# data[].attributes.body
jose de San Martin succeeded in securing independence for Argentina and Chile San martin's army would also achieve independence for Peru. the last major battle of the war for independence occurred in 1824 and was called the battle of Ayacucho. south American Spanish colonies officially won their independence.

# data[].attributes.body
Pedro I gained Brazil's independence from Portugal in 1822. He labeled the country an empire instead of a kingdom. 8,000 Creoles signed a petition to ask Dom Pedro to rule. This helped Brazil win its independence in a bloodless revolution.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Brazil's history in the nineteenth century was dramatically shaped by events in Europe - namely, the ascendancy of Napoleon Bonaparte to the throne of France, and his subsequent conquest of much of continental Europe, including the Iberian Peninsula. As Napoleon's forces marched on Portugal, which had been a consistent ally of the Britain, France's nemesis, the royal court fled for the new world, establishing a court in Rio de Janeiro in 1808.

During his 13-year stay in Rio, Dom João VI brought a number of European-style institutions to the city - a printing press, an opera house, naval and military academies, and much more - so much so that, even after Napoleon's defeat and exile, the Portuguese monarch did not want to return to the court in Lisbon. He found himself more comfortable in Brazil. By choosing a faraway colony as a seat of power, João angered other European countries. His solution was to elevate Brazil to a monarchy and make himself de-facto ruler of two nations.

Still, his subjects and British allies clamored for his return, and so in 1821 João left his son, Prince Pedro, as regent in Brazil and returned to Europe.

Coronation of Pedro I

Brazil's independence from Portugal was a relatively anticlimactic event - there was no war, no act of congress, no overthrow of the government. With Dom João back in Lisbon, the Portuguese Cortes [parliament] attempted to restore Brazil to colonial status. But Pedro, as regent, rejected their attempts. On January 9, 1822, he officially and publicly announced his refusal to obey an order from Parliament that he return to Portugal. That day is now known as the Dia do Fico, a Brazilian holiday, for Pedro's proclamation: "I shall remain."

Pedro was lucky. His decision matched public opinion among Brazilian landowners and bureaucrats, who reflected important political interests. The divide between Portugal and Brazil widened, until September of 1822, when Pedro rejected a final decree from Portugal with the statement "Independência ou Morte!" [Independence or death.] From there he went on with the business of establishing the new Empire of Brazil, clearing out Portuguese loyalists within his government but making no changes to the existing socio-economic order.

In this account, Father Belchior Pinheira de Oliveira, a confidant of Prince Pedro, describes the exact moment of the declaration of independence, just after the prince has received the Cortes' demand that he return.

Accompanied by me, Cordeiro, Bregaro, Carlota, and others, D. Pedro silently walked toward our horses at the side of the road. Suddenly, he halted in the middle of the road and said to me, "Father Belchior, they asked for it and they will get it. The Côrtes is persecuting me and calling me an adolescent and a Brazilian. Well, now let them see their adolescent in action. From today on our relations with them are finished. I want nothing more from the Portuguese government, and I proclaim Brazil forevermore separated from Portugal."

With enthusiasm we immediately answered, "Long live liberty! Long live an independent Brazil! Long live D. Pedro!"

The Prince turned to his adjutant and said, "Tell my guard that I have just declared the complete independence of Brazil. We are free from Portugal."

Lieutenant Canto e Melo rode toward a market where most of the soldiers of the guard remained. He returned to the Prince with them shouting enthusiastically in favor of an independent and separate Brazil, D. Pedro, and the Catholic Religion.

D. Pedro before the guard said, 'The Portuguese Côrtes wants to enslave and to persecute us. Henceforth our relations are broken. Not one tie unites us!' (Burns, 199)

What, according to Father Belchior's account, were Pedro's concerns in breaking away from Portugal?

What do his declaration and his supporters' response indicate about the likely changes to the regime after independence?

Here Debret presents a grand, theatrical interpretation of the ascendancy of Emperor Pedro I and the separation of Brazil from the kingdom of Portugal. Framed by a curtain and flanked by symbols of the new nation's independence, the former prince regent takes center stage. Debret is at once conveying two messages that later artists would frequently reiterate: that Brazil is a separate entity with its own history; and that, despite its differences with the Old World, its peoples can see it as a peer of the long-standing civilizations that came before it.

The decision to label the new government an "empire" rather than a "kingdom" was a calculated and political one - Roman emperors were divinely supported, but did not receive their earthly power from their blood, as Pedro would have in Lisbon following the death of his father, Joao VI. In theory, at least, a Roman emperor received a mandate from the people to rule on their behalf. Lacking an imperial history of its own, Brazil adopted another's. As Pedro holds the new Constitution, the diverse peoples around him cheer and clamor for his rule. White and black parents put their children forward, as if waiting for them to be blessed, while bandeirantes pledge their allegiance and a soldier fires a cannon in celebration.

Notice, in the shadows to the left and right of the throne, the Indian civilians and warriors, respectively; the presence of indigenous peoples was an oft-invoked piece of evidence for "Brazilian history." In 1862, to commemorate the 40th anniversary of the coronation Debret acclaims here, elites in Rio de Janeiro unveiled an equestrian statue of Pedro I; Native Brazilians are carved beneath the triumphal national monument as a means of reminding viewers that the country had a past before the Portuguese.

Some other details are worth observing. The boat in the far left foreground is carrying coffee and sugar, the two most important crops at the time of this painting. The old man on the right is from Sao Paulo, while his grandson, upon whom he is leaning, is from Minas Gerais. Finally, the entire scene is consecrated by heraldic angels and three cherubim carrying a crowned orb with the letter "P," presumably for "Pedro." This orb resembles the imperial coat of arms, which also decorated the national flag until the empire's end in 1889.

Portraits of a King and an Emperor

The man in the images on the left is King João VI, and the man on the right is the Emperor Pedro I.

What does the difference in attire of these two men reflect about their political positions?

What is the value in comparing them side by side? What are the similarities and differences between them?

Comparisons of Rio de Janeiro

Why did Debret show these two images, the close-up of the palace and the long view of the coastline, together? How does one complement the other?

What assumptions can be made about the economy and social structure of Rio de Janiero from these images?

How does the plaza depicted in this image differ from the one shown in Debret's "Vue de la Place de Palais, à Rio de Janiero"?

What kinds of people are shown and what kinds of tasks are they doing?

How does the architecture differ from that of the aforementioned image?

Arrival of Princess Leopoldine

What does this illustration say about the Brazilian monarchy?

How is the princess welcomed to Brazil?

How does the illustration reflect both European and Brazilian values in terms of its setting, its people, and its architecture?

Pedro II Assumes Leadership

The focal point of this Debret painting, hard to see from afar, is standing on a chair. In 1831, under pressure from the Brazilian military and the Portuguese monarchy, Dom Pedro I returned to Portugal to assume the throne (his father had died five years earlier), leaving his son Pedro II as the claimant to the Brazilian imperial seat of power.

Pedro II was five years old at the time, so a triumvirate of regents was arranged, planning to rule the country until the young emperor reached age 18. Here we see the symbolic acclamation of the new leader, who waves to the crowd from a balcony in the upper-left while in military dress. For the Brazilian elites, the continued existence of an emperor was vital from a symbolic point of view. Although liberals and conservatives split on how power should be centralized in this still-young government, they supported the regents' plan all the same.

The men on horseback closest to Pedro's balcony represent the different sectors of Rio de Janeiro, the capital city from 1793 to 1960. Behind the line of soldiers in the center, notice the celebrating men, many of whom are holding branches, which were meant to symbolize the national colors, green and gold. All the revelers appear to be well off, if not elite. There are no clearly poor people in this audience, but they were not as invested in preserving the status quo as the elites who wanted to ward off any potential political tumult that might accompany a change of power. Indeed, following a series of small revolts in the 1830s that questioned the empire's legitimacy and what Brazil stood for, the country's elites pushed for Pedro II to assume power four years early. He did so in 1840, and would rule the "Second Empire" for the next 59 years.

Further Reading

Roderick Barman's Citizen Emperor: Pedro II and the Making of Brazil, 1825-1891 studies the reign of the emperor, "a complex personality who simultaneously compels sympathy, exasperation, and respect."

Sources

Burns, Bradford, ed. A Documentary History of Brazil. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1966.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Brazil's history in the nineteenth century was dramatically shaped by events in Europe - namely, the ascendancy of Napoleon Bonaparte to the throne of France, and his subsequent conquest of much of continental Europe, including the Iberian Peninsula.

# data[].attributes.body
Nicknamed creole, the liberator, believed in equality and witnessed the reforms of the french revolution and fought for independence for present day venezuela, columbia, panama, bolivia, and ecuador.

# data[].attributes.body
Africans enslaved and free

Native Americans were bottom

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Three years of indecisive defeats and victories followed. In 1817 Bolívar decided to set up headquarters in the Orinoco River region, which had not been devastated by war and from which the Spaniards could not easily oust him. He engaged the services of several thousand foreign soldiers and officers, mostly British and Irish, established his capital at Angostura (now Ciudad Bolívar), began to publish a newspaper, and established a liaison with the revolutionary forces of the plains, including one group led by José Antonio Páez and another group led by Francisco de Paula Santander. In spring 1819 he conceived his master plan of attacking the Viceroyalty of New Granada.

Bolívar's attack on New Granada is considered one of the most daring in military history. The route of the small army (about 2,500 men, including the British legion) led through the plains, but it was the rainy season, and the rivers had become lakes. For seven days, according to one of Bolívar's aides, they marched in water up to their waists. Ten navigable rivers were crossed, most of them in cowhide boats. The journey through the plains seemed child's play, however, in comparison with their ascent of the Andes Mountains that stood between Bolívar and the city of Bogotá. Bolívar had chosen to cross the cordillera at the pass of Pisba, which the Spanish considered an inconceivable approach. An icy wind blew across the heights of the pass, and many of the scantily clad troops died of cold and exposure. The fatigue and loss, however, were more than outweighed by the advantage gained in descending unopposed into New Granada. The Spaniards were taken by surprise, and in the crucial Battle of Boyacá on August 7, 1819, the bulk of the royalist army surrendered to Bolívar. Three days later he entered Bogotá. That action was the turning point in the history of northern South America.

Indefatigably, Bolívar set out to complete his task. He appointed Santander vice president in charge of the administration and in December 1819 made his appearance before the congress that had assembled in Angostura. Bolívar was made president and military dictator. He urged the legislators to proclaim the creation of a new state; three days later the Republic of Colombia, usually called Gran Colombia, was established, comprising the three departments of New Granada (now the countries of Colombia and Panama), Venezuela, and Quito ( Ecuador). Since most of that territory was still under royalist control, it was largely a paper achievement. Bolívar knew, however, that victory was finally within his grasp. Early in 1820 a revolution in Spain forced the Spanish king, Ferdinand VII, to recognize the ideals of liberalism on the home front, an action that discouraged the Spanish forces in South America. Bolívar persuaded Morillo to open armistice negotiations, and the two warriors met in a memorable encounter at Santa Ana, Venezuela, signing in November 1820 a treaty that ended hostilities for a six-month period.

When fighting was resumed, Bolívar found it easy, with his superior manpower, to defeat the Spanish forces in Venezuela. The Battle of Carabobo (June 1821) opened the gates of Caracas, and Bolívar's Venezuelan homeland was at last free. In the autumn of the same year, a congress convened in Cúcuta to draft a constitution for Gran Colombia. Its provisions disappointed Bolívar. Although he had been elected president, he thought the constitution was too liberal in character to guarantee the survival of his creation. As long as more-urgent assignments claimed his attention, however, he was willing to put up with its weak structure. Putting the administration in Santander's hands, he left to continue his military campaign.

The effort to liberate Ecuador lasted about a year. Bolívar was assisted by the most brilliant of his officers, Antonio José de Sucre. While Bolívar engaged the Spaniards in the mountains that defended the northern access to Quito, capital of Ecuador, Sucre marched from the Pacific Ocean coast to the interior. At Pichincha on May 24, 1822, he won a victory that freed Ecuador from the Spanish yoke. On the following day the capital fell, and Bolívar joined forces with Sucre on June 16.

It was in Quito that the Liberator met the great passion of his life, Manuela Sáenz. She was an ardent revolutionary who freely admitted her love for Bolívar and accompanied him first to Peru and ultimately to the presidential palace in Bogotá.

Liberation of Peru

The territory of Gran Colombia had now been completely recovered from Spain, and its new government was recognized by the United States. Only Peru and Upper Peru remained in the hands of the Spaniards. It was the Peruvian problem that brought Bolívar and the Argentine revolutionary José de San Martín together. San Martín had done for the southern part of the continent what Bolívar had accomplished for the north. In addition, San Martín had already entered Lima and proclaimed Peru's independence. But the Spanish forces had retreated into the highlands, and San Martín, unable to follow them, decided to consult with Bolívar. On July 26, 1822, the two men met in the port city of Guayaquil, Ecuador (the Guayaquil Conference). Details of their discussions are not known, but presumably they covered completion of the military struggle in Peru as well as the subsequent organization of liberated Hispanic America. San Martín must have understood that Bolívar alone combined the military, political, and psychological assets needed to gain final victory over the powerful Spanish army in the highlands. Given the situation in Lima, where he faced mounting opposition, San Martín's presence there could only hinder the performance of that task. On his return from Guayaquil, San Martín resigned his office in Lima and went into exile, allowing Bolívar to assume sole direction of the war. Whether he took that action to give Bolívar a free hand or out of a sense of personal frustration is unknown.

The avenue that would lead to Bolívar's ultimate ambition was now open. In September 1823 he arrived in Lima. The Spanish army occupied the mountains east of the city, and its position was considered unassailable. Bolívar, however, systematically assembled troops, horses, mules, and ammunition to form an army, and in 1824 he moved out of the temporary capital in Trujillo and ascended the high cordillera. The first major battle took place at Junín and was easily won by Bolívar, who then left the successful termination of the campaign to his able chief of staff, Sucre. On December 9, 1824, the Spanish viceroy lost the Battle of Ayacucho to Sucre and surrendered with his entire army.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Simón Bolívar - Liberation of New Granada

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Simón Bolívar - Simón Bolívar - Liberation of New Granada: Three years of indecisive defeats and victories followed. In 1817 Bolívar decided to set up headquarters in the Orinoco River region, which had not been devastated by war and from which the Spaniards could not easily oust him.

# data[].attributes.body
Pros: He had a very good impact on the Mexican people and helped them believe in their lives.

Cons: He died

# data[].attributes.body
San Martin was an Argentine soldier, statesman, and national hero who helped lead the revolutions against Spanish rule in Argentina in 1812, Chile in 1818, and Peru in 1821.

# data[].attributes.body
Simón Bolívar's many achievements are organizing independence movements throughout South America, emerging victorious in significant conflicts such as Boyacá and Carabobo, establishing Gran Colombia, freeing numerous nations from Spanish domination, pushing for the abolition of slavery, and influencing Latin American politics.

# data[].attributes.headline
one accomplishment Jose de San Martin- S.  American is a soldier and statesman General Jose de San Martin ( 1778-1850) played a major role in winning independence from Spain and bringing freedom to his native Argentina in q812 he also won independence for Chile (1818) and Peru ( 1821).  another accomplishment that jose de San Martin S . American fought for independence from spain in the south.  A set back that Jose de San Martin is that historians do not know what they discussed when they met. 

# data[].attributes.subject
one accomplishment Jose de San Martin- S.  American is a soldier and statesman General Jose de San Martin ( 1778-1850) played a major role in winning independence from Spain and bringing freedom to his native Argentina in q812 he also won independence for Chile (1818) and Peru ( 1821).  another accomplishment that jose de San Martin S . American fought for independence from spain in the south.  A set back that Jose de San Martin is that historians do not know what they discussed when they met. 

# data[].attributes.headline
Mestizoes there mixed with native American and European ancestry Mulattos there mixed with African and European ancestry 

# data[].attributes.subject
Mestizoes there mixed with native American and European ancestry Mulattos there mixed with African and European ancestry 

# data[].attributes.body
L'Ouverture was the leader of the Haitian Revolution.

His father(Gaou Guinou) was the son if the King of Benin in the West of Africa.

Switched loyalty to the French.

He used paid Labor for the restoration of the plantation system.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.provider_name
National Museum of African American History and Culture

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Toussaint Louverture (ca. 1743-1803) was a Haitian general and leader of the Haitian Revolution.

Toussaint Louverture is thought to have been born enslaved around 1739-1746 on the plantation of Bréda at Haut de Cap on the northern coast of Saint-Domingue, present day Haiti. His father, Gaou Guinou was the son of the king of Benin in West Africa and his mother, Pauline, was Guinou's second wife. Louverture was likely well-educated throughout his youth, as his letters demonstrated knowledge of both French and Creole and a familiarity with Greek, Italian, and French philosophers.

In 1776, at the age of 33, Louverture was freed and the following year, he married Suzanne Simone Baptiste. The couple remained in Bréda, where Louverture amassed a small fortune through the exploitation of enslaved individuals on his leased coffee plantation.

The spark of the French Revolution in 1789 inspired free people or color in Saint-Domingue to seek addition rights under the law. However, in August 1791, a Vodou ceremony marked the beginning of the rebellion amongst Saint-Domingue's enslaved population. As an enslaver, Louverture left Bréda and removed his overseers from his coffee plantation. After joining the Spanish-allied military forces of Georges Biassou, he took on a leadership role in the rebellion, discussing strategy and negotiating supplies with the Spanish. In a late 1791 prisoner of war negotiation, Louverture made successions to the enslaved population in Saint-Domingue, banning the use of the whip, allowing an extra day off, and emancipating some of the rebellion's leaders. In the years following, he earned notoriety as a significant military leader and skilled negotiator.

In the early 1790s, he adopted the surname Louverture and shifted his viewpoints on slavery and abolition. Instead of fighting for more humane treatment of enslaved individuals, he instead campaigned for the complete abolition of slavery. When the French revolutionary government first outlawed slavery on February 4, 1794, Louverture switched his allegiance to the French. The July 1796 Treaty of Basel formally ended hostilities between the French and Spanish.

Throughout his years in power, Louverture worked to improve the economy and security of Saint-Domingue. He restored the plantation system using paid labor, negotiated trade treaties with Britain and the United States, and maintained a large and well-disciplined army. He was promoted to Saint-Domingue's highest-ranking officer in 1797.

By 1801, Louverture had conquered the whole island, extending abolition to the Spanish Santo Domingo, and embarked on a program of modernization. In 1802, when Louverture promulgated an autonomist constitution for the colony, instating himself as governor for life over the whole of "Hispaniola," Napoleon Bonaparte took this as an affront to French control of the island and Louverture was arrested and deported to France. He died in prison in 1803.

The Haitian Revolution continued under his lieutenant, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, who declared independence for the sovereign nation of Haiti in early 1804. The Haitian Revolution and the actions of Toussaint Louverture led to the establishment of the first sovereign state in Latin America, challenging the European colonial order. The Haitian Revolution inspired other national and Creole revolutions across Latin America.
View objects relating to Toussaint Louverture

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Toussaint Louverture (ca. 1743-1803) was a Haitian general and leader of the Haitian Revolution.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
José de San Martín (1778–1850) was one of the fathers of South American independence and sought the creation of an alliance of nations in South America. Argentinean citizens gave this equestrian monument to the United States in 1925, and the bronze plaque on the back of the sculpture likens San Mart…

# data[].attributes.body
Simon Bolivar was one of the more important leaders in Spanish America's rebellion for independence from Spain. Bolivar was known as "The Liberator" because of the amount of territories he liberated. He was born July 24th, 1783 and he died December 17th, 1830.

# data[].attributes.body
Peninsulares and Creoles made up the highest social class in Latin America. and they controlled the wealth land and power in the Spanish colonies

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Learn about the life of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, the father of Mexican independence Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla

Who was Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla?
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla was a Mexican Roman Catholic priest who is celebrated as "the father of Mexican independence" for his role in the War of Independence that ended Spanish colonial rule in Mexico.
When and where was Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla born?
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla was born on May 8, 1753, in Corralejo, Mexico, to parents of pure Creole ("Criollo") descent.
What is Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla known for?
After the French invasion of Spain in 1808, many Mexicans formed secret societies. Some supported the Spanish government, while others-like the group Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla joined near Dolores, Mexico-advocated for independence from Spain, racial equality, and redistribution of land.

The date now celebrated as Mexican Independence Day, September 16, commemorates the day Hidalgo issued the "Grito de Dolores" ("Cry of Dolores"), the speech that effectively launched the Mexican War of Independence (1810-21).
How did Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla die?
In the fall and winter of 1810, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla's rebellion marched across Mexico. Many of his followers abandoned him at Mexico City, though, and those remaining suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Calderón Bridge on January 17, 1811.

Hidalgo fled north, hoping to escape into the United States, but he was caught, and on July 30, 1811, he was executed by a firing squad. He was 58.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
A short biography of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla Who was Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla? Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla was a Mexican Roman Catholic priest who is celebrated as "the father of Mexican independence" for his role in the War of Independence that ended Spanish colonial rule in Mexico. When and where was Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla born?

# data[].attributes.body
A key character in Mexican history, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla is most remembered for having started the Mexican War of Independence. He gave the "Grito de Dolores," a fervent cry to arms, on September 16, 1810, which set the rebellion against Spanish colonial control. Peasants, Indigenous peoples, and mestizos were among the varied coalition of supporters brought together by Hidalgo's leadership to fight for independence. Even tho he died, he still had a amazing impact on the Mexican people and helped them believe in life.

# data[].attributes.body
José María Morelos was a revolutionary priest who led the Mexican independence movement following Miguel Hidalgo's 1810 revolt and death. He was born in Valladolid, Mexico, on September 30, 1765, and passed away in San Cristóbal on December 22, 1815.

# data[].attributes.body
For two years, he served the Sevilla junta that was conducting the war on behalf of the imprisoned Spanish king Ferdinand VII.

# data[].attributes.headline
Shawn Sheldon, David Marsh, John Laverdure

# data[].attributes.subject
Shawn Sheldon, David Marsh, John Laverdure

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
José María Morelos: The Priest Turned Revolutionary Leader | BIOGRAPHY

# data[].attributes.body
Argentine soldier, statesman, and national hero who helped lead the revolutions against Spanish rule in Argentina, Chile, and Peru.

# data[].attributes.body
San Martin lived from Febuary 25th, 1778, till August 17th, 1850.

# data[].attributes.body
Agustin de Iturbide , born September 27, 1783, was a Mexican military chieftain who became the leader of the conservative factions in the Mexican independence movement and was briefly emperor of Mexico. On July 19, 1824, he was executed by a firing squad.

# data[].attributes.body
We should continue to study Iturbide because after a decade of fighting he galvanized Mexican support for independence which defined Mexico as an independent nation.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Haitian Revolution: Toussaint Louverture Leads French Slaves To Freedom

# data[].attributes.body
Some of Iturbrides accomplishments include that he fought during the Independence War, he helped achieve independence from Spain. From fighting in the war he was made the emperor of Mexico.

The setbacks from Iturbide was that he wanted power for personal benefit and this injured the economy and social development of Mexico.

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y4L2k-l4F98

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Agustín de Iturbide: Hero or Traitor? The Truth Behind Mexico's First Emperor