind of strategy for creating new attitudes among local communities. Blue Flag is such an international program conducted in Europe to reduce marine and coastal debris accumulation ( Blue Flag, 2019). According to the guidelines of this program, facilitating the segregation of recyclable plastic matter and positioning the disposal bins and containers are compulsory actions. Information related to this issue (e.g., effects from the accumulation of marine debris, marine debris accumulating sources, different approaches on mitigating overload of plastic debris, and the role of a local community toward this issue) can be publicized via social media, local media, distributing printed materials, and displaying in public areas. Beach cleaning and waste removal campaigns are also conducted with the participation of stakeholders as a step of awareness and capacity building of the local community on this emerging issue. However, the success and effectiveness of this kind of cleaning and debris removal programs depend on the involvement of the local community. As a basement for the future, this paper recommends incorporating environmental education into the syllabus of schools and making all possible efforts to adapt the mindset and attitudes of children on protecting the environment, starting from the nursery and/or primary school stage, because the primary level of children is the most effective stage to make changes in the ideas and attributes toward conservation of the environment.

4.9. Scientific investigations and monitoring

Scientific studies and researches are other approaches to address the issue of plastic pollution in a systematic mechanism. Still, knowledge gaps remain in some aspects (e.g., transport, sources, fate, impacts, and solutions of plastic in the environment) related to plastic pollution. Scientific knowledge and evidence of all aspects of plastic pollution would provide clear overall snapshot and guidance to stakeholders (e.g., local community, policymakers, politicians, consumers, and manufacturers) for implementing most suitable behavioral, technological, and policy solutions to address the issue of marine plastics effectively ( IUCN, 2020). Continuous research and scientific studies with frequent monitoring is a significant approach in the management of plastic pollution. Feasible studies on innovations would help to identify the related technology, alternative materials, or products to replace plastics. Authors recommend comprehensive scientific studies, regular monitoring of ecosystems, and innovations with the support of governments, private sectors, NGOs, and international organizations to efficiently address plastic pollution.

5. Conclusion

The marine and coastal ecosystems are complex and dynamic ecosystems that provide ecological and commercial values with services by ensuring human wellbeing. Currently, all oceans and many coastal zones are adversely affected by different kinds of natural and anthropogenic activities. Industrialization and urbanization are recognized as major factors for human-induced pollution, including plastic debris accumulation in the marine and coastal habitats. Estuaries are one of the major coastal ecosystems affected by plastic pollution. Currently, plastic pollution is caused by primary and secondary sources with a terrestrial or ocean-based origin. Megaplastic, macroplastic, mesoplastic, and microplastic (in primary and secondary forms) are major plastic pollutants that can be classified based on size variations. Megaplastic, macroplastic, and mesoplastic are bulk plastic debris, while primary and secondary microplastics are minute (microscopically observed) pollutants with the size range of 1-6 mm or <1 mm. Larger debris are also subjected to the formation of microplastics through physical, chemical, and biological processes. Mainly, estuarine ecosystems in some countries (e.g., several countries of the South American and Asian region) are negatively affected by the distribution of microplastics in sediment and water column.

Plastic pollution causes various ecological impacts at the individual, assemblage, and ecosystem levels. Since the size of microplastics is similar to the food particles which are consumed by most marine and coastal organisms in lower trophic levels, these micro-contaminants are highly susceptible to accumulation in such biota through ingestion with harmful impacts. Microplastic would also concentrate on humans and other organisms representing higher trophic levels through food chains and webs. Plastic pollutants interact with other toxic chemical compounds such as POPs, antibiotics, and heavy metal ions, and gradually produce the eco-toxicological effects. Accumulation of plastic debris causes not only negative ecological consequences to the ecosystem but also threatening to the socio-economic aspects of human life in various ways. However, the ecological and socio-economic impacts of plastic pollution are interconnected.

