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Sustainable Development Report: Estonia (2022)

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Sustainable Development Report: Estonia (2022)

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https://dashboards.sdgindex.org/profiles/estonia

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The Sustainable Development Report 2021 tracks the performance of all 193 UN Member States on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

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Sustainable Development Report: Moldova (2022)

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Sustainable Development Report: Moldova (2022)

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https://dashboards.sdgindex.org/profiles/moldova

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Moldova

Eastern Europe and Central Asia

Overview Indicators

SDG Dashboards and Trends

Click on a goal to view more information.

Dashboards:

SDG achieved

Challenges remain

Significant challenges remain

Major challenges remain

Information unavailable

Trends:

On track or maintaining SDG achievement

Moderately improving

Stagnating

Decreasing

Trend information unavailable

Check us out on social media!

The Sustainable Development Report (formerly the SDG Index & Dashboards) is a global assessment of countries' progress towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. It is a complement to the official SDG indicators and the voluntary national reviews.

All data presented on this website are based on the publication Sachs et al. (2022): From Crisis to Sustainable Development: the SDGs as Roadmap to 2030 and Beyond. Sustainable Development Report 2022. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Feedback? Questions? Contact us at info@sdgindex.org

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The Sustainable Development Report 2022 tracks the performance of all 193 UN Member States on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

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Medical and Healthcare Innovation in Estonia

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Medical and Healthcare Innovation in Estonia

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h8w_PuoVQgE

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Medical and Healthcare Innovation in Estonia

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Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation: Estonia

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Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation: Estonia

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https://www.healthdata.org/estonia

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Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation

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IHME

Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation

Population Health Building/Hans Rosling Center

3980 15th Ave. NE, Seattle, WA 98195

UW Campus Box #351615

Tel: +1-206-897-2800

Fax: +1-206-897-2899

© 2022

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Analyze updated data about the world's health levels and trends from 1990 to 2019 in this interactive tool using estimates from the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) study. Compare causes,...

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Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation: Moldova

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Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation: Moldova

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.healthdata.org/moldova

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.provider_name
Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
IHME

Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation

Population Health Building/Hans Rosling Center

3980 15th Ave. NE, Seattle, WA 98195

UW Campus Box #351615

Tel: +1-206-897-2800

Fax: +1-206-897-2899

© 2022

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Analyze updated data about the world's health levels and trends from 1990 to 2019 in this interactive tool using estimates from the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) study. Compare causes,...

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What the U.S. Medical System Can Learn From Estonia

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What the U.S. Medical System Can Learn From Estonia

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https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2019/06/why-arent-electronic-health-records-better/592387/?gclid=EAIaIQobChMI8MKMy6yT6wIVkYbACh1AKw7CEAMYASAAEgIOU_D_BwE

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The scene: a doctor's office. You: frustrated, on your lunch break from work, just wanting to get in and get out. It's probably not your first visit to that provider. It might not even be your second or third. And yet there you are, filling out byzantine papers attached to a clipboard, promising to pay if your insurance doesn't, providing your Social Security number for the kajillionth time, and trying to remember your insurance group number, which is not the same as the ID number.

"Every time I go to the doctor, I spend the first half hour filling out pages of information. Why isn't that traveling with me?" asked a cancer survivor in the audience of a recent talk by Eric Topol, the chair of innovative medicine at Scripps Research, at Aspen Ideas: Health, co-hosted by the Aspen Institute and The Atlantic.

"It's so real that you have to fill out the same forms all the time," Topol responded. The American medical system is atrocious at keeping track of the stuff it does. According to Topol, 10 percent of all scans in the United States are repeated unnecessarily simply because patients can't get hold of their past records and scans. It amounts to billions of wasted dollars.
Read: Why Europeans don't get huge medical bills
Instead of this current system, Topol recommended that the United States take a page from Estonia, the Baltic nation where health records are digitized and travel with the patient. "You wouldn't be filling out all these forms, because you could send your data" to the doctor, Topol said.

Under the e-Estonia project, much of the data behind Estonians' lives, from doctor appointments to taxes, have migrated from dead trees to the cloud. Almost all people in Estonia have an electronic ID card that contains their entire health record. Doctors can see one another's notes, as well as past scans and X-rays a person has had. "In an emergency situation, a doctor can use a patient's ID code to read time-critical information, such as blood type, allergies, recent treatments, on-going medication or pregnancy," the e-Estonia site explains. Patients own their health information; they can access it at any time. The health data are kept secure through blockchain technology, which takes note each time something in the record is changed. Even the country's ambulances get downloads of the health data of the people they are rushing off to help.

The disparity between the United States and Estonia when it comes to electronic health records came to the attention of former Estonian President Toomas Hendrik Ilves during a trip to Northern California. "If you have to prove that you live where you live or get your child to be registered for school, you have to come in with a paper copy of your electricity bill," Ives told Public Radio International's The World in 2017. "The reality of your sort of life dealing with bureaucracy, it is not touched by the digital revolution."

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huge medical billsinstead of this current system

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downloads of the health data of the people

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What the U.S. Medical System Can Learn From Estonia

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The scene: a doctor's office. You: frustrated, on your lunch break from work, just wanting to get in and get out. It's probably not your first visit to that provider. It might not even be your second or third.

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The WHO Regional Office for Europe (WHO/Europe) is one of WHO's six regional offices around the world. It serves the WHO European Region, which comprises 53 countries, covering a vast geographical region from the Atlantic to the Pacific oceans.

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https://www.cdc.gov/nchhstp/socialdeterminants/faq.html

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Health equity can be defined in several ways. One commonly used definition of health equity is when all people have "the opportunity to 'attain their full health potential' and no one is 'disadvantaged from achieving this potential because of their social position or other socially determined circumstance'". ¹ The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services defines health equity as attainment of the highest level of health for all people. Achieving health equity requires valuing everyone equally with focused and ongoing societal efforts to address avoidable inequalities, historical and contemporary injustices, and the elimination of health and healthcare disparities. ² Achieving health equity, eliminating disparities, and improving the health of all groups is an overarching goal for Healthy People 2020 and a top priority for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). ³

Health is influenced by many factors, which may generally be organized into five broad categories known as determinants of health: genetics, behavior, environmental and physical influences, medical care and social factors. These five categories are interconnected.

The fifth category (social determinants of health) encompasses economic and social conditions that influence the health of people and communities. ⁴ These conditions are shaped by socioeconomic position, which is the amount of money, power, and resources that people have, all of which are influenced by socioeconomic and political factors (e.g., policies, culture, and societal values). 5,6 An individual's socioeconomic position can be shaped by various factors such as their education, occupation, or income. All of these factors (social determinants) impact the health and well-being of people and the communities they interact with.

Several factors related to health outcomes are listed below.

How a person develops during the first few years of life (early childhood development)

How much education a person obtains and the quality of that education

Being able to get and keep a job

What kind of work a person does

Having food or being able to get food (food security)

Having access to health services and the quality of those services

Living conditions such as housing status, public safety, clean water and pollution

How much money a person earns (individual income and household income)

Social norms and attitudes (discrimination, racism and distrust of government)

Residential segregation (physical separation of races/ethnicities into different neighborhoods)

Social support

Language and literacy

Incarceration

Culture (general customs and beliefs of a particular group of people)

Access to mass media and emerging technologies (cell phones, internet, and social media)

All of these factors are influenced by social circumstances. Of course, many of the factors in this list are also influenced by the other four determinants of health.

Addressing social determinants of health is a primary approach to achieving health equity. Health equity is "when everyone has the opportunity to 'attain their full health potential' and no one is 'disadvantaged from achieving this potential because of their social position or other socially determined circumstance'". ⁷ Health equity has also been defined as "the absence of systematic disparities in health between and within social groups that have different levels of underlying social advantages or disadvantages-that is, different positions in a social hierarchy". ⁸ Social determinants of health such as poverty, unequal access to health care, lack of education, stigma, and racism are underlying, contributing factors of health inequities. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is committed to achieving improvements in people's lives by reducing health inequities. Health organizations, institutions, and education programs are encouraged to look beyond behavioral factors and address underlying factors related to social determinants of health.

A growing body of research highlights the importance of upstream factors that influence health and the need for policy interventions to address those factors-in addition to clinical approaches and interventions aimed at modifying behavior. ⁹

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is committed to achieving improvements in people's lives by reducing health inequities. Health organizations, institutions, and education programs are encouraged to look beyond behavioral factors and address underlying factors related to social determinants of health.

The World Health Organization (WHO)external icon created the Commission on Social Determinants of Healthexternal icon to address social determinants of health. ⁴ The Commission uses the following three principles to guide its work in eliminating health inequities for local communities and nations and throughout the world:

Improve the conditions of daily life-the circumstances in which people are born, grow, live, work, and age.

Tackle the inequitable distribution of power, money, and resources-the structural drivers of those conditions of daily life-globally, nationally, and locally.

Measure the problem, evaluate action, expand the knowledge base, develop a workforce that is trained in the social determinants of health, and raise public awareness about the social determinants of health.⁴

The commission created the conceptual framework below that describes relationships among individual and structural variables. The framework represents relationships among variables that are based on scientific studies or substantial evidence. The framework provides a point from which researchers can take action, such as creating targeted interventions, on social determinants of health.

More information is available from a variety of sources, including the following publications and web sites.
Websites Publications

Equity, social determinants and public health programmespdf icon external icon . Editors Erik Blas and Anand Sivasankara Kurup. 2010, World Health Organization: Geneva.

Commission on Social Determinants of Health (CSDH), Closing the gap in a generation: health equity through action on the social determinants of health. Final report of the Commission on Social Determinants of Healthpdf icon external icon . 2008, World Health Organization: Geneva.

Hillemeier, M., Lynch, J., Harper, S., Casper, M., Data Set Directory of Social Determinants of Health at the Local Levelpdf icon . 2004, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services: Atlanta.

Brennan Ramirez LK, Baker EA, Metzler M. Promoting Health Equity: A Resource to Help Communities Address Social Determinants of Health. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2008.

Hofrichter, R., Bhatia, R. (Eds.) Tackling Health Inequities through Public Health Practice: Theory to Action. 2010, Oxford University Press.

Raphael, D., ed. Social determinants of health: Canadian perspectives. 2004, Canadian Scholars' Press Toronto.

Marmot, M.G. and R.G. Wilkinson, Social determinants of health. 2nd ed. 2006, Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press. x, 366 p.

1. Braveman, P.A., Monitoring equity in health and healthcare: a conceptual framework. Journal of health, population, and nutrition, 2003. 21(3): p. 181.

2. CDC, Attaining Health Equity; ODPHP, Disparitiesexternal icon .

3. Commission on Social Determinants of Health (CSDH), Closing the gap in a generation: health equity through action on the social determinants of health. Final report of the Commission on Social Determinants of Health. 2008, World Health Organization: Geneva.

4. Commission on Social Determinants of Health (CSDH). A Conceptual Framework for Action on the Social Determinants of Health. Discussion Paper for the Commission on Social Determinants of Health DRAFT. 2007, World Health Organization: Geneva.

5. Brennan Ramirez LK, B.E., Metzler M., Promoting Health Equity: A Resource to Help Communities Address Social Determinants of Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Editor. 2008, Department of Health and Human Services: Atlanta, GA.

6. Braveman, P. and S. Gruskin, Defining equity in health. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 2003. 57(4): p. 254-258.

7. Health Policy Brief: "The Relative Contribution of Multiple Determinants to Health Outcomes," Health Affairs, August 21, 2014.

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Health equity can be defined in several ways. One commonly used definition of health equity is when all people have "the opportunity to 'attain their full health potential' and no one is 'disadvantaged from achieving this potential because of their social position or other socially determined circumstance'". 1 The U.S.

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An Overview of e-Health Services in Estonia

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An Overview of e-Health Services in Estonia

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H4QLzQGMI3k

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An Overview of e-Health Services in Estonia

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Estonian Chamber of Commerce and Industry

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Estonian Chamber of Commerce and Industry

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https://www.koda.ee/en/about-estonia/general-information

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Official name: Republic of Estonia.
Population: 1,324,820.
Major cities (population): Tallinn (443,541); Tartu (96,974); Narva (57,842); Pärnu (51,888); Kohtla-Järve (34,834).
Head of state: President.
Constitution: passed on 28 June 1992.
Government: Parliamentary Republic, single-chamber Parliament (Riigikogu) of 101 members.
Currency: Euro (EUR).
National day: Independence Day, 24 February.
Language: Estonian. Other languages such as English, Russian and Finnish are also widely spoken.
Ethnic groups: 68.8% of the population is of Estonian ethnicity. The second largest ethnic group is Russian, forming approximately 25.1% of the population. 1.8% of the population has Ukrainian roots, Belarusians and Finns each make up approximately 1% of the population.
Religion: Overall, most Estonians are not religious. There is a tolerance toward all religions and in general religious beliefs do not affect business activities in Estonia. Formally, Estonians are predominantly Lutherans, but religion does not have any considerable impact on daily life. There are small Russian Orthodox, Baptist and other communities across the country.
Major natural resources: Timber, oil shale, phosphorite, peat, limestone, dolomite.
Time zone: GMT + 2 hours, daylight saving time: +1hr, begins last Sunday in March; ends last Sunday in October.
Distance from Tallinn: Helsinki 85 km, Riga 307 km, St. Petersburg 395 km, Stockholm 405 km, Vilnius 605 km.
Flight times: Tallinn is within a 3-hour flight from major European capitals.
Climate: The climate in Estonia is temperate, characterised by warm summers and fairly severe winters. The weather is often breezy and humid due to the proximity of the Baltic Sea. Average temperatures range from 20.9° C in summer (usually July is the hottest month) to - 8°C in winter. Although occasionally the temperature may rise to 30°C and above in summer or sink below - 23°C in winter, it is very unusual at this latitude.

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Official name: Republic of Estonia. Population: 1,324,820. Major cities (population): Tallinn (443,541); Tartu (96,974); Narva (57,842); Pärnu (51,888); Kohtla-Järve (34,834). Head of state: President. Constitution: passed on 28 June 1992. Government: Parliamentary Republic, single-chamber Parliament (Riigikogu) of 101 members. Currency: Euro (EUR). National day: Independence Day, 24 February.

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https://slaviccenter.osu.edu/K12educators

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Body

A primary mission of the Center for Slavic, East European and Eurasian Studies (CSEEES) is to work with Ohio K-12 schools to promote the knowledge and understanding of Eastern Europe and Eurasia by bringing the cultures, histories, and languages of these regions into the classroom. CSEEES does this by offering lectures and presentations, loaning classroom materials, developing lesson plans and curriculum guides, organizing teacher training workshops, and providing funding for professional development opportunities. Topics and formats are designed to align with Ohio education content standards. Through these activities, CSEEES fosters the 21st century learning and increased global competencies of Ohio K-12 students. All services and trainings are provided free-of-charge.