The necessity of mitigation and managing plastic pollution in marine and coastal environments at global, regional, and national scales is widely recognized. Recently, various international organizations and non-profit social groups actively work together with the kind mind of saving the ocean from plastic pollution in different countries and regions. Regional level mechanisms have already recommended evaluating the estuarine contamination by focusing on plastic pollution for the brackish water ecosystems in some countries such as South America. At the national level, some governments have declared legislations to control the plastic pollution issue by prohibiting the usage of plastic products and enhancing reuse and recycling of plastics with novel technologies at regional and national levels. Implementation of environmental governance with pollution control was recommended after thoroughly considering biological and ecological settings of respective ecosystems in countries like South America. However, initiatives on plastic pollution controlling and prevention need to be further improved at aforesaid levels. Therefore, the current study recommends selected productive approaches to address this issue with sound attention from different stakeholders. Reuse, Recycle, and Reduction (3Rs) of plastic pollutants, encouraging the collection of re-usable plastic debris, EPR towards manufacturer accountability, eco-friendly programs through Public-Private Partnerships, awareness and capacity building campaigns focusing on the cleaner environment, scientific studies on nature and severity of this emerging environmental issue, and innovations are suggested as ultimate, effective solutions for reducing and controlling the plastic pollution in these valuable aquatic ecosystems.

Finally, this review paper reveals the overall scenario of global marine and coastal plastic pollution under different aspects. This secondary data would be further useful as baseline information for the site-specific plastic pollution control and management programs. Human acts are one component of the biosphere; thus, our responsibility is to provide the maximum contribution for zero plastic, cleaner, and the greener environment as an eco-friendly living-being.

Declarations

Author contribution statement

All authors listed have significantly contributed to the development and the writing of this article.

Funding statement

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Competing interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Additional information

No additional information is available for this paper.

Acknowledgements

Authors would like to acknowledge Uva Wellasse University for all supports.

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Articles from Heliyon are provided here courtesy of Elsevier

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Plastic pollution in the marine environment

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Plastic pollution is recognized as a severe anthropogenic issue in the coastal and marine ecosystems across the world. Unprecedented and continuous accumulation of growing plastic contaminants into any respective aquatic ecosystem by the anthropogenic ...

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"The Parting of the Plastic Sea" an installation made from 168,000 used plastic straws - Von Wong Blog (RESEARCHED BY: Farhan Fredj S. Pasod)

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URL: https://blog.vonwong.com/strawpocalypse/

TITLE: “The Parting of The Plastic Sea"

AUTHOR: Benjamin Von Wong

DATE PUBLISHED: January 28, 2019

KEY POINTS:

The art installation is made from 168,000 used plastic straws collected from the beaches. The artist wants to highlight the difficulty of recycling straws because of their small size and light weight, which is the reason as to why most of them end up in the seas along with other plastics. The artists wants to warn people about the dangers of plastic straws and other plastic materials that wound up in the ocean and the devastating damage they can cause to marine life. The artist talked about how they felt overwhelmed about the information of how much plastic is being dumped every minute but they wanted to believe on what they can do even with a message as small as "No straws please". This art installation is relevant to our social issue since it envokes a powerful message of how big of a problem plastic pollution is to our oceans and what actions we should take to stop it.

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It's just one straw, said 8 billion people.

Sounds like a cliche little quote - but these little things really do add up.

Straws are virtually impossible to recycle in most places around the world because of how light and small they are. They're also one of the easiest products to turn down at a bar, cafe or restaurant.

With a truckload of plastic flowing into the ocean every 60 seconds, it's easy to feel overwhelmed - but I've always believed that its less about what we can't do, and more about what we can do - even if it's something as small as saying "No Straw please".

Here's the result of that thought:

Higher quality on Youtube & Vimeo |Words & Performance by Steve Connell | Video by Fox - Creative & Visuals

For my latest project, I wanted to encourage people to turn down their next straw by creating a "strawpocalypse".

Something so large that if anybody walked by, they couldn't help but ignore.

But first, I was going to need straws. A lot of them. At just 10$ for 100,000 straws, it would have been super convenient to buy a ton of them and figure something out - but that was clearly not an option.

Zero Waste Saigon stepped in and offered to help, and with the help of Starbucks Vietnam and hundreds of volunteers - spent over 6 months to gather a total of 168,000 straws to bring this project to life.

The result: A 3.3m (10 ft+) tall art installation representing the Parting of the Plastic Sea.

Our hope with this installation is that each and every person feels empowered to take a step towards using their last straw.

It took us almost two weeks of work to clean, organize and prepare our straws to build "The Parting of the Plastic Sea".

The entire project began with a Facebook conversation when Julia from Zero Waste Saigon reached out to me and asked if I would collaborate with them if they helped me collect all the trash that I wanted. After Starbucks Vietnam came on board as a sponsor, all that remained was to figure out how to transform our idea from Concept to Reality.

Straws were organized by color, to represent different parts of the wave.

Green/Blue/Black for the base of the wave, White for the froth on top, Orange/Yellow for the sand and all other transparent ones as transition points in the structure.

With the help of our volunteers, we collected used plastic bags for our installation.

The plan was to use clear plastic bags to not only act as support for our straws but also to act as a diffuser for the LED lighting of our structure.

Every day, dozens of new volunteers streamed in to give thousands of discarded straws a second life.

A little assembly-line was set up and older volunteers would teach newer volunteers how to stick our straws into various different patterns to mimic the direction of the water flow.

Meanwhile, we worked with a local builder to convert our idea into reality.

Although we had designed the idea with the help of Nick Moser, a technical builder in SF and Stefan Suknjaja an escape room designer in Serbia - we still had to figure out where and how to build things in Vietnam. Luckily Fosha Zyang, a local set designer stepped in to help us out.

My hope was to create the parting of the sea to reveal the plastics hiding within.

The plastic problem is either out of sight, out of mind - or so omnipresent that it becomes invisible. I wanted to use art to tackle both angles - by creating something beautiful and unique out of an environmental tragedy.

We arranged the straws like strokes of a paintbrush, trying our best to follow the curves of the lights and waves.

This whole time, all of us had been slaving away without knowing for sure whether or not things would look good - but as the pieces slowly fell into place, we all finally breathed a sigh of relief as the waves of plastic started coming to life.

Our final touch was to add a "sun" in between the two waves, built by connecting a couple LED panels together with galvanized wire.

Our installation was given a home in the atrium of Estella Place, offering a 360 view of the installation. While it was great for foot traffic and awareness - it also meant a lot of distractions so we decided to build a white "sky" of plastics, complete with an orange sun.

Although this installation is made from straws, it isn't just about straws. It's about taking a first step towards paying attention to the plastic epidemic threatening the oceans we rely on.

If things don't change by the year 2050, there could be more plastic than fish in the sea. While statistics like that can appear daunting and impossible to fight against, it all starts with small simple actions.

On the 24th of March, our installation becomes homeless. We're hunting for a company, institution or museum to adopt it!

We believe that the fight against single-use plastics is going to go on for the next couple hundred years... and because of that, we hope to find a forever home for our installation. It's obviously not going to be easy or cheap to transport - but if you know someone who believes in the cause - please let us know!

To see a Vlog style Behind The Scenes on how this project came to life, check out this video:
#Strawpocalypse Print Giveaway Credits:

Video: Fox - Creative and Visuals

Spoken Word performance (video): Steve Connell

BTS photography: Anna Tenne

Technical Build Consultants: Nick Moser, Stefan Suknjaja, Fosha Zyong

Set Builder: Trịnh Thiên Tân

LED Technician: Thành Huỳnh

Production Support: Don Le, Dave Lemke

Special thanks to the German International School, British International School and American International School for supporting our cleanup efforts.

Volunteers: Quinn Tran, Leanne Lim, Tam Binh, Mong Binh, Tuy Gentry Buckner, Gia Kang, Thanh Duy, Ti Hon, Nguyen Quoc Dung, Bùi Phương Nhật, Leo Pukachi, Julia Mesner Burdge, Michael Burdge, Loan Joy, Huyền KaRa, Đoàn Linh Chi, Angeli Castillo, Nguyễn Ngọc Huân, Dương Bội Linh, Matthew James Morris, Pakdi Decnud

Models: Sebastien Burdge, Elijia Ken, Nguyen Thuy Duong (TyhD)

Media Requests

Feel free to quote and publish the photos in your online publication (please credit & link back to the original). Specific Terms of Use can be found here.

High-Rez press images, BTS and more can be found in this dropbox link.

Commercial requests and rights: suzy@suzyjohnston.com

Read more about the project at TheStrawpocalypse.com

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"The Parting of the Plastic Sea" an installation made from 168,000 used plastic straws - Von Wong Blog

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
It's just one straw, said 8 billion people. Sounds like a cliche little quote - but these little things really do add up. Straws are virtually impossible to recycle in most places around the world because of how light and small they are. They're also one of the easiest products to turn down at a [...]

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The Growing Issue of Plastic Pollution in Oceans | Eleanor Elkus | TEDxYouth@MBJH (RESEARCHED BY: Carl Xyruz L. Frias)

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URL: https://youtu.be/qIOhcdbZw3I?si=QKSQIVBUeacP9utH

TITLE: The Growing Issue of Plastic in Oceans | Eleanor Elkus

AUTHOR: TEDx Talks, Eleanor Elkus

DATE PUBLISHED: July 16, 2019

KEY POINTS:
The speaker, Eleanor Elkus, was delivering a speech about the effects of plastic pollution on the oceans and how it can be solved to stop this growing threat. She relayed a powerful message of how there will be more plastics than fish in the ocean by 2050 should society continue to ignore the problem of plastic pollution. Elkus urges everyone to lessen the use of plastics or even stop using it for good and she encourages everyone to recycle plastic instead of simply throwing them away and eventually end up in the landfills or at the sea. The TED Talk is connected to our topic since the speaker speaks about the massive issue of plastics in the ocean and its terrifying effects if left unnoticed.

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The Growing Issue of Plastic Pollution in Oceans | Eleanor Elkus | TEDxYouth@MBJH

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The Plastic Problem - A PBS NewsHour Documentary (RESEARCHED BY: Dwayne Marcus S. Hernandez)

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URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1RDc2opwg0I

TITLE: The Plastic Problem

AUTHOR: PBS NewsHour, Amna Nawaz

DATE PUBLISHED: November 28, 2019

KEY POINTS: The documentary explains the widespread issue of plastic pollution in the world's oceans and the detrimental effects it has on both wildlife and ecosystems. It highlights the magnitude of the problem, including the existence of massive plastic garbage patches in the Pacific Ocean and also parts of the Philippines along with the devastating impact on marine animals like sea turtles and seabirds. The text also mentions individuals and communities who are taking measures to reduce plastic consumption and clean up polluted areas. The documentary is relevant to our SDG issue since it addresses the severity of plastic pollution and how detrimental it is to the marine biodiversity.

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The Plastic Problem - A PBS NewsHour Documentary

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Sea Change Campaign (RESEARCHED BY: Dwayne Marcus S. Hernandez)

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URL: https://www.worldanimalprotection.org/our-campaigns/past-campaigns/sea-change/?gad_source=1&gclid=CjwKCAiArfauBhApEiwAeoB7qIWRQyUYBFfRi79JKBUi0VCWOf7VYaS2xQykd_vLO_LgCZoF7O3DGBoCj4wQAvD_BwE

TITLE: Sea Change Campaign

AUTHOR: World Animal Protection

DATE PUBLISHED: 2019

KEY POINTS: The blog discusses the issue of ghost fishing gear, which refers to abandoned, lost, and discarded fishing nets, lines, and traps that pose a significant threat to sea life. Approximately 640,000 tonnes of gear are left in the oceans each year, causing harm to whales, seals, turtles, and birds. The Global Ghost Gear Initiative (GGGI) is working to address this problem by collaborating with partners to prevent gear loss and develop solutions that benefit both animals and businesses. The GGGI aims to improve marine ecosystems, protect marine animals, and safeguard human health and livelihoods. Working groups have been established to collect data, develop best practices, and replicate effective solutions. Illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing (IUU) is also identified as a contributing factor to the ghost gear issue, and the text calls on navies to help combat this problem. The text also highlights efforts to assist rescue teams in saving entangled marine animals and emphasizes the role of seafood companies in addressing the ghost gear problem. This blog article is related to our social issue since it talks about the dangers of ghost gears or fishing gears that are abandoned in the seas which can interfere with marine life.

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The ghost fishing gear crisis

Abandoned, lost and discarded nets, lines and traps are one of the biggest threats to our sea life. A staggering 640,000 tonnes of gear is left in our oceans each year. This gear traps, injures, mutilates and kills hundreds of thousands of whales, seals, turtles and birds annually.

Changing the Sea for the Better

Abandoned, lost and discarded nets, lines and traps are one of the biggest threats to our sea life. A staggering 640,000 tonnes of gear is left in our oceans each year. This gear traps, injures, mutilates and kills hundreds of thousands of whales, seals, turtles and birds annually.

Ghost fishing gear: in numbers

At least136,000seals, sea lions and large whales killed each year

Around640,000tonnes of gear discarded annually = 90,000 double decker buses

125 tonnesof fish caught = about 1 tonne of gear discarded

The ghost fishing gear crisis

We're working in three ways to protect animals from ghost fishing gear:

Bringing together partners to stop fishing gear being lost and abandoned

Supporting new ways to remove ghost gear from the seas

Assisting rescue teams to save entangled marine animals around the world

A follow up report in 2019 completed by World Animal Protection showed that those orgnaisations that joined the GGGI are much more aware of the problem and have taken steps to change their policies.

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Abandoned, lost and discarded nets, lines and traps are one of the biggest threats to our sea life. Learn more about our Sea Change Campaign.

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Plastic Pollution PSA | Earth Day 2019 (RESEARCHED BY: Carl Xyruz L. Frias)

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URL: https://youtu.be/XD-k_Tkw3lY?si=nttNROfmTIJN487U

TITLE: Plastic Pollution PSA | Earth Day 2019

AUTHOR: Reed Taylor

DATE PUBLISHED: April 18, 2019

KEY POINTS:
The public service announcement (PSA) video starts by appreciating the beauty of our oceans. However, later on in the video, it gives a warning about the issues faced by the planet's oceans and the creatures that inhabit it. The PSA serves as a reminder to protect our marine life and gives a message that urges people to take action into preserving the seas and the vast riches it has for the consequences of neglected waters are dire. This PSA can be connected to our topic since it gives off a message about protecting the ocean from pollution and irresponsible human activities that harm the waters.

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88% of marine species affected by severe plastic pollution | DW News (RESEARCHED BY: Dwayne Marcus S. Hernandez)

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URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZPhisLwLs2U

TITLE: 88% of Marine Species affected by severe plastic pollution

AUTHOR: DW News

DATE PUBLISHED: February 9, 2022

KEY POINTS: As shown in the video, it examines the problem of plastic pollution in the oceans, highlighting its harmful impact on marine life. It mentions that plastic production is increasing and that current waste management systems are insufficient. The United Nations is holding talks to address this issue and establish an international plastics plan. Dr. Melanie Bachmann, a biologist specializing in microplastic and ocean pollution, emphasizes the need for limits on plastic production and the adoption of a circular economy. This news is related to our SDG issue since it talks about the issues caused by plastic pollution on the creatures that inhabit the seas.

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88% of marine species affected by severe plastic pollution | DW News

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PH nangunguna sa plastic pollution sa karagatan: pag-aaral | TV Patrol (RESEARCHED BY: Carl Xyruz L. Frias)

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URL: https://youtu.be/KFQTZsg0Lxo?si=y9-5Yqvd15NWZ7nb

TITLE: PH nangunguna sa plastic pollution sa karagatan: pag-aaral

AUTHOR: ABS-CBN News

DATE PUBLISHED: May 12, 2023

KEY POINTS:

As reported on the news, the Philippines contributed the most plastic wastes in the ocean, totalling to 356,371 metric tons of plastic wastes according to a research made by Science Advance in 2021. Most of the plastics that end up in the sea are single-use plastics and plastic cellophanes and bags used in commercial places. This news video segment is related to our SDG topic since it reports about how the country produces a lot of plastic wastes on the ocean, affecting marine life and even livelihood.

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PH nangunguna sa plastic pollution sa karagatan: pag-aaral | TV Patrol