Teacher Trainings Programs

Currently, CSEEES supports four primary teacher training programs. All programs are free and open to any pre- or in-service teacher in Ohio.

CSEEES Annual Teacher Training Workshop

Each fall CSEEES organizes a one-day workshop on a timely topic affecting Eastern Europe and/or Eurasia. The workshop is typically held on a Saturday morning in September or October and features a guest expert, selected readings, and a curriculum resource for attendees.

The Area Studies Centers K-12 Global Fellowship Program

A seven-month professional development opportunity for teachers featuring discussion groups led by guest experts that gives participants a deep dive into a particular topic across multiple world regions.

The Area Studies Centers Global Teacher Seminar

A week-long, intensive seminar usually held in early June that addresses a globally relevant topic.

The Engaging Eurasia Teacher Fellowship Program

In conjunction with Harvard University, the University of Pittsburgh, and the University of Wisconsin-Madison, CSEEES is co-sponsoring the Engaging Eurasia Teacher Fellowship program. This year-long, national professional development program for K-12 teachers and community college faculty will explore different conflicts that have occurred in the post-Soviet space with Russia since the collapse of the Soviet Union. It will deepen participants understanding of the history and current events of the post-Soviet space through sessions led by expert scholars who will delve into case studies and trainings.

Other CSEEES Resources

In addition to the programs we have listed above, we are happy to work with any educational organization to develop presentations and materials around their needs or different grade levels and can discuss different resources available. Below are some commonly used and requested materials.

Advanced

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To provide free, widely accessible content about Eastern Europe and Eurasia, CSEEES has worked with Ohio State faculty and graduate student experts to create online modules that are self-contained units of instruction for K-12 students and teachers, as well as community college educators and students. Modules are in a variety of formats, are fully accessible, and are made to provide users with additional resources and information to further their study of a topic and/or country.

Please check the online modules page for a full list of modules available, as well as information on grade levels and content standards for each.

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CSEEES can develop and deliver presentations for schools throughout Ohio upon request. Presentations can be in-person, virtual, or pre-recorded in order to suit each educator's needs. To request a presentation, please contact Alicia Baca, the CSEEES outreach coordinator, at baca.31@osu.edu or call (614)292-8770.

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Knowledge Bank is an open access, free public digital repository hosted by The Ohio State University Libraries. Past presentations developed by CSEEES and unit plans and activities created by past teacher training participants have been uploaded to Knowledge Bank and are free to download, use, and modify. Items include PowerPoint presentations, lesson plans, Russian language activities, and document based questions.

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Culture boxes are a way to bring foreign cultures and history directly into the classroom. CSEEES has collected “artifacts” and real world items from Eastern Europe including foreign currencies, toys, games, maps, posters, clothing items, and books. Teachers can borrow culture boxes or items from CSEEES to incorporate artifacts into lessons. To request items, please contact Alicia Baca, the CSEEES outreach coordinator, at baca.31@osu.edu or call (614)292-8770.

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CSEEES has recorded and posted on YouTube numerous videos from its past lectures. Additionally, CSEEES staff and interns have made videos and presentations on a variety of topics.

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Educational Resource Websites

Origins: Current Events in Historical Perspective is a publication of Ohio State's and Miami University's Departments of History. They regular publish articles, book reviews, videos, and podcasts on timely historical subjects. Additionally, they have a lot of great resources for teachers.

The History Teaching Institute (HTI) serves as the primary outreach unit of The Ohio State University History Department. They work with teachers to develop curriculum and to incorporate the best practices of using technology in the classroom, all in an effort to improve both teaching and learning at Ohio State and in schools around the state.

EDSITEment: National Endowment for the Humanities lesson plans and teacher resources

2016 NEH Summer Institute "Central Asia in World History" Unit Plans

Caspiana is a digital toolbox to find resources and sources of information about Central Asia and the Caucasus. Created by the Davis Center at Harvard University

Words Without Borders is a digital magazine that offers access to the world’s literary voices. These include writers like Elena Ferrante, Olga Tokarczuk, and Han Kang and they are committed to centering writers in indigenous, endangered, and other world languages that are too often marginalized. Their educational program, WWB Campus, brings global literature into hundreds of classrooms, offering free access to stories from around the world; multimedia curricular resources that bring literature to life; and professional support for educators.

Other Organizations in Ohio

Cleveland Hungarian Museum in Cleveland, Ohio

Slovenian Museum and Archives in Cleveland, Ohio

Ukrainian Museum-Archives in Cleveland, Ohio

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Email Alicia Baca, the CSEEES outreach coordinator, at baca.31@osu.edu or call (614)292-8770 for more information.

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K-12 Educator Programs | Center for Slavic and East European Studies

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A primary mission of the Center for Slavic, East European and Eurasian Studies (CSEEES) is to work with Ohio K-12 schools to promote the knowledge and understanding of Eastern Europe and Eurasia by bringing the cultures, histories, and languages of these regions into the classroom. CSEEES does this…

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https://slaviccenter.osu.edu/online-modules

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Photo by Markus Winkler on Unsplash

Body

To provide free, widely accessible content about Eastern Europe and Eurasia, CSEEES has worked with Ohio State faculty and graduate student experts to create online modules that are self-contained units of instruction for K-12 students and teachers, as well as community college educators and students. Modules are in a variety of formats, are fully accessible, and are made to provide users with additional resources and information to further their study of a topic and/or country.

"Baltic Tenacity: Survival and Preservation of the Baltic Cultures through the Years of the Russian Empire and Soviet Union" by Dr. Maria Ignatieva. Format: u.osu.edu website.

"Czech and Slovak Theatrical Design of the 20th Century" by Dr. Dan Matthews. Format: Youtube video

"From Population Exchange to Ethnic Cleansing: Forced Migration in 20th-Century Eastern Europe" by Dr. Theodora Dragostinova. Format: Youtube video with a fully accessible transcript available.

"An Introduction to Uzbekistan" by Henry Misa, Alisher Khaliyarov, and Dr. Madina Djuraeva. Format: u.osu.edu website.

"Medical and Healthcare Innovation in Estonia" by Dr. Lorraine Wallace and Steven Mousetes. Format: Youtube video with a fully accessible transcript available. PowerPoint available for download through Knowledge Bank.

"An Overview of Czech Language, History, and Culture" by Ashton Kimbler. Format: Youtube video with a fully accessible transcript available.

"Uzbek" by Kamola Azimova. Format: u.osu.edu website

"Youth Culture in Postcommunist Romania" by Dr. Adela Lechintan-Siefer. Format: Google website with embedded content.

Is there a module topic that you want to use in your classroom but don't see above? Email CSEEES at cseees@osu.edu to let us know what topics you are looking for!

Ohio Learning Standards for K-12 Educators

In order to help K-12 educators find which module would best fit their courses, we have created different groupings for our online modules based on which Ohio Learning Standards they fulfill. Groupings are separated by grade and then further separated by subject, course theme/strand, and topic. Beneath each module you will see which specific content statements that each module covers.

Advanced

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"Czech and Slovak Theatrical Design of the 20th Century" by Dr. Dan Matthews

Topic: Responding

Content Statements:

6.1RE Express and compare personal reactions to various theatrical elements using appropriate theatrical vocabulary and terminology.

6.3RE Determine the effectiveness of a specific artistic choice in communicating a theatrical work.

6.4RE Establish criteria to critique one’s portrayal of a character based on voice, gesture, facial expression and movement.

6.5RE Describe ways an audience can respond differently to plays that are performed in various physical settings (arena, proscenium, thrust, outdoors).

Topic: Connecting

Content Statements:

6.1CO Investigate the time period and place of a drama or theatre work to better understand performance and design choices.

6.2CO Explain how the actions and motivations of characters in a drama or theatre work impact perspective of a community or culture.

6.4CO Use dramatic and theatrical skills to demonstrate concepts or ideas from other academic areas.

6.5CO Identify professional tools and skills for a working theatre artist.

6.6CO Identify universal themes or common social issues and express them through a drama or theatre work.

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"Baltic Tenacity: Survival and Preservation of the Baltic Cultures through the Years of the Russian Empire and Soviet Union" by Dr. Maria Ignatieva

Topic: Spatial Thinking and Skills

Content Statements:

3. Geographic tools can be used to gather, process and report information about people, places and environments. Cartographers decide which information to include and how it is displayed.

Topic: Places and Regions

Content Statements:

5. Regions can be determined, classified and compared using data related to various criteria including landform, climate, population, and cultural and economic characteristics.

"Czech and Slovak Theatrical Design of the 20th Century" by Dr. Dan Matthews

Topic: Spatial Thinking and Skills

Content Statements:

3. Geographic tools can be used to gather, process and report information about people, places and environments. Cartographers decide which information to include and how it is displayed.

Topic: Places and Regions

Content Statements:

5. Regions can be determined, classified and compared using data related to various criteria including landform, climate, population, and cultural and economic characteristics.

"An Introduction to Uzbekistan" by Henry Misa, Alisher Khaliyarov, and Dr. Madina Djuraeva

Topic: Spatial Thinking and Skills

Content Statements:

3. Geographic tools can be used to gather, process and report information about people, places and environments. Cartographers decide which information to include and how it is displayed.

Topic: Places and Regions

Content Statements:

5. Regions can be determined, classified and compared using data related to various criteria including landform, climate, population, and cultural and economic characteristics.

Topic: Human Systems

Content Statements:

6. The variety of physical environments within the Eastern Hemisphere influences human activities. Likewise, human activities modify the physical environment.

7. Political, environmental, social and economic factors cause people, products and ideas to move from place to place in the Eastern Hemisphere in the past and today.

8. Diffusion of agricultural practices and products, technology, cultural practices and major world religions (Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam and Judaism) impacted the Eastern Hemisphere.

"An Overview of Czech Language, History, and Culture" by Ashton Kimbler

Topic: Spatial Thinking and Skills

Content Statements:

3. Geographic tools can be used to gather, process and report information about people, places and environments. Cartographers decide which information to include and how it is displayed.

Topic: Places and Regions

Content Statements:

5. Regions can be determined, classified and compared using data related to various criteria including landform, climate, population, and cultural and economic characteristics.

"Uzbek" by Kamola Azimova

Topic: Spatial Thinking and Skills

Content Statements:

3. Geographic tools can be used to gather, process and report information about people, places and environments. Cartographers decide which information to include and how it is displayed.

Topic: Places and Regions

Content Statements:

5. Regions can be determined, classified and compared using data related to various criteria including landform, climate, population, and cultural and economic characteristics.

Topic: Human Systems

Content Statements:

6. The variety of physical environments within the Eastern Hemisphere influences human activities. Likewise, human activities modify the physical environment.

7. Political, environmental, social and economic factors cause people, products and ideas to move from place to place in the Eastern Hemisphere in the past and today.

8. Diffusion of agricultural practices and products, technology, cultural practices and major world religions (Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam and Judaism) impacted the Eastern Hemisphere.

"Youth Culture in Postcommunist Romania" by Dr. Adela Lechintan-Siefer

Topic: Spatial Thinking and Skills

Content Statements:

3. Geographic tools can be used to gather, process and report information about people, places and environments. Cartographers decide which information to include and how it is displayed.

Topic: Places and Regions

Content Statements:

5. Regions can be determined, classified and compared using data related to various criteria including landform, climate, population, and cultural and economic characteristics.

Text

"Youth Culture in Postcommunist Romania" by Dr. Adela Lechintan-Siefer

Topic: Civic Participation and Skills

Content Statements:

9. Different perspectives on a topic can be obtained from a variety of historic and contemporary sources and used to effectively communicate and defend a claim based on evidence. Sources should be examined for accuracy and credibility.

Text

"Baltic Tenacity: Survival and Preservation of the Baltic Cultures through the Years of the Russian Empire and Soviet Union" by Dr. Maria Ignatieva

Topic: Historical Thinking and Skills

Content Statements:

1. Multiple tier timelines can be used to show relationships among events and places.

"Czech and Slovak Theatrical Design of the 20th Century" by Dr. Dan Matthews

Topic: Historical Thinking and Skills

Content Statements:

1. Multiple tier timelines can be used to show relationships among events and places.

"An Introduction to Uzbekistan" by Henry Misa, Alisher Khaliyarov, and Dr. Madina Djuraeva

Topic: Historical Thinking and Skills

Content Statements:

1. Multiple tier timelines can be used to show relationships among events and places.

"An Overview of Czech Language, History, and Culture" by Ashton Kimbler

Topic: Historical Thinking and Skills

Content Statements:

1. Multiple tier timelines can be used to show relationships among events and places.

"Uzbek" by Kamola Azimova

Topic: Historical Thinking and Skills

Content Statements:

1. Multiple tier timelines can be used to show relationships among events and places.

"Youth Culture in Postcommunist Romania" by Dr. Adela Lechintan-Siefer

Topic: Historical Thinking and Skills

Content Statements:

1. Multiple tier timelines can be used to show relationships among events and places.

Text

"Czech and Slovak Theatrical Design of the 20th Century" by Dr. Dan Matthew

Topic: Responding

Content Statements:

7.1RE Use theatrical vocabulary to compare and contrast personal opinions about a theatrical work with those of a professional critic.

7.3RE Explain how production elements work together to affect an audience.

7.5RE Demonstrate adjustments actors and directors may need to make when performing in various physical settings.

Topic: Connecting

Content Statements:

7.2CO Incorporate multiple perspectives and diverse community ideas in a dramatic or theatre work.

7.5CO Examine personal reasons for connecting to various careers in theatre.

7.6CO Incorporate music, dance, art and/or media in a dramatic or theatre work with a particular cultural, global or historic context.

7.7CO Develop a persuasive stance about why the theatrical or dramatic arts are important in schools and defend that opinion.

Text

"An Introduction to Uzbekistan" by Henry Misa, Alisher Khaliyarov, and Dr. Madina Djuraeva

Topic: Human Systems

Content Statements:

13. Geographic factors promote or impede the movement of people, products and ideas.

14. Trade routes connecting Africa, Europe and Asia helped foster the spread of ideas, technology, goods and major world religions (Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam and Judaism) that impacted the Eastern Hemisphere.

15. Improvements in transportation, communication and technology have facilitated cultural diffusion among peoples around the world.

"An Overview of Czech Language, History, and Culture" by Ashton Kimbler

Topic: Human Systems

Content Statements:

13. Geographic factors promote or impede the movement of people, products and ideas.

14. Trade routes connecting Africa, Europe and Asia helped foster the spread of ideas, technology, goods and major world religions (Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam and Judaism) that impacted the Eastern Hemisphere.

15. Improvements in transportation, communication and technology have facilitated cultural diffusion among peoples around the world.

Text

"An Introduction to Uzbekistan" by Henry Misa, Alisher Khaliyarov, and Dr. Madina Djuraeva

Topic: Historical Thinking and Skills

Content Statements:

1. Historians and archaeologists describe historical events and issues from the perspectives of people living at the time to avoid evaluating the past in terms of today’s norms and values.

Topic: Feudalism and Transitions

Content Statements:

5. Achievements in medicine, science, mathematics and geography by the Islamic civilization dominated most of the Mediterranean after the decline of the Roman Empire. These achievements were introduced into Western Europe as a result of the Muslim conquests, Crusades and trade, influencing the European Renaissance.

6. The decline of feudalism, the rise of nation-states and the Renaissance in Europe introduced revolutionary ideas, leading to cultural, scientific and social changes.

Topic: First Global Age

Content Statements:

10. European economic and cultural influence dramatically increased through explorations, conquests and colonization.

"An Overview of Czech Language, History, and Culture" by Ashton Kimbler

Topic: Historical Thinking and Skills

Content Statements:

1. Historians and archaeologists describe historical events and issues from the perspectives of people living at the time to avoid evaluating the past in terms of today’s norms and values.

Text

"Czech and Slovak Theatrical Design of the 20th Century" by Dr. Dan Matthew

Topic: Responding

Content Statements:

8.1RE Use theatre  vocabulary to evaluate the opinions of several professional critics about a theatrical work.

8.3RE Explain how different artistic choices could alter the presentation of a theatrical work.

8.5RE Identify ways actors and designers adjust aspects of performance to adapt to different settings, audiences and contemporary social influences.

Topic: Connecting

Content Statements:

8.2CO Examine a community issue through multiple perspectives in a dramatic or theatre work.

8.3CO Integrate other academic disciplines into a dramatic presentation.

8.4CO Investigate the elements, principles and creative process of theatrical works from specific time periods and explain how these aspects work together.

8.6CO Use different theatrical forms to examine contemporary social, cultural or global issues.

8.7CO Investigate opportunities for further theatrical or dramatic arts involvement and instruction in the community.

Text

"Czech and Slovak Theatrical Design of the 20th Century" by Dr. Dan Matthews

Topic: Responding

Content Statements:

6.1RE Express and compare personal reactions to various theatrical elements using appropriate theatrical vocabulary and terminology.

6.3RE Determine the effectiveness of a specific artistic choice in communicating a theatrical work.

6.4RE Establish criteria to critique one’s portrayal of a character based on voice, gesture, facial expression and movement.

6.5RE Describe ways an audience can respond differently to plays that are performed in various physical settings (arena, proscenium, thrust, outdoors).

Topic: Connecting

Content Statements:

6.1CO Investigate the time period and place of a drama or theatre work to better understand performance and design choices.

6.2CO Explain how the actions and motivations of characters in a drama or theatre work impact perspective of a community or culture.

6.4CO Use dramatic and theatrical skills to demonstrate concepts or ideas from other academic areas.

6.5CO Identify professional tools and skills for a working theatre artist.

6.6CO Identify universal themes or common social issues and express them through a drama or theatre work.

Text

"An Overview of Czech Language, History, and Culture" by Ashton Kimbler

Topic: Global Connections

Content Statements:

1. Trade, alliances, treaties and international organizations contribute to the increasing interconnectedness of nations and peoples in the 21st century.

2. Advances in communications technology have profound effects on the ability of governments, interest groups, individuals and the media to share information across national and cultural borders.

"From Population Exchange to Ethnic Cleansing: Forced Migration in 20th-Century Eastern Europe" by Dr. Theodora Dragostinova

Topic: Civil and Human Rights

Content Statements:

10. Modern instances of genocide and ethnic cleansing present individual, organizational and national issues related to the responsibilities of participants and non-participants.

"Youth Culture in Postcommunist Romania" by Dr. Adela Lechintan-Siefer

Topic: Global Connections

Content Statements:

1. Trade, alliances, treaties and international organizations contribute to the increasing interconnectedness of nations and peoples in the 21st century.

2. Advances in communications technology have profound effects on the ability of governments, interest groups, individuals and the media to share information across national and cultural borders.

Topic: Civil and Human Rights

Content Statements:

8. Beliefs about civil and human rights vary among social and governmental systems.

9. Nations and international organizations pursue their own interests on issues related to civil and human rights, resulting in both conflict and cooperation particularly as it relates to injustices against minority groups.

Topic: Civic Participations and Skills

Content Statements:

5. Individuals can identify, assess and evaluate world events, engage in deliberative civil debate and influence public processes to address global issues.

6. Effective civic participation involves identifying problems or dilemmas, proposing appropriate solutions, formulating action plans, and assessing the positive and negative results of actions taken.

7. Individuals can participate through non-governmental organizations to help address humanitarian needs.

Text

"Baltic Tenacity: Survival and Preservation of the Baltic Cultures through the Years of the Russian Empire and Soviet Union" by Dr. Maria Ignatieva

Topic: Imperialism (1800-1914)

Content Statements:

9. Imperial expansion had political, economic and social roots.

10. Imperialism involved land acquisition, extraction of raw materials, spread of Western values and direct political control.

11. The consequences of imperialism were viewed differently by the colonizers and the colonized.

Topic: Achievements and Crises (1900-1945)

Content Statements:

13. The causes of World War I included militarism, imperialism, nationalism and alliances.

14. The consequences of World War I and the worldwide depression set the stage for the Russian Revolution, the rise of totalitarianism, aggressive Axis expansion and the policy of appeasement which in turn led to World War II.

15. Oppression and discrimination resulted in the Armenian Genocide during World War I and the Holocaust during World War II.

16. World War II devastated most of Europe and Asia, led to the occupation of Eastern Europe and Japan, and began the atomic age.

Topic: The Cold War (1945-1991

Content Statements:

17. The United States and the Soviet Union became superpowers and competed for global influence.

18. Treaties and agreements at the end of World War II changed national boundaries and created multinational organizations.

"Czech and Slovak Theatrical Design of the 20th Century" by Dr. Dan Matthews

Topic: Imperialism (1800-1914)

Content Statements:

9. Imperial expansion had political, economic and social roots.

10. Imperialism involved land acquisition, extraction of raw materials, spread of Western values and direct political control.

11. The consequences of imperialism were viewed differently by the colonizers and the colonized.

Topic: Achievements and Crises (1900-1945)

Content Statements:

13. The causes of World War I included militarism, imperialism, nationalism and alliances.

14. The consequences of World War I and the worldwide depression set the stage for the Russian Revolution, the rise of totalitarianism, aggressive Axis expansion and the policy of appeasement which in turn led to World War II.

15. Oppression and discrimination resulted in the Armenian Genocide during World War I and the Holocaust during World War II.

16. World War II devastated most of Europe and Asia, led to the occupation of Eastern Europe and Japan, and began the atomic age.

Topic: The Cold War (1945-1991

Content Statements:

17. The United States and the Soviet Union became superpowers and competed for global influence.

18. Treaties and agreements at the end of World War II changed national boundaries and created multinational organizations.

"From Population Exchange to Ethnic Cleansing: Forced Migration in 20th-Century Eastern Europe" by Dr. Theodora Dragostinova

Topic: Historical Thinking and Skills

Content Statements:

1. The use of primary and secondary sources of information includes an examination of the credibility of each source.

2. Historians develop theses and use evidence to support or refute positions.

3. Historians analyze cause, effect, sequence, and correlation in historical events, including multiple causation and long- and short-term causal relations.

Topic: Achievements and Crises (1900-1945)

Content Statements:

13. The causes of World War I included militarism, imperialism, nationalism and alliances.

14. The consequences of World War I and the worldwide depression set the stage for the Russian Revolution, the rise of totalitarianism, aggressive Axis expansion and the policy of appeasement which in turn led to World War II.

15. Oppression and discrimination resulted in the Armenian Genocide during World War I and the Holocaust during World War II.

Topic: Globalization (1991-Present)

Content Statements:

22. The break-up of the Soviet Union ended the Cold War and created challenges for its former allies, the former Soviet republics, Europe, the United States and the non-aligned world.

23. Regional and ethnic conflicts in the post-Cold War era have resulted in acts of terrorism, genocide and ethnic cleansing.

"Medical and Healthcare Innovation in Estonia" by Dr. Lorraine Wallace and Steven Mousetes

Topic: Globalization (1991-Present)

Content Statements:

22. The break-up of the Soviet Union ended the Cold War and created challenges for its former allies, the former Soviet republics, Europe, the United States and the non-aligned world.

"An Overview of Czech Language, History, and Culture" by Ashton Kimbler

Topic: Historical Thinking and Skills

Content Statements:

1. The use of primary and secondary sources of information includes an examination of the credibility of each source.

2. Historians develop theses and use evidence to support or refute positions.

3. Historians analyze cause, effect, sequence, and correlation in historical events, including multiple causation and long- and short-term causal relations.

Text

"Baltic Tenacity: Survival and Preservation of the Baltic Cultures through the Years of the Russian Empire and Soviet Union" by Dr. Maria Ignatieva

Topic: Spatial Thinking and Skills

Content Statements:

1. Properties and functions of geographic representations (e.g., maps, globes, graphs, diagrams, Internet-based mapping applications, geographic information systems, global positioning systems, remote sensing, and geographic visualizations) affect how they can be used to represent, analyze and interpret geographic patterns and processes

"Czech and Slovak Theatrical Design of the 20th Century" by Dr. Dan Matthews

Topic: Spatial Thinking and Skills

Content Statements:

1. Properties and functions of geographic representations (e.g., maps, globes, graphs, diagrams, Internet-based mapping applications, geographic information systems, global positioning systems, remote sensing, and geographic visualizations) affect how they can be used to represent, analyze and interpret geographic patterns and processes

"An Introduction to Uzbekistan" by Henry Misa, Alisher Khaliyarov, and Dr. Madina Djuraeva

Topic: Spatial Thinking and Skills

Content Statements:

1. Properties and functions of geographic representations (e.g., maps, globes, graphs, diagrams, Internet-based mapping applications, geographic information systems, global positioning systems, remote sensing, and geographic visualizations) affect how they can be used to represent, analyze and interpret geographic patterns and processes

Topic: Movement

Content Statements:

8. Physical, cultural, economic, and political factors contribute to human migrations (e.g., drought, religious conflicts, job opportunities, immigration laws).

10. Activities and patterns of trade and communication create interdependence among countries in different regions (e.g.,
seed corn grown in Iowa and planted in South America, highdefinition televisions manufactured in Japan and viewed in the United States, news outlets from many countries available around the world via the Internet, instant access to data affects stock markets in different countries)

Topic: Region

Content Statements:

11. Criteria are used to organize regions and as the criteria change, the identified regions change (e.g., types of economic activities, ethnic groups, natural vegetation).

"Medical and Healthcare Innovation in Estonia" by Dr. Lorraine Wallace and Steven Mousetes

Topic: Spatial Thinking and Skills

Content Statements:

1. Properties and functions of geographic representations (e.g., maps, globes, graphs, diagrams, Internet-based mapping applications, geographic information systems, global positioning systems, remote sensing, and geographic visualizations) affect how they can be used to represent, analyze and interpret geographic patterns and processes

"An Overview of Czech Language, History, and Culture" by Ashton Kimbler

Topic: Spatial Thinking and Skills

Content Statements:

1. Properties and functions of geographic representations (e.g., maps, globes, graphs, diagrams, Internet-based mapping applications, geographic information systems, global positioning systems, remote sensing, and geographic visualizations) affect how they can be used to represent, analyze and interpret geographic patterns and processes

Topic: Movement

Content Statements:

8. Physical, cultural, economic, and political factors contribute to human migrations (e.g., drought, religious conflicts, job opportunities, immigration laws).

10. Activities and patterns of trade and communication create interdependence among countries in different regions (e.g.,
seed corn grown in Iowa and planted in South America, highdefinition televisions manufactured in Japan and viewed in the United States, news outlets from many countries available around the world via the Internet, instant access to data affects stock markets in different countries)

Topic: Region

Content Statements:

11. Criteria are used to organize regions and as the criteria change, the identified regions change (e.g., types of economic activities, ethnic groups, natural vegetation).

Topic: Globalization

Content Statements:

17. Globalization has shaped new cultural, economic, and political ideas and entities (e.g., universal human rights, European Union, terrorist networks).

18. Globalization has cultural, economic, physical and political consequences (e.g., Internet access increases availability of information, outsourcing leads to regional unemployment, development of infrastructure impacts local ecosystems and economies, computer hacking into sensitive data bases leads to insecurity).

"Uzbek" by Kamola Azimova

Topic: Spatial Thinking and Skills

Content Statements:

1. Properties and functions of geographic representations (e.g., maps, globes, graphs, diagrams, Internet-based mapping applications, geographic information systems, global positioning systems, remote sensing, and geographic visualizations) affect how they can be used to represent, analyze and interpret geographic patterns and processes

Topic: Movement

Content Statements:

8. Physical, cultural, economic, and political factors contribute to human migrations (e.g., drought, religious conflicts, job opportunities, immigration laws).

10. Activities and patterns of trade and communication create interdependence among countries in different regions (e.g.,
seed corn grown in Iowa and planted in South America, highdefinition televisions manufactured in Japan and viewed in the United States, news outlets from many countries available around the world via the Internet, instant access to data affects stock markets in different countries)

Topic: Region

Content Statements:

11. Criteria are used to organize regions and as the criteria change, the identified regions change (e.g., types of economic activities, ethnic groups, natural vegetation).

"Youth Culture in Postcommunist Romania" by Dr. Adela Lechintan-Siefer

Topic: Spatial Thinking and Skills

Content Statements:

1. Properties and functions of geographic representations (e.g., maps, globes, graphs, diagrams, Internet-based mapping applications, geographic information systems, global positioning systems, remote sensing, and geographic visualizations) affect how they can be used to represent, analyze and interpret geographic patterns and processes.

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Online Modules | Center for Slavic and East European Studies

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To provide free, widely accessible content about Eastern Europe and Eurasia, CSEEES has worked with Ohio State faculty and graduate student experts to create online modules that are self-contained units of instruction for K-12 students and teachers, as well as community college educators and student…

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Contains lesson plans that cover a wide variety of topics on Eastern Europe/Eurasia.

https://kb.osu.edu/handle/1811/61960

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Contains videos and recordings of guest lectures, conference keynotes, and presentations.

https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCvhKp0BEUcIGLiOFnlUMqSA?view_as=subscriber

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CSEEES@OSU - YouTube

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The Center for Slavic, East European and Eurasian Studies at Ohio State University promotes the inter-disciplinary study of the Baltics, Balkans, Central Europe, the Caucasus, Central Asia, Eastern Europe, and Russia. Our channel posts videos by graduate students, faculty and staff members on a range of issues in this region of the world.

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https://un.mfa.ee

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Estonia’s air is among the cleanest in the world, and the freedom to roam is codified in law. Pick berries, mushrooms, or herbs. Go hiking. Or sit still and take inspiration from the sounds of nature.

A short ride is all that’s required to experience Estonia’s full natural diversity. Little distance separates cities and nature. Our versatile cultural heritage and seasons of the year make every visit unique.

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Ms. President, Madam Executive Director, We appreciate UNICEF's efforts in humanitarian assistance in prolonged and violent conflicts in Afghanistan, Ethiopia and Myanmar and in many other conflict areas and most...

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https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/estonia/

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Introduction Visit the Definitions and Notes page to view a description of each topic.

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https://moldova.md/en/content/about-republic-moldova

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Moldova, officially the Republic of Moldova is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered by Romania to the west and Ukraine to the north, east, and south. The capital city is Chișinău. Moldova declared independence on August 27, 1991, as part of the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The curren…

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https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/moldova/

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Introduction

A large portion of present day Moldovan territory became a province of the Russian Empire in 1812 and then unified with Romania in 1918 in the aftermath of World War I. This territory was then incorporated into the Soviet Union at the close of World War II. Although Moldova has been independent from the Soviet Union since 1991, Russian forces have remained on Moldovan territory east of the Nistru River in the breakaway region of Transnistria.

Years of Communist Party rule in Moldova from 2001-09 ultimately ended with election-related violent protests and a rerun of parliamentary elections in 2009. A series of pro-Europe ruling coalitions governed Moldova from 2010-19, but pro-Russia Igor DODON won the presidency in 2016 and his Socialist Party of the Republic of Moldova won a plurality in the legislative election in 2019. Pro-EU reformist candidate Maia SANDU defeated DODON in his reelection bid in November 2020 and the Party of Action and Solidarity, which SANDU founded in 2015, won a parliamentary majority in an early legislative election in July 2021. Prime Minister Natalia GAVRILITA and her cabinet took office in August 2021.

Visit the Definitions and Notes page to view a description of each topic.

Geography

slightly larger than Maryland

Danube (shared with Germany [s], Austria, Slovakia, Czechia, Hungary, Croatia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Ukraine, and Romania [m]) - 2,888 km; Dniester (shared with Ukraine [s/m]) - 1,411 km
note - [s] after country name indicates river source; [m] after country name indicates river mouth

Atlantic Ocean drainage: (Black Sea) Danube (795,656 sq km)

Moldova map showing major cities as well as parts of surrounding countries.

People and Society

Moldovan/Romanian 80.2% (official) (56.7% identify their mother tongue as Moldovan, which is virtually the same as Romanian; 23.5% identify Romanian as their mother tongue), Russian 9.7%, Gagauz 4.2% (a Turkish language), Ukrainian 3.9%, Bulgarian 1.5%, Romani 0.3%, other 0.2% (2014 est.); note - data represent mother tongue

major-language sample(s):
Cartea informativa a lumii, sursa indispensabila pentru informatii de baza. (Moldovan/Romanian)

The World Factbook, the indispensable source for basic information.

Moldovan/Romanian audio sample:

improved: urban: 98.9% of population

rural: 87% of population

total: 92.1% of population

unimproved: urban: 1.1% of population

rural: 13% of population

total: 7.9% of population (2020 est.)

improved: urban: 99% of population

rural: 83.1% of population

total: 89.9% of population

unimproved: urban: 1% of population

rural: 16.9% of population

total: 10.1% of population (2020 est.)

Environment

Danube (shared with Germany [s], Austria, Slovakia, Czechia, Hungary, Croatia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Ukraine, and Romania [m]) - 2,888 km; Dniester (shared with Ukraine [s/m]) - 1,411 km
note - [s] after country name indicates river source; [m] after country name indicates river mouth

Atlantic Ocean drainage: (Black Sea) Danube (795,656 sq km)

Government

32 raions (raioane, singular - raion), 3 municipalities (municipii, singular - municipiul), 1 autonomous territorial unit (unitatea teritoriala autonoma), and 1 territorial unit (unitatea teritoriala)

raions: Anenii Noi, Basarabeasca, Briceni, Cahul, Cantemir, Calarasi, Causeni, Cimislia, Criuleni, Donduseni, Drochia, Dubasari, Edinet, Falesti, Floresti, Glodeni, Hincesti, Ialoveni, Leova, Nisporeni, Ocnita, Orhei, Rezina, Riscani, Singerei, Soldanesti, Soroca, Stefan Voda, Straseni, Taraclia, Telenesti, Ungheni

municipalities: Balti, Bender, Chisinau

autonomous territorial unit: Gagauzia

territorial unit: Stinga Nistrului (Transnistria)

last held on 11 July 2021 (next scheduled in July 2025)
election results:
percent of vote by party - PAS 52.8%, BECS (PSRM+PCRM) 27.1%, SHOR 5.7%; seats by party - PAS 63, BECS 32, SHOR 6; composition (as of October 2021) - men 61, women 40, percent of women 39.6%

represented in Parliament:
Action and Solidarity Party or PAS [Igor GROSU]
Communist Party of the Republic of Moldova or PCRM [Vladimir VORONIN]
Socialist Party of the Republic of Moldova or PSRM [vacant]
Shor Party or SHOR [Ilan SHOR]
not represented in Parliament, participated in recent elections (2014-2021):
Alliance for the Unification of Romanians or AUR [George SIMION]
Anti-Mafia Movement or MPA [Sergiu MOCANU]
Centrist Union of Moldova or UCM [Mihai PETRACHE]
Christian Democratic People's Party or PPCD [Victor CIOBANU]
Civic Congress Party [Mark TKACIUK]
Conservative Party or PC [Natalia NIRCA]
Democratic Party of Moldova or PDM [Monica BABUC (acting)]
Democracy at Home Party or PDA [Vasile COSTIUC]
Democratic Action Party or PAD [Mihai GODEA]
Dignity and Truth Platform or PPDA [Andrei NASTASE]
Ecologist Green Party or PVE [Anatolie PROHNITCHI]
European People's Party of Moldova or EPPM [Iurie LEANCA]
Law and Justice Party or PLD [Nicolae ALEXEI]
Liberal Democratic Party of Moldova or PLDM [Tudor DELIU]
Liberal Party or PL [Dorin CHIRTOACA]
"Motherland" Party or PP [Sergiu BIRIUCOV]
National Liberal Party or PNL [Vitalia PAVLICENKO]
New Historical Option or NOI [Svetlana CHESARI]
Our Home Moldova or PCNM [Grigore PETRENCO]
Our Party or PN [Renato USATII]
Party of Development and Consolidation of Moldova or PDCM [Ion CHICU]
Party of National Unity [Anatol SALARU]
People's Party of Moldova or PPRM [Alexandru OLEINIC]
Power of the People Party [Ruslan CODREANU]
Regions Party of Moldova or PRM [Alexandr KALININ]
Socialist People's Party of Moldova or PPSM [Victor STEPANIUC]
We Build Europe at Home Party or PACE [Gheorghe CAVCALIUC]

three equal vertical bands of Prussian blue (hoist side), chrome yellow, and vermilion red; emblem in center of flag is of a Roman eagle of dark gold (brown) outlined in black with a red beak and talons carrying a yellow cross in its beak and a green olive branch in its right talons and a yellow scepter in its left talons; on its breast is a shield divided horizontally red over blue with a stylized aurochs head, star, rose, and crescent all in black-outlined yellow; based on the color scheme of the flag of Romania - with which Moldova shares a history and culture - but Moldova's blue band is lighter; the reverse of the flag displays a mirrored image of the coat of arms

note: one of only three national flags that differ on their obverse and reverse sides - the others are Paraguay and Saudi Arabia

Economy

Despite recent progress, Moldova remains one of the poorest countries in Europe. With a moderate climate and productive farmland, Moldova's economy relies heavily on its agriculture sector, featuring fruits, vegetables, wine, wheat, and tobacco. Moldova also depends on annual remittances of about $1.2 billion - almost 15% of GDP - from the roughly one million Moldovans working in Europe, Israel, Russia, and elsewhere.

With few natural energy resources, Moldova imports almost all of its energy supplies from Russia and Ukraine. Moldova's dependence on Russian energy is underscored by a more than $6 billion debt to Russian natural gas supplier Gazprom, largely the result of unreimbursed natural gas consumption in the breakaway region of Transnistria. Moldova and Romania inaugurated the Ungheni-Iasi natural gas interconnector project in August 2014. The 43-kilometer pipeline between Moldova and Romania, allows for both the import and export of natural gas. Several technical and regulatory delays kept gas from flowing into Moldova until March 2015. Romanian gas exports to Moldova are largely symbolic. In 2018, Moldova awarded a tender to Romanian Transgaz to construct a pipeline connecting Ungheni to Chisinau, bringing the gas to Moldovan population centers. Moldova also seeks to connect with the European power grid by 2022.

The government's stated goal of EU integration has resulted in some market-oriented progress. Moldova experienced better than expected economic growth in 2017, largely driven by increased consumption, increased revenue from agricultural exports, and improved tax collection. During fall 2014, Moldova signed an Association Agreement and a Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Agreement with the EU (AA/DCFTA), connecting Moldovan products to the world's largest market. The EU AA/DCFTA has contributed to significant growth in Moldova's exports to the EU. In 2017, the EU purchased over 65% of Moldova's exports, a major change from 20 years previously when the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) received over 69% of Moldova's exports. A $1 billion asset-stripping heist of Moldovan banks in late 2014 delivered a significant shock to the economy in 2015; the subsequent bank bailout increased inflationary pressures and contributed to the depreciation of the leu and a minor recession. Moldova's growth has also been hampered by endemic corruption, which limits business growth and deters foreign investment, and Russian restrictions on imports of Moldova's agricultural products. The government's push to restore stability and implement meaningful reform led to the approval in 2016 of a $179 million three-year IMF program focused on improving the banking and fiscal environments, along with additional assistance programs from the EU, World Bank, and Romania. Moldova received two IMF tranches in 2017, totaling over $42.5 million.

Over the longer term, Moldova's economy remains vulnerable to corruption, political uncertainty, weak administrative capacity, vested bureaucratic interests, energy import dependence, Russian political and economic pressure, heavy dependence on agricultural exports, and unresolved separatism in Moldova's Transnistria region.

Energy

electrification - total population: 100% (2020)

Communications

Military and Security

National Army: Land Forces (Fortele Terestre ale Republicii Moldova, FTRM); Air Forces (Forţele Aeriene ale Republicii Moldova, FARM); Ministry of Internal Affairs: Carabinieri Troops (2021)

note - the Carabinieri is a quasi-militarized gendarmerie responsible for protecting public buildings, maintaining public order, and other national security functions

0.4% of GDP (2021 est.)

0.4% of GDP (2020 est.)

0.4% of GDP (2019 est.) (approximately $160 million)

0.4% of GDP (2018 est.) (approximately $130 million)

0.4% of GDP (2017 est.) (approximately $120 million)
country comparison to the world: 162

18-27 years of age for compulsory or voluntary military service; male registration required at age 16; 1-year service obligation (2021)

note - as of 2019, women made up about 20% of the military's full-time personnel

Moldova is constitutionally neutral, but has maintained a relationship with NATO since 1992; bilateral cooperation started when Moldova joined NATO's Partnership for Peace program in 1994; Moldova has contributed small numbers of troops to NATO's Kosovo Force (KFOR) since 2014, and a civilian NATO liaison office was established in Moldova in 2017 at the request of the Moldovan Government to promote practical cooperation and facilitate support

the 1992 war between Moldovan forces and Transnistrian separatists backed by Russian troops ended with a cease-fire; as of 2022, Russia maintained about 1,500 troops in Transnistria, some of which served under the authority of a peacekeeping force known as a Joint Control Commission that also included Moldovan and separatist personnel; the remainder of the Russian contingent guarded a depot of Soviet-era ammunition and trained separatist paramilitaries (2022)

Transnational Issues

Moldova and Ukraine operate joint customs posts to monitor the transit of people and commodities through Moldova's break-away Transnistria region, which remains under the auspices of an Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe-mandated peacekeeping mission comprised of Moldovan, Transnistrian, Russian, and Ukrainian troops

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A large portion of present day Moldovan territory became a province of the Russian Empire in 1812 and then unified with Romania in 1918 in the aftermath of World War I. This territory was then incorporated into the Soviet Union at the close of World War II.

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The United Nations in Moldova | The United Nations in Moldova

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The Republic of Moldova joined the United Nations (UN) in 1992. Since then, the United Nations system supports the Republic of Moldova in achieving its major development goals and fulfilling its vision to be a prosperous and modern European country.

Today, over twenty resident and non-resident UN specialised agencies, funds and programmes work in Moldova.

To ensure programmatic coherence among different UN entities, the UN in Moldova has adopted the Delivering as One approach, with a common partnership framework which sets out priorities over a 5-year period, one budgetary framework, complementary resource mobilisation and common business practices.

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The Republic of Moldova joined the United Nations (UN) in 1992. Since then, the United Nations system supports the Republic of Moldova in achieving its major development goals and fulfilling its vision to be a prosperous and modern European country. Today, over twenty resident and non-resident UN specialised agencies, funds and programmes work in Moldova.

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Peace Corps in Moldova

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Volunteers in Moldova work with their communities on projects in education, health, and community economic development. During their service in Moldova, Volunteers learn to speak local languages, including Romanian and Russian.

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I love Moldova. Moldova is a beautiful country with very hospitable people.
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Volunteers in Moldova work with their communities on projects in education, health, and community economic development. During their service in Moldova, Volunteers learn to speak local languages, including Romanian and Russian.

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Could war in Ukraine spread to Moldova?  BBC News

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Could war in Ukraine spread to Moldova?  BBC News

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Could war in Ukraine spread to Moldova? - BBC News

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Estonia Human Rights including Reproductive Rights

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Estonia Human Rights including Reproductive Rights

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Reproductive Rights: The government recognized the basic right of couples and individuals to decide freely the number, spacing, and timing of their children; to manage their reproductive health; and to have access to the information and means to do so, free from discrimination, coercion, or violence. The government provides access to sexual and reproductive health services for survivors of sexual violence.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Estonia is a multiparty, constitutional democracy with a unicameral parliament, a prime minister as head of government, and a president as head of state. The prime minister and cabinet generally represent the party or coalition of parties with a majority of seats in the parliament. The most recent parliamentary elections took place in March 2019. The coalition is composed of the Center Party, the Estonian Conservative People's Party, and the Pro Patria party, and is headed by Prime Minister Juri Ratas (Center Party), who took office in April 2019. Observers considered the elections free and fair.

The Police and Border Guard Board and the Internal Security Service maintain internal security. The army is responsible for external security but also has some domestic security responsibilities. The Police and Border Guard Board and the Internal Security Service report to the Ministry of the Interior. The Defense Forces report to the Ministry of Defense. The Police and Border Guard Board and the Internal Security Service investigate civilian cases, while military police investigate defense force cases. Civilian authorities maintained effective control over the security forces. Members of the security forces committed some abuses.

There were no reports of significant human rights abuses.

The government had mechanisms in place to identify and punish officials who may commit human rights abuses.

Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom from:

a. Arbitrary Deprivation of Life and Other Unlawful or Politically Motivated Killings

There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killings. The Prosecutor's Office leads criminal investigations in the country, investigates whether security force abuses were justifiable, and pursues prosecutions.

b. Disappearance

There were no reports of disappearances by or on behalf of government authorities.

c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment

The law prohibits such practices, but there were reports that police used excessive physical force and verbal abuse during the arrest and questioning of some suspects. The number of cases brought against police officers for excessive use of force was similar to that in previous years. During the first half of the year, authorities filed four cases against police officers for excessive use of force.

Impunity was not a significant problem in the security forces.

Prison and Detention Center Conditions

There were no significant reports regarding prison or detention center conditions that raised human rights concerns.

Physical Conditions: In April the legal chancellor publicly criticized the government's COVID-related ban on prisoners' outdoor time and reduction of visits from relatives, characterizing the ban as impermissible treatment of prisoners under government guidelines.

In a November 2019 report on its 2017 visit to the country, the Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT) expressed concern over "appalling material conditions" at the Parnu, Tallinn, Tartu, and Valga detention houses as well as at the Tallinn East Police Station and over the small size of some of the cells seen in various police establishments. The report also expressed the CPT's "serious misgivings" that remand prisoners were frequently held in deficient police detention houses for one to four weeks, and in some cases for several months, beyond the period of police custody (pending their transfer to a prison).

With regard to prison conditions, the CPT report noted that the use of solitary confinement as a punishment appeared to be widespread in all three of the country's prisons and that the practice appeared to be particularly excessive at Viru Prison. Prisoners were placed in disciplinary solitary confinement continuously for more than 14 days, thus exceeding the maximum permissible time. At Viru Prison, multiple periods in solitary confinement were imposed on prisoners consecutively, which in a number of cases resulted in very long periods of solitary confinement (in one prisoner's case, 225 days). There were no major concerns in prisons regarding physical conditions or inmate abuse except for the excessive use of solitary confinement.

Administration: Authorities conducted proper investigations of credible allegations of mistreatment.

Independent Monitoring: The government generally permitted monitoring by independent nongovernmental observers, including human rights groups, media, and international bodies.

d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention

The constitution and laws prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention and provide for the right of any person to challenge the lawfulness of his or her detention in court, and the government generally observed these prohibitions.

Arrest Procedures and Treatment of Detainees

Apart from those arrested during the commission of a crime, the law requires that in making arrests, authorities must possess warrants issued by a court based on evidence and must inform detainees promptly of the grounds for their arrest. There is a functioning bail system and other alternatives for provisional release pending trial. Authorities may hold individuals for 48 hours without charge; further detention requires a court order. Police generally complied with these requirements. Criminal procedure rules provide for a maximum detention of two months during preliminary investigations in cases where the accused is a minor and four months in cases of second-degree (less serious) crimes. Detainees are entitled to immediate access to legal counsel, and the government pays for legal counsel for indigent persons.

e. Denial of Fair Public Trial

The constitution provides for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected judicial independence and impartiality.

Trial Procedures

The constitution provides for the right to a fair and public trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right.

Defendants enjoy the right to: a presumption of innocence; prompt and detailed notification of the charges (with free interpretation if necessary); a fair and public trial without undue delay; be present at their trial; communicate with an attorney of their choice; have adequate time and facilities to prepare a defense; have free interpretation as necessary from the moment charged through all appeals; confront prosecution or plaintiff witnesses; and present one's own witnesses and evidence. Defendants cannot be compelled to testify or confess guilt and have the right to appeal. A single judge, a judge together with public assessors, or a committee of judges may hear cases. In criminal proceedings, an attorney is available to all defendants at public expense, although individuals often preferred to hire their own attorneys. In civil proceedings, the government provides an attorney for indigents. Authorities generally respected these rights and extended them to all residents regardless of citizenship.

Political Prisoners and Detainees

There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees.

Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies

Individuals or organizations may seek civil remedies for human rights violations in domestic courts. They may appeal unfavorable decisions to the European Court of Human Rights after exhausting all domestic remedies.

Property Restitution

The government has laws and mechanisms in place for property restitution, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and advocacy groups reported no issues with the government's resolution of Holocaust-era claims, including for foreign citizens.

The Department of State's Justice for Uncompensated Survivors Today (JUST) Act report to Congress, released publicly on July 29, 2020, can be found on the Department's website: https://www.state.gov/reports/just-act-report-to-congress/ .

f. Arbitrary or Unlawful Interference with Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence

The constitution prohibits such actions, and there were no reports that the government failed to respect these prohibitions.

Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including:

a. Freedom of Expression, Including for the Press

The constitution provides for freedom of expression, including for the press, and the government generally respected these rights. An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combined to promote freedom of speech, including for the press.

Freedom of Press and Media, Including Online Media: Independent media were active and expressed a wide variety of views without restriction.

Internet Freedom

The government did not restrict or disrupt access to the internet or censor online content, and there were no credible reports that the government monitored private online communications without appropriate legal authority.

Academic Freedom and Cultural Events

There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events.

b. Freedoms of Peaceful Assembly and Association

Freedom of Peaceful Assembly

The constitution provides for freedom of peaceful assembly, and the government generally respected these freedoms. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the government introduced several temporary restrictions on public assembly, which changed in proportion to the assessed risks throughout the year.

Freedom of Association

While the constitution provides for freedom of association, the law specifies that only citizens may join political parties. There were no restrictions on the ability of noncitizens to join other civil groups.

c. Freedom of Religion

See the Department of State's International Religious Freedom Report at https://www.state.gov/religiousfreedomreport/ .

d. Freedom of Movement

The constitution provides for freedom of internal movement, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights.

e. Status and Treatment of Internally Displaced Persons

Not applicable.

f. Protection of Refugees

The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern.

Access to Asylum: The law provides for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. The NGO Estonian Human Rights Center and other NGOs provided legal and social assistance to asylum seekers in cooperation with authorities. Government officials indicated that access to legal aid was available at every stage of the asylum procedure. The Estonian Human Rights Center continued to raise concerns about the prolonged detention of asylum seekers during adjudication of cases.

Safe Country of Origin/Transit: The government has a policy of denying asylum to applicants from a "safe" country of origin or transit. Authorities asserted that they granted interviews to all individual asylum seekers.

Durable Solutions: The government assisted in the safe, voluntary return of some refugees to their countries of origin under an International Organization for Migration program. The country worked with the EU and UNHCR to implement a refugee resettlement program. Naturalization is open to all permanent residents of the country after five years' residence, provided they pass mandatory citizenship and language examinations.

Temporary Protection: The government provided temporary protection to individuals who may not qualify as refugees. Temporary protection includes the right to work, access to education, and health care. In 2019 the government granted temporary protection via residence permits to 10 persons.

g. Stateless Persons

UNHCR categorized 76,639 persons residing in the country as stateless in 2019. As of July 1, according to government statistics, there were approximately 70,000 residents of undetermined citizenship, or 5.3 percent of the population. Nearly all were ethnic Russians, Ukrainians, or Belarusians. These persons are eligible to apply for naturalized citizenship, and some of them may hold Russian, Ukrainian, or Belarusian citizenship.

There are statutory procedures that offer persons older than 18 opportunities for obtaining citizenship by naturalization, but some human rights observers regarded them as inadequate, and their rate of naturalization remained low. To facilitate acquisition of citizenship, authorities funded civics and language courses and simplified naturalization for persons with disabilities. The government also simplified the Estonian language requirements so that applicants older than 65 are no longer required to take a written language examination, although they still must pass an oral one. The government also provides citizenship, without any special application by the parents, to persons younger than 15 who were born in the country and whose parents were not citizens of Estonia or of any other country and had lived in Estonia for five years at the time of the birth of the child.

Section 3. Freedom to Participate in the Political Process

The law provides citizens the ability to choose their government in free and fair periodic elections held by secret ballot and based on universal and equal suffrage.

Elections and Political Participation

Recent Elections: Parliamentary elections in March 2019 were considered free and fair and led to the formation of a three-party coalition government comprising the Center Party, the Estonian Conservative People's Party (EKRE), and the Pro Patria party. The coalition is led by Prime Minister Juri Ratas (Center Party).

Participation of Women and Minorities: No laws limit participation of women or members of minorities in the political process, and they did participate. The law allows only citizens to organize or join political parties.

Noncitizens who are long-term residents may vote in local elections but cannot vote in national elections or hold public office.

Section 4. Corruption and Lack of Transparency in Government

The law provides criminal penalties for corruption by officials, and the government generally implemented these laws effectively. The government has effective mechanisms to investigate and punish abuse and corruption. There were isolated reports of official corruption during the year.

Corruption: In January a member of parliament, Kalev Kallo, was found guilty of corruption charges connected to a criminal case involving malfeasance in the Tallinn City Government. He was convicted of three crimes: mediating a bribe, aiding and abetting the bribe, and illegally financing the Center Party. Kallo was sentenced to one-and-a-half years on conditional release, with an additional six months of conditional parole. Following a Supreme Court ruling in November upholding his conviction, Kallo resigned from parliament, as required by law.

In 2019 a court sentenced Indrek Suld, a railways official, to three years in prison and three years' probation for violating the Anticorruption Act. Suld was arrested in 2016 for various incidences of manipulating public contracts. One other defendant, Raivol Lill, was also convicted of lesser offenses related to the contracts. The court also fined the company Autsec OU for violations of the law related to the contracts.

In 2019 the number of corruption cases dropped considerably compared to 2018. Of these cases, 44 percent occurred in the state government sector and 41 percent in the local government sector.

Financial Disclosure: The law requires all public officials to disclose their income and assets. Designated offices are responsible for monitoring and verifying disclosures. The financial declarations of high-level government officials were available to the public, and there are criminal and administrative sanctions for noncompliance with the law.

Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Abuses of Human Rights

A number of domestic and international human rights groups operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials were cooperative and responsive to their views.

Government Human Rights Bodies: The legal chancellor, an independent official with a staff of more than 45, performs the role of human rights ombudsman. The chancellor reviews legislation for compliance with the constitution; oversees authorities' observance of fundamental rights and freedoms and the principles of good governance; and helps resolve accusations of discrimination based on gender, race, nationality (ethnic origin), color, language, religion, social status, age, disability, or sexual orientation. The legal chancellor also makes recommendations to ministries and local governments, requests responses, and has authority to appeal to the Supreme Court. The chancellor compiles an annual report for the parliament. Public trust in the office was high, and the government was responsive to its reports and decisions.

Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons

Women

Rape and Domestic Violence: The law criminalizes rape, including spousal rape, and physical abuse, including domestic violence. The law is effectively enforced. The penalty for rape, including spousal rape, is imprisonment for up to 15 years. According to the NGO Sexual Health Union, 13 percent of women have suffered sexual abuse, including rape.

According to NGOs and shelter managers, violence against women, including domestic violence, was a problem. During the first nine months of the year, domestic violence crimes made up 40 percent of all violent crimes in the country. Women constituted more than 80 percent of the victims of domestic violence registered by police. During the first nine months of the year, there were six percent fewer official reports of domestic violence than in the same period in 2019.

NGOs, local governments, and others could seek assistance for victims from the national government. There is a network of shelters for women and women with children who were victims of gender-based violence as well as hotlines for domestic violence and child abuse. There are four treatment centers for victims of sexual violence. Police officers, border guards, and social workers received training related to domestic and gender violence from NGOs and the Ministries of Social Affairs, Interior, and Justice.

Sexual Harassment: The law prohibits sexual harassment, and there were reports of such harassment in the workplace and on public transport. By law, sexual harassment complaints may be resolved in court. The penalty for sexual harassment is a fine or detention for up to 30 days. In 2019 the number of registered sexual harassment cases was 17 percent above the previous year; 97 percent of the victims in reported cases of sexual harassment were women. The number of registered stalking incidents in 2019 was similar to the previous year; 88 percent of reported stalking victims were women, 92 percent of alleged perpetrators were men.

Reproductive Rights: The government recognized the basic right of couples and individuals to decide freely the number, spacing, and timing of their children; to manage their reproductive health; and to have access to the information and means to do so, free from discrimination, coercion, or violence. The government provides access to sexual and reproductive health services for survivors of sexual violence.

Coercion in Population Control: There were no reports of coerced abortion or involuntary sterilization on the part of government authorities.

Discrimination: The law provides the same legal status and rights for women as for men. The government generally enforced such laws. There were reports of discrimination in employment and occupation, and unequal treatment, due to gender, age, disability, and sexual preference (see section 7.d.).

Children

Birth Registration: Citizenship derives primarily from the citizenship of at least one parent. Either citizen parent may pass citizenship to a child regardless of the other parent's citizenship status. Children born to parents who are not citizens of Estonia or of any other country and have lived in the country for five years acquire citizenship at birth. Registration of births occurred in a timely manner.

Child Abuse: In 2019 the number of sexual crimes committed against persons younger than 18 grew by 18 percent over the previous year. The Police and Border Guard Board worked to combat child abuse, including sexual abuse. The legal chancellor acted as children's ombudsman. Police provided training to officers on combatting sexual abuse in cooperation with the justice, education, and social ministries and local and international organizations.

Child, Early, and Forced Marriage: The legal minimum age for marriage is 18. A court may extend the legal capacity of a person who is at least 15 for the purpose of marriage.

Sexual Exploitation of Children: The law prohibits the commercial sexual exploitation of children and child pornography, and authorities enforced the law. The minimum age for consensual sex is 14. Conviction of engaging in child pornography carries punishment ranging from a fine to three years in prison. Girls were more frequently exploited than boys.

International Child Abductions: The country is a party to the 1980 Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction. See the Department of State's Annual Report on International Parent Child Abduction at https://travel.state.gov/content/travel/en/International-Parental-Child-Abduction/for-providers/legal-reports-and-data/reported-cases.html .

Anti-Semitism

The Jewish community numbered an estimated 2,000 to 2,500 persons. There were no reports of anti-Semitic acts.

On January 27, the government held an annual memorial event on Holocaust Remembrance Day at the Rahumae Jewish Cemetery in Tallinn. Schools participated in commemorative activities throughout the country. The Education and Research Ministry, in cooperation with the Estonian Jewish community, the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance, the Estonian Memory Institute, and the Museum of Occupation, organized an essay writing competition on topics related to the Holocaust for schoolchildren. The competition was dedicated to the 75th anniversary of the liberation of the Klooga concentration camp.

Trafficking in Persons

See the Department of State's Trafficking in Persons Report at https://www.state.gov/trafficking-in-persons-report/ .

Persons with Disabilities

The law prohibits discrimination against persons with physical, sensory, intellectual, and mental disabilities. The government generally enforced these provisions.

Persons with disabilities may avail themselves of government assistance in accessing information and may request individual personal assistants when necessary. The law provides that new or renovated buildings must be accessible to persons with disabilities. Few older buildings were accessible, but new or renovated ones generally were.

According to the legal chancellor, measures to safeguard the fundamental rights of individuals in mental health facilities remained inadequate, including protections against the use of unauthorized restraint measures in psychiatric care institutions. In April the legal chancellor also raised concerns about movement restrictions on residents of state-run homes for those with disabilities during the COVID-19 emergency.

NGOs complained that, while services typically were accessible in the capital, persons with disabilities in some rural areas had difficulty receiving appropriate care. For persons with disabilities outside of major population centers, access to local government social services (such as a personal assistants, support persons, and transportation) depended on that person's own ability to seek assistance.

There were reports of discrimination in occupation or employment (also see section 7.d.).

The Ministry of Social Affairs is responsible for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities, and local governments are responsible for the provision of social welfare services to persons with disabilities. The government focused on developing rehabilitation services to improve the ability of those with disabilities to cope independently.

Members of National/Racial/Ethnic Minority Groups

On October 25, at the height of the conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan, pigs' heads were found in front of the Estonian Islamic Center and the embassies of Turkey and Azerbaijan. Police identified the perpetrator and initiated misdemeanor proceedings pursuant to the law concerning incitement to hatred. The perpetrator was ultimately charged with littering and fined 20 euros ($24).

In 2019 police registered eight cases of physical abuse, breach of public order, or threats that included hatred against persons from racial, religious, or ethnic minorities.

In August several racially motivated scuffles took place on three separate occasions between neo-Nazis and foreign students in Tartu, the country's second largest city, leading to altercations between the groups. All cases involved the same neo-Nazi perpetrators. The incidents remained under investigation.

Knowledge of Estonian is required to obtain citizenship, and all public servants and public-sector employees, service personnel, medical professionals, and other workers who have contact with the public must possess a minimum competence in the language. Russian speakers stated that Estonian language requirements resulted in job and salary discrimination. The government continued to provide free and subsidized opportunities for learning Estonian.

In districts where more than half the population spoke a language other than Estonian, the law entitles inhabitants to receive official information in their language, and authorities respected the law.

Roma, who numbered fewer than 1,000, reportedly faced discrimination in several areas, including employment. The government took steps to emphasize the importance of education for Romani children, but their school dropout rate remained high.

Nonwhite residents reported discrimination in housing. The government faced difficulties finding housing for resettled refugees, which refugee advocates attributed to societal discrimination.

Acts of Violence, Criminalization, and Other Abuses Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity

The law prohibits discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity. While the law is not specific regarding the forms of sexual orientation and gender identity covered, the general understanding is that it encompasses lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and intersex (LGBTI) individuals. In 2019 police registered two cases that included hatred against LGBTI persons. Advocacy groups reported that societal harassment and discrimination against LGBTI persons remained common but noted improving public attitudes towards LGBTI persons.

Section 7. Worker Rights

a. Freedom of Association and the Right to Collective Bargaining

The law, related regulations, and statutory instruments provide workers with the right to form and join independent unions of their choice, bargain collectively, and conduct legal strikes. The government generally respected these rights. The law allows unions to conduct their activities without interference and prohibits antiunion discrimination. Both employees and employers have the right to request that labor dispute committees, consisting of representatives of unions and employers, or the courts resolve individual labor disputes. The law prohibits discrimination against employees because of union membership and requires the reinstatement of workers fired for union activity. Public-sector employees do not have the right to strike, but they can negotiate their salaries and working conditions directly with their employers.

The government generally enforced applicable laws. Resources, inspections, and remediation were usually adequate to achieve compliance with the law. In most cases, violators incurred fines that were sufficient to deter violations. Criminal proceedings and civil claims were also available and penalties were commensurate with those for other laws involving denials of civil rights. The penalties employers had to pay were related primarily to workplace accidents and occupational illnesses. Administrative and judicial procedures were not subject to lengthy delays.

The government and most employers generally respected freedom of association and the right to bargain collectively. Parties freely engaged in collective bargaining, and there were no reports that the government or other parties interfered in the functioning of workers' organizations.

The Confederation of Estonian Trade Unions alleged frequent violations of trade union rights in the private sector during the year. Confederation officials claimed antiunion behavior was widespread. They also reported that some enterprises advised workers against forming trade unions, threatening them with dismissal or a reduction in wages if they did, or promising benefits if they did not.

b. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor

The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, and the government effectively enforced the law. Authorities prosecuted and convicted three persons for labor-related trafficking crimes during the year. Penalties for human trafficking and forced-labor offenses were commensurate with those for other analogous serious crimes, but sentences often failed to reflect the seriousness of the crime.

See also the Department of State's Trafficking in Persons Report at https://www.state.gov/trafficking-in-persons-report/ .

c. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment

The law prohibits the worst forms of child labor. In most cases, the legal minimum age for employment is 18. Minors who graduated from basic school may work full time. Children who are 15 to 17 may work, depending on whether they are still at school. Seven- to 12-year-old children may engage in light work in the areas of culture, art, sports, or advertising with the consent of the Labor Inspectorate. Minors may not perform hazardous work, such as handling explosive substances or working with wild animals. The law limits the hours that children may work and prohibits overtime or night work. The Labor Inspectorate is responsible for enforcing these laws. The government effectively enforced laws and policies to protect children from exploitation in the workplace. Penalties were commensurate with those for analogous serious crimes. The Labor Inspectorate monitored whether the conditions for child workers were appropriate.

d. Discrimination with Respect to Employment and Occupation

The law prohibits discrimination in employment and occupation. The government generally enforced the law, and penalties were commensurate with those under laws related to civil rights. If workers claimed discrimination and turned to the courts, and the Labor Inspectorate or gender equality commissioner and the appropriate institution found the suit justified, workers were indemnified by employers. Labor laws and regulations require employers to protect employees against discrimination, follow the principle of equal treatment, and promote equal treatment and gender equality. Nevertheless, discrimination in employment or occupation occurred with respect to age, gender, disability, ethnicity, and language (see section 6), and there were complaints to the gender and equal treatment commissioner, the legal chancellor, and the Labor Inspectorate.

Although women have the same rights as men under the law and are entitled to equal pay for equal work, employers did not always respect these rights. Despite having a higher average level of education than men, according to government statistics, women's average earnings per hour were 17.1 percent lower than those of men. There continued to be female- and male-dominated professions. Women constituted one-third of mid-level managers.

Fewer than 25 percent of persons with disabilities had jobs. During the year the legal chancellor and the commissioner for gender equality and equal treatment received claims of discrimination based on disability. Persons with disabilities faced discrimination in employment and access to the workplace.

Russian speakers worked disproportionately in blue-collar industries and continued to experience higher unemployment than ethnic Estonians. Some citizens and noncitizen residents, particularly native speakers of Russian, alleged that the language requirement resulted in job and salary discrimination. Roma reportedly faced discrimination in employment (see section 6, Members of National/Racial/Ethnic Minority Groups).

e. Acceptable Conditions of Work

The national monthly minimum wage was higher than the poverty income level. Authorities generally enforced minimum wage laws, and penalties were commensurate with those for similar violations.

The standard workweek is 40 hours. The law requires a rest period of at least 11 hours in sequence for every 24-hour period. Reduced working time is required for minors and for employees whose work is underground, poses a health hazard, or is of an otherwise special nature. The law provides for paid annual holidays and requires overtime pay of not less than 150 percent of the employee's hourly wage. The government effectively enforced these requirements and penalties were commensurate with those for similar crimes. There is no prohibition against excessive compulsory overtime.

The government sets occupational health and safety standards. Authorities generally enforced occupational health and safety standards in all sectors. The Labor Inspectorate, the Health Protection Inspectorate, and the Technical Inspectorate were responsible for enforcing these standards and made efforts to do so in both the formal and informal sectors. Violations of health and safety standards were more common in the construction and wood-processing industries. The Labor Inspectorate had an adequate number of inspectors to enforce compliance. Inspectors have authority to make unannounced inspections and initiate sanctions. Penalties for violations were commensurate with those for similar crimes. Men from Ukraine experienced labor exploitation, particularly in the construction sector, where "envelope wages" (nontaxed cash payments) were sometimes paid. In May the government passed legislation designed to prevent this form of labor exploitation. An estimated 8 percent of wage payments during the year were informal. Officials reported six fatal workplace accidents during the first eight month of the year and 535 other accidents that led to serious injury during the same period.

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Estonia - United States Department of State

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Estonia is a multiparty, constitutional democracy with a unicameral parliament, a prime minister as head of government, and a president as head of state. The prime minister and cabinet generally represent the party or coalition of parties with a majority of seats in the parliament. The most recent parliamentary elections took place in March 2019.

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Moldova - Human Rights, including Reproductive Rights

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Moldova - Human Rights, including Reproductive Rights

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Reproductive Rights: Couples and individuals have the right to decide the number, spacing, and timing of their children; to manage their reproductive health; and to have the information and means to do so, free from discrimination, coercion, and violence. By law minors under the age of 16 must have permission from a parent or legal guardian to obtain reproductive health services; a medical provider may waive this requirement if the minor’s life or health are in danger.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Note: Except where otherwise noted, all references in this report exclude the secessionist region of Transnistria.
The Republic of Moldova is a parliamentary democracy with competitive multiparty elections. The constitution provides for executive and legislative branches as well as an independent judiciary and a clear separation of powers. The president serves as the head of state and the prime minister serves as the head of government, appointed by the president with parliament's support. Legislative authority is vested in the unicameral parliament. Presidential elections were held on November 1, and a run off on November 15, in which former prime minister Maia Sandu defeated the incumbent president, Igor Dodon, with 57.7 percent of the vote, making her the country's first female president. Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe election observers noted in their preliminary findings that fundamental freedoms of assembly and expression were respected, but divisive campaigning and polarizing media coverage hindered voters' access to quality information. Local and international election observers noted other irregularities, including allegations of illegal mass transportation and vote-buying of voters from the Transnistria region. Parliamentary elections in February 2019 met most Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, Council of Europe, and other international commitments, although observers noted allegations of vote buying and misuse of administrative resources.

The national police force reports to the Ministry of Internal Affairs and is the primary law enforcement body, responsible for internal security, public order, traffic, and criminal investigations. The agencies under the ministry are the General Police Inspectorate, Border Police, the Emergency Situations Inspectorate, Carabinieri (a quasi-militarized gendarmerie responsible for protecting public buildings, maintaining public order, and other national security functions), the Bureau for Migration and Asylum, the Internal Protection and Anticorruption Service, and the Material Reserves Agency. Civilian authorities maintained effective control over the security forces. Members of the security forces committed some abuses.

Significant human rights issues included: torture by government employees; harsh and life-threatening prison conditions; serious problems with the independence of the judiciary; arbitrary or unlawful interference with privacy; criminal libel laws; serious acts of corruption; lack of investigation of and accountability for violence against women; crimes involving violence or threats of violence targeting persons with disabilities, members of national, racial, and ethnic minority groups; crimes involving violence or threats of violence targeting lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or intersex persons; and the worst forms of child labor.

While authorities investigated reports of human rights abuses, they rarely prosecuted and punished officials accused of human rights violations or corruption. Impunity remained a major problem.

Significant human rights issues in separatist-controlled Transnistria included: forced disappearance by "authorities"; torture and cases of cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment by "authorities"; harsh and life-threatening prison conditions; arbitrary arrest or detention; political prisoners or detainees; serious problems with the independence of the "judiciary;" arbitrary or unlawful interference with privacy; serious restrictions on free expression, the press, and the internet, including violence, threats of violence, or unjustified arrests or prosecutions against journalists, censorship, site blocking, the existence of criminal libel laws, and overly restrictive "laws" on nongovernmental organizations; substantial interference with the freedom of peaceful assembly and freedom of association; serious restrictions on freedom of movement; inability of citizens to change their government peacefully through free and fair elections; restrictions on political participation; serious acts of corruption; lack of investigation of and accountability for violence against women; crimes involving violence or threats of violence targeting lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or intersex persons; existence or use of laws criminalizing consensual same-sex sexual conduct between adults; existence of the worst forms of child labor.

Section 1. Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom from:

b. Disappearance

There were no reports of disappearances by or on behalf of government authorities.

In Transnistria abductions by "security forces" became more common throughout the year. Between October 6 and 8, there were reports of at least four abductions of Moldovan citizens from their homes in the Security Zone, including two Moldovan government employees, by Transnistrian "state security." After initially refusing to acknowledge or comment on the incident, separatist "authorities" acknowledged the "arrest" of the two Moldovan government employees and released them on October 8. The others remained in separatist custody (see section 1.d.).

There were also reports throughout the year of the disappearances of ordinary Moldovan citizens and Transnistria residents in the Transnistrian region. On August 31, Moldovan citizen Constantin Mamontov disappeared while passing through Transnistria on his way from Ukraine to government-controlled territory in Moldova. After Moldovan government authorities requested information from separatist "authorities" on Mamontov's whereabouts on September 4, the "authorities" finally confirmed Mamontov's detention on September 10. The human rights nongovernmental organization (NGO) Promo-LEX reported on September 13 that Mamontov managed to escape from the region after 13 days of illegal detention and having his whereabouts kept secret by separatist "authorities." Promo-LEX asserted that Mamontov's disappearance suggested retaliation by members of Transnistria's "law enforcement" for their comrade, Andrei Samonii, a former Transnistrian militia member, who was arrested by Moldovan government authorities and sentenced to 15 years in prison for kidnapping, illegally detaining, and torturing Constantin Mamontov and his spouse on charges of stealing in 2015.

After defecting from the Transnistrian "army" and fleeing to government-controlled territory in 2015, Alexandru Rjavitin disappeared while visiting family in Transnistria in December 2019. Rjavitin reappeared in the Transnistrian "army" in January but reportedly escaped in June and was presumed to have returned to government-controlled territory.

c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment

While the law prohibits such practices, the antitorture prosecution office reported allegations of torture and cruel, inhuman, and degrading treatment, mainly in detention facilities. Reports included cases of mistreatment in pretrial detention centers in police stations, particularly in regional police inspectorates. Impunity persisted and the number of prosecutions for torture initiated was far below the number of complaints filed.

The Office of the Prosecutor General's antitorture division reported a decrease in mistreatment and torture cases during the year. During the first six months of the year, prosecutors received 262 allegations of mistreatment and torture, which included 241 cases of mistreatment, eight torture cases, and nine cases of law enforcement using threats or intimidation, including the actual or threatened use of violence, to coerce a suspect or witness to make a statement. In comparison authorities reported 456 allegations of mistreatment and torture during the first six months of 2019.

In September the Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT) released a report detailing the findings from its January-February visit to the country. The report noted that the persistence of a prison subculture that fostered interprisoner violence and a climate of fear and intimidation, reliance on informal prisoner leaders to keep control over the inmate population, and a general lack of trust in the staff's ability to guarantee prisoner safety remained serious concerns. The CPT reported several allegations of physical mistreatment (punches and kicks) by prison officers at Penitentiary No. 13 in Chisinau, the excessive use of force by staff when dealing with agitated inmates at the penitentiaries in Chisinau (No. 13), Cahul (No. 5), and Taraclia (No. 1) and excessively tight handcuffing at the Chisinau and Taraclia prisons.

In September a man was reportedly beaten in custody at the Cimislia Police Inspectorate's Temporary Detention Isolator by one of the facility's officers. The Moldovan Institute for Human Rights (IDOM) noted that during an audit of the facility, its monitor encountered a shirtless man in custody with bruises and injuries covering his face, arms, and torso. The man claimed that during questioning after his initial arrest, he was punched in the face by one of the facility's officers and subjected to further physical abuse throughout his detention. The IDOM monitor conducting the audit reported seeing a laceration on the bridge of the man's nose. The case was reported to the Anti-Torture Prosecutor's Office, which was investigating at year's end.

As of October, two criminal cases continued from the 2017 death of Andrei Braguta. Thirteen police officers are accused of inhuman treatment and torture against Braguta, and two doctors from Penitentiary No. 16, where Braguta died, are accused of workplace negligence. Braguta died in a pretrial detention facility in Chisinau in 2017 after being severely beaten by fellow inmates and being subjected to inhuman and degrading treatment by prison authorities. In an August press conference, Braguta's parents expressed concern regarding the impunity of the 13 police officers and two doctors involved in the case. According to them, 100 out of 140 court hearings have either been postponed or canceled since 2017. This claim was independently verified by Promo-Lex.

In Transnistria there were reports of allegations of torture and cruel, inhuman, and degrading treatment in detention facilities, including denial of medical assistance and prolonged solitary confinement. There was no known mechanism to investigate alleged acts of torture by Transnistrian "security forces." Promo-LEX noted that "authorities" perpetrated most inhuman and degrading treatment in the Transnistrian region in order to obtain self-incriminating confessions. Transnistrian "law enforcement" bodies did not publicly report any investigations or prosecutions for torture or inhuman treatment by Transnistrian "security forces" during the year.

In January the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) ruled in the case, Cazac and Surchician vs. Republic of Moldova and the Russian Federation, holding the Russian Federation responsible for violating articles of the European Convention on Human Rights that prohibit torture and provide the right to liberty and security, the right to a fair trial; the right to respect for private and family life, and the right to an effective remedy. The case stemmed from the 2010 detention of Ilie Cazac by Transnistrian "law enforcement authorities," who subsequently tried, convicted, and sentenced Cazac to 14 years in prison for "high treason." During his time in pretrial detention and in prison after conviction, the ECHR found that Cazac was subjected to inhuman and degrading treatment. Cazac reported being threatened with beating and infection with HIV. He also reported being: drugged; denied food, water, sleep, and the use of a toilet for extended periods; exposed to cellmates with active tuberculosis; and placed in a constant state of psychological stress and intimidation. Cazac was "pardoned" by Transnistrian "authorities" and released in 2011. The ECHR ordered the Russian Federation to pay Cazac and Surchician a total of 42,000 euros ($50,000) for nonpecuniary damages and 4,000 euros ($4,800) for costs and expenses.

The Transnistria-based human rights NGO MediaCenter reported continuing violations of detainees' rights in Transnistrian prisons, pretrial detention centers, and centers for persons with special needs. Serghey Mantaluta, sentenced in 2018 to 10 years in prison on charges of smuggling and insulting an "official," was denied medical assistance after a bone fracture and kept in solitary confinement without access to a toilet. Children at the Hlinaia residential center for orphans with special needs were reportedly subjected to cruel and inhuman treatment, including beating, dunking in washbasins, and other forms of corporal punishment.

Defense attorney Veaceslav Turcan alleged that his client, Ghenadyi Kuzmiciov, formerly Transnistria's "minister of internal affairs," suffered from inhuman detention conditions throughout the year. Kuzmiciov was abducted from government-controlled territory in 2017 and transported to Transnistria, where in 2019 he was sentenced to 13 years in prison on charges of smuggling and illegal possession of firearms. Turcan stated that Kuzmiciov has been in solitary confinement and denied access to visitors, mail, and other outside communications since 2017.

Prison and Detention Center Conditions

Despite reconstruction work and minor improvements at several detention facilities, conditions in most prisons and detention centers remained harsh, owing to poor sanitation, lack of privacy, insufficient or no access to outdoor exercise, and a lack of facilities for persons with disabilities. During the year additional restrictions and lockdowns were put in place in the prisons for an extended period due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Physical Conditions: Prisons and detention centers were overcrowded. In a September report following its visit to the country in January-February, the CPT noted the existence of large-capacity dormitories, low staffing levels in prisons, and insufficient health-care personnel.

Health care was inadequate at most penitentiaries and worsened during the COVID-19 pandemic because of a lack of protective equipment. While government regulations require authorities to separate individuals suspected of suffering from tuberculosis from other detainees, authorities reportedly colocated individuals with various diseases with persons with an unconfirmed diagnosis of tuberculosis, potentially exposing them to the disease. Most penitentiaries lacked appropriate facilities for persons with disabilities, which led to inhuman and degrading treatment. There were 36 deaths in penitentiary facilities registered as of October, including five pretrial detainees. The National Penitentiary Administration reported heart disease and cancer as main causes of death among prison inmates. According to Promo-LEX, the deficient administration of health services in penitentiaries led to a low quality of medical services provided to prison inmates, which in many cases led to death. Independent monitors noted the existence of two parallel healthcare systems in the country: the public healthcare system and the unaccredited healthcare system in penitentiaries, as well as a lack of coordination between the two.

As of August 25, National Penitentiary Administration officials confirmed 30 cases of COVID-19 among inmates and 68 cases among prison staff since the start of the pandemic. Inmates diagnosed with COVID-19 were generally transferred to the prison medical facility at Penitentiary No. 16 in Pruncul for treatment.

Temporary detention facilities, located mostly in the basements of police stations, generally lacked natural light, adequate ventilation, and sewage systems. Human rights NGOs also noted facility staff did not feed pretrial detainees on the days of their court hearings-which in some cases meant they received no food for a day. In most cases detainees did not have access to potable water on the days of their court hearings.

In February the government applied a six-month moratorium on a compensatory mechanism enacted in January 2019 that allowed detainees to request a reduction of their sentences for poor detention conditions. According to a 2019 National Penitentiary Administration report, over 90 percent of detainees filed requests based on the compensatory mechanism. Courts examined 1,800 requests, reduced sentences by a total of 436,000 days, and released 128 persons from prison. Observers and legal NGOs noted that wealthy and politically connected individuals benefited from this mechanism more often than ordinary prisoners. In December 2019 former prime minister Vlad Filat was released from Penitentiary No. 13 in Chisinau after serving approximately three-and-a-half years of a nine-year sentence after the Chisinau District Court ruled that he had been held in "inhuman and degrading conditions."

As in previous years, conditions at Penitentiary No.13 in Chisinau were reported the worst in the country. Detainees held there complained of detention in basement cells that did not meet national or international standards. Allegations of inhuman treatment persisted. In multiple cases the ECHR found that detention conditions in Penitentiary No. 13 were contrary to the European Convention on Human Rights. Cells were overcrowded (up to 16 inmates housed in an area measuring 258 square feet), unhygienic, and lacked ventilation, natural light, or permanent access to water for personal hygiene.

In separatist-controlled Transnistria, mistreatment of detainees remained a major problem. The Transnistrian "ombudsman" received 53 complaints from individuals detained in Transnistrian prisons. The Transnistrian "ombudsman" noted a slight decrease of complaints from detainees during the year. The "ombudsman" received four complaints about medical care in the prison system, which the "ombudsman" considered unfounded. According to Promo-LEX reports, detention conditions in Transnistria did not improve during the year, despite a 2019 report from the Transnistrian "ombudsman" indicating that detention conditions had improved. Transnistrian "authorities" continued to deny access for independent evaluation of detention center conditions.

Administration: Internal investigation procedures in the penitentiary system remained weak, and detainees had restricted access to complaint mechanisms. While detainees generally had the right to submit complaints to judicial authorities, they reported censorship and retaliatory punishment by prison personnel or other inmates before or after filing complaints. Prison administrations restricted the inmates' access to visitors during the COVID-19 pandemic, and most court hearings of pretrial detainees were held online.

The CPT noted a chronic shortage of custodial staff in prisons, which led to a reliance on informal prisoner leaders to keep control over the inmate population, often through violence.

According to the Transnistrian "ombudsman," there are 1,824 individuals serving prison terms in Transnistrian "department of corrections" institutions as of January 1.

Independent Monitoring: The government permitted some independent monitoring of prison conditions by local and international human rights observers, including the CPT. Prison officials generally allowed observers to interview inmates in private. Prison administrations applied COVID-19 related restrictions on monitoring visits since the start of the pandemic.

Human rights NGOs from both Transnistria and government-controlled areas of the country reported being denied access to Transnistrian prisons by separatist "authorities." The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) was granted extremely limited access to individual prisoners by "authorities" on a case-by-case basis. There were no reports of any independent monitoring of detention facilities in the Transnistrian region. According to the Transnistrian "ombudsman" (an institution which is not independent of the ruling regime), detention conditions slightly improved during 2019. Most pretrial detention cells lacked personal beds for detained individuals and toilet facilities, and was qualified by the Transnistrian "ombudsman" as an "infringement against human dignity."

Improvements: According to human rights NGOs, the situation in police station detention facilities slightly improved due to renovations. Based on the Ombudsman's Torture Prevention Division recommendations, some pretrial detention units within police stations ceased operating or underwent repairs in line with minimum detention standards.

The CPT noted improvements of the material conditions at the prisons in Chisinau, Cahul, Taraclia, and several police detention facilities. During the year the National Penitentiary Administration piloted and expanded the use of video conferencing to facilitate inmate participation in court hearings. The country lacks adequate staff for prisoner transport, and increased access to justice via video conferences reduces the physical hardships for inmates to be transferred from prisons to courts, where they must often wait for many hours in difficult conditions.

Arrest Procedures and Treatment of Detainees

The law allows judges to issue arrest warrants based on evidence from prosecutors. Authorities must promptly inform detainees of the reasons for their arrest and describe the charges against them. Authorities may detain suspects without charge for 72 hours.

Once charged, a detainee may be released pending trial. The law provides for bail, but authorities generally did not use it due to a lack of practical mechanisms for implementation. In lieu of confinement, the courts may also impose house arrest or travel restrictions. The Superior Council of Magistrates reported that judges rarely applied alternative arrest measures. The law provides safeguards against arbitrary use of pretrial detention and requires noncustodial alternatives wherever possible. Judges disproportionally used noncustodial alternative detention mechanisms in cases with political implications.

Detainees have the right to a defense attorney. The government required the local bar association to provide representation to indigent defendants, but the government frequently delayed reimbursement of legal fees. Indigent defendants often did not have adequate counsel.

According to the CPT report issued in September, despite the law requiring that suspects be granted access to a lawyer from the moment they are detained, some criminal suspects were only granted access to legal counsel after initial questioning by police.

Arbitrary Arrest: Arbitrary pretrial detention continued to be a problem during the year. In April the Legal Resources Center of Moldova (LRCM) submitted a communication to the ECHR on existing protections and authorities' efforts to prevent unjustified detention based on the Sarban group of cases that consists of 14 ECHR judgments against the country for various violations of the European Convention on Human Rights, most related to pretrial detention. The LRCM concluded that the high rate of remand and weak justification for remand orders remained a problem. Even though the number of pretrial detention orders (1,864) in 2019 was lower than in previous years, judges did not properly examine remand requests. In 2019 the approval rate for remand requests reached an all-time high-93.5 percent-compared with 88.4 percent in 2018. According to the LRCM, alternative preventive measures (such as home detention and release on recognizance) were used only to a limited extent and the high rate of arbitrary remand was also due to insufficient judicial independence and prosecutorial bias by many investigative judges as well as a high caseload, which impeded a thorough examination of case materials.

In its earlier reports, the ombudsman noted judges continued to order pretrial detention for persons with serious illnesses and the National Penitentiary Administration allowed lengthy pretrial detention of persons with worsening health conditions which in some cases led to death. During the year five persons died in pretrial detention.

In separatist-controlled Transnistria, arbitrary arrests were common throughout the year. On August 31, Moldovan citizen Constantin Mamontov was apprehended by separatist "law enforcement" while transiting the territory and detained illegally for 13 days (see section 1.b.). A Transnistrian "court" in Camenca had previously twice denied warrants to arrest Mamontov requested by Transnistrian "authorities" for an alleged 2015 theft, and the local militia arrested Mamontov for the third time on hooliganism charges. Mamontov escaped and swam across the Nistru River to government-controlled territory after being ordered released for a third time by the "court." Mamontov was previously abducted from government-controlled territory in 2015 and beaten by Transnistrian local militia. Mamontov's arrest came two weeks after one of his abusers, militia "officer" Andrei Samonii, was convicted in August by a Moldovan court for kidnapping and torture and sentenced to 15 years in prison. Human rights NGO Promo-LEX believed Mamontov's arbitrary arrest was intended either as revenge for Samonii's imprisonment or to facilitate a possible prisoner swap for Samonii.

On October 6, Transnistrian "state security" ("MGB") abducted a Moldovan police officer, Andrei Amarfi, from his home in Camenca district in separatist-controlled territory. On October 7 and 8, three other Moldovan citizens residing in Camenca-Alexandru Puris, Adrian Glijin, and Stanislav Minzarari-were abducted by the "MGB." Transnistrian "authorities" later announced espionage and high treason charges against all four. Amarfi was the Moldovan police officer sent in 2015 to retrieve Mamontov and his wife from separatists after they were kidnapped and tortured. Puris, an employee of Moldova's Public Services Agency, processed Andrei Samonii's application for a Moldovan passport in January and notified Moldovan police of his presence on government-controlled territory, leading to his arrest. Both Amarfi and Puris testified at Samonii's kidnapping and torture trial. On October 8, following a telephone call between President Dodon and Transnistrian "leader" Krasnoselsky, separatist "authorities" announced that Amarfi and Puris were released from pretrial arrest but were not permitted to leave the region while charges remained pending. Glijin and Minzarari remained in custody as of November. Separatist "authorities" acknowledged that the arrests were related to Samonii's conviction and imprisonment and have suggested that the "Camenca Four" could be released if Samonii was returned to separatist-controlled territory.

Pretrial Detention: The law permits pretrial detention for up to 30 days, which the courts may extend, upon the request of prosecutors, in 30-day increments for up to 12 months, depending on the severity of the charges. Pretrial detention lasting from several months to one year was common. In line with the ombudsman's recommendations, the Prosecutor General's Office decreed on March 19 that, as a COVID-19 preventative measure, pretrial arrests could only be requested in extreme circumstances. As a result the number of pretrial detainees decreased during the state of emergency and the public health state of emergency that followed.

Trial Procedures

The constitution provides for the right to a fair and public trial. Although the law presumes the innocence of defendants in criminal cases, judges' remarks occasionally jeopardized the presumption of innocence.

Defendants have the right to be informed promptly and in detail of the charges against them, and of their right to a fair and public trial without undue delay. Defendants have the right to a lawyer and to attend proceedings, confront witnesses, and present evidence. The law requires the government to provide an attorney to indigent defendants. The practice of appointing temporary defense lawyers without allowing them to prepare adequately was common and undermined the right to legal assistance. Defendants can request postponement of a hearing if attorneys need additional time for preparation. Interpretation is provided upon request and was generally available. Judges can delay hearings if additional time is needed to find interpreters for certain uncommon languages. Defendants may refuse to provide evidence against themselves, unless they plead guilty and the judge reviews and endorses their guilty plea. The law provides a right to appeal convictions to a higher court on matters of fact and law.

Justice NGOs noted that courts repeatedly delayed hearings without justification in high profile cases. In one example, hearings on a criminal appeal by Ilan Shor, the leader of the Shor Party, a member of parliament, and the mayor of Orhei, were delayed throughout the year.

In Transnistria, "authorities" disregarded fair trial procedures and denied defendants a fair trial. Attorneys in Transnistria reported that "authorities" regularly denied accused individuals the right to an attorney of their choosing and that trials were often held in secret without public announcement of charges.

Property Restitution

The country has endorsed the Terezin Declaration and the Guidelines and Best Practices. Although the law provides for restitution of private property confiscated during the "totalitarian regimes which controlled Moldovan territory between 1917 and 1992 and for citizens who were subject to reprisals based on political, national, religious, or social grounds," it does not apply to communal or religious property confiscated from minority groups. The law specifically refers to private property restoration for victims of the Soviet regime. The government has enacted no laws concerning restitution of communal property nor made progress on resolution of Holocaust-era claims, including for foreign citizens.

A 2010 report published by the United States Commission for the Preservation of America's Heritage Abroad catalogued 100 Jewish communal properties in Moldova, including cemeteries, monuments, houses, hospitals, colleges, and other buildings, most of which are not owned or controlled by the country's Jewish community. While a few properties, such as the Hay Synagogue in Chisinau and the Cahul Synagogue in Cahul, have been returned to the Jewish community by the state, in most cases Jewish organizations have had to purchase or lease communal and religious properties from the government in order to regain possession. Purchased properties include the Wooden (or Lemnaria) Synagogue and the Rabbi Tsirelson Synagogue and Yeshiva, both in Chisinau.

The Moldovan Orthodox Church (MOC), subordinate to the Russian Orthodox Church, and the Bessarabian Orthodox Church (BOC), under the Romanian Orthodox Church, were engaged in litigation over control of approximately 718 churches, monasteries, and monuments designated by the government as national heritage assets, most of which are controlled by the MOC under a 2007 agreement between the church and the government. The BOC also sued the government to annul the 2007 agreement.

The Roman Catholic Diocese of Chisinau has submitted a case to the ECHR seeking restitution for a Catholic school property seized by Soviet authorities which is now part of the Moldovan Presidency Building complex. The Catholic Diocese of Chisinau and the government agreed to seek an amicable settlement to the ECHR case but have not reached an agreement on the transfer of an alternative state-owned property to the diocese as restitution.

The country's Lutheran community has repeatedly petitioned the government for compensatory state-owned land as restitution for the former site of Saint Nicholas Lutheran Church in central Chisinau. The church was seized by Soviet authorities in 1944 and demolished in 1962. The Presidency Building now occupies the former site of the church.

For more information regarding Holocaust-era property restitution and related issues, please see that Department of State's Justice for Uncompensated Survivors Today (JUST) Act report to Congress, released publicly on July 29, 2020 at https://www.state.gov/reports/just-act-report-to-congress .

Section 2. Respect for Civil Liberties, Including:

a. Freedom of Expression, Including for the Press

The law provides for freedom of expression and allows individuals to criticize the government or to discuss matters of general public interest. Restrictions apply only in cases when such discussion poses a threat to national security, territorial integrity, public order, or safety. Nonetheless, there were allegations that authorities did not always respect freedom of expression for the press. Journalists were subjected to harassment, intimidation, and frequent lawsuits. Concentration of ownership of major media outlets in the hands of a few political figures, and oligarchs further limited the independence of the press.

Freedom of Speech: In Transnistria a 2020-2026 Strategy for Combating Extremism was approved on March 20 that provides "authorities" new repressive tools to silence dissent and further repress freedom of expression, complementing the existing 2007 "law" on fighting extremism activities. There were at least five individuals facing charges pursuant to the "antiextremism" law for publicly criticizing the de facto "authorities" during the year.

Larisa Calic, a writer from Transnistria, was charged with extremism after she published a book about violent hazing and corruption in the Transnistrian "army." Calic fled Transnistria and was in hiding. Alexandr Samonii, a member of the Tiraspol "city council" for the opposition Communist Party, has been under investigation since June 2 for extremism based on social media postings in which he criticized the ruling regime in Transnistria. Samonii reportedly fled Transnistria and remained in hiding. Individuals such as Oleg Horjan, Tatiana Belova, and Serghei Mirovici (see section 1.e., Political Prisoners and Detainees) were sentenced to prison for criticizing "authorities" by "insulting a public official," an act which is prohibited under the region's "criminal code."

Freedom of Press and Media, Including Online Media: According to media, NGOs, and international monitors, independent media were active and expressed a plurality of views but were often marginalized by larger outlets owned or controlled by a few politicians and oligarchs. Large media outlets pressured smaller outlets, including by colluding to prevent advertisers from buying advertising space from those smaller outlets, which brought several to the brink of closing. Prominent journalists left key outlets acquired by oligarchs. Internal and external propaganda and manipulation, concentration of ownership of mass media in the hands of some politicians and oligarchs, unfair competition within the television advertising market, and limited independence of the broadcasting regulatory authority, the Audiovisual Council (CCA), were among the major problems that restricted independent media space.

Oligarchs closely supervised content and maintained editorial control over reporting from outlets they owned or controlled. Russian news channels rebroadcast in the country continued to disseminate propaganda and presented distorted information about regional and international events.

Media outlets supportive of President Dodon and the Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova expanded their dominance in the media market, replacing former Democratic Party of Moldova leader Vlad Plahotniuc as having the largest media holdings.

On March 24, during the state of emergency that was declared in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the CCA issued a ruling blocking media outlets from criticizing the government's response to the pandemic or reporting information that contradicted the government or World Health Organization's official statements. The CCA cancelled the order on March 26 after public outcry from NGOs, opposition parties, and diplomatic missions.

On July 9, parliament approved the appointment of three new CCA members; opposition parliamentarians claimed the selection process was not transparent or inclusive.

Independent media NGOs and watchdogs accused the CCA and the public broadcaster, Teleradio Moldova, of progovernment bias. The NGOs also noted the government discriminated against media outlets that were not affiliated with President Dodon or the Socialist Party by refusing them access to senior officials for interviews.

On October 26, the CCA penalized TV8 with a 7,000 lei (approximately $400) fine for "not ensuring impartiality" during the talk show "Natalia Morari's Politics." The CCA ruled that the show failed to uphold impartiality and balance of opinion when one of the guests on the talk show, lawyer Ștefan Gligor, said there were risks of election fraud in the upcoming November 1 presidential election. The CCA stated that TV8 failed to give airtime to the opposing view. TV8 representatives stated that the channel ensured balance of opinion throughout the show and did not limit the right to freedom of expression. TV8 characterized the CCA's action as an attempt to silence media discussion of possible electoral fraud and "an attack on freedom of expression." On October 31, the Chisinau Court of Appeal struck down the CCA fine and ruled that TV8 did not violate the requirement for balance of opinion. On November 1, the Supreme Court of Justice affirmed the Court of Appeal ruling cancelling the fine.

Media freedom in separatist-controlled Transnistria remained a concern despite the local "authorities'" declarations that they would promote competition and media freedom. During the year, Freedom House again assessed the Transnistrian region's media as "not free." Transnistrian television channels and radio stations are regulated by the "state media service" and "state telecommunications service." The "state media service" oversees "state-run" media and "state" policy in the information sector.

Two organizations controlled the Transnistrian mass media market: the "Public Agency for Telecommunication," which controlled official news information agencies, newspapers, and one of the two most popular television channels; and Sheriff Holding, a business conglomerate with considerable influence in the Transnistrian "Supreme Soviet."

Violence and Harassment: There were reports of government and political leaders obstructing freedom of the press by restricting the media's ability to cover events. Journalists were subjected to harassment, intimidation, and frequent lawsuits. Female journalists, in particular, were subjected to intimidation.

On May 20, the Nordnews.md portal team was denied access to the headquarters of the Drochia district council where President Dodon met representatives of local public authorities. Employees of the State Protection and Guard Service (SPPS) also prohibited filming of the presidential motorcade.

On May 18, journalist Natalia Cebotari was fined 2,400 lei (approximately $140) by police for alleged defamation for her coverage of abusive and unhealthy work conditions at a textile factory in the town of Ceadir-Lunga that had also violated COVID-19 safety guidelines. She was charged only after the factory manager filed a complaint with local police. The media community condemned the move as interference with media freedom.

There were also reports of government officials initiating lawsuits against media outlets for their investigative reporting into corruption allegations and the officials' personal assets.

In January, Deputy Prosecutor General Ruslan Popov filed a defamation lawsuit against the Center for Independent Journalism in response to two investigative reports implicating him in corruption.

In May the Ziarul de Garda newspaper was targeted in a defamation lawsuit by President Igor Dodon in response to an investigation revealing his wealth and assets. The second hearing was scheduled for September, but did not take place due to Dodon's refusal to attend. The hearing was postponed to November.

Censorship or Content Restriction: In many cases, journalists practiced self-censorship to avoid conflicts with the sponsors or owners of their media outlets, many of whom are politicians or oligarchs connected to political parties.

Journalists voiced concern that a personal data protection law restricted journalists' access to information. In addition investigating journalists complained of problems accessing websites of legal entities. Journalists also noted that a March 18 decision by the Emergency Situation Commission's to extend the deadline for authorities to respond to public information requests from 15 days to 45 days during the state of emergency, undermined the public's right to access to information.

In Transnistria journalists similarly practiced self-censorship and avoided criticizing separatists' goal of independence or their "foreign policy" to avoid "official" reprisals.

Libel/Slander Laws: Libel and slander are punishable by a fine, community service, being barred from holding certain public offices for a period of months, or a combination of these punishments. Defamation is not a crime, but individuals and organizations can be sued civilly for defamation. Some newspapers practiced self-censorship and avoided controversial issues due to concerns that government officials and other public figures could use slander or defamation accusations to retaliate against critical news reports (see the Natalia Cebotari case under Violence and Harassment, above).

As modified in March 2019, the "law" in Transnistria criminalizes public insults of the region's "leader," which may be punished by a fine or up to five years in prison.

On April 7, Transnistrian "law enforcement" arrested Irina Vasilachi, a civic activist and opposition politician, after she accused Igor Nebeigolova, a close ally of former Transnistrian "leader" Igor Smirnov, of corruption and criminal activity on her YouTube channel, where she posted videos criticizing the Transnistrian leadership and its associates. Vasilachi was found guilty of slander and fined the equivalent of $170. Irina Vasilachi fled the region for Chisinau with her children on December 20, fearing arrest in a criminal case opened against her in Transnistria on accusations of using force against Transnistrian law enforcement officials on April 7. Tatiana Belova and Serghei Mirovici were similarly arrested and received three-year prison sentences for "insulting" the Transnistrian "leader" online (see also section 1.e., Political Prisoners and Detainees).

b. Freedoms of Peaceful Assembly and Association

The government limited freedoms of peaceful assembly and association; authorities imposed additional restrictions during the state of emergency declared in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Freedom of Peaceful Assembly

The law provides for freedom of assembly. While the government usually respected this right, there were several exceptions.

On July 16, a group of veterans from the 1992 Transnistria conflict protested the government's failure to improve veterans' services. Police prevented protesters from erecting tents outside the parliament building, leading to clashes between law enforcement and the protesters. Civil society and opposition claimed riot police violently dispersed the protesters and disproportionately used crowd-dispersing methods, such as batons, Tasers, and tear gas. Several protesters were arrested for allegedly assaulting police, and an opposition member of parliament claimed to have witnessed police beating a protester. Human rights NGOs condemned police actions against the protesters, calling them "disproportionate and unjustified."

The government also banned public gatherings during the COVID-19 state of emergency, but allowed small-scale gatherings of up to 50 persons during the subsequent public health state of emergency, provided that participants respected social distance. "Authorities" in Transnistria continued to restrict freedom of assembly and generally refused permits for public protests.

"Authorities" in Transnistria continued to restrict freedom of assembly and generally refused permits for public protests.

Ghenadie Ciorba, a civil society activist and opponent of the Transnistrian regime, was charged with extremism for organizing a July 2 protest on the Ribnita-Rezina Bridge against travel restrictions imposed by the Transnistrian "authorities" under the pretext of combating the COVID-19 pandemic. He remained in pretrial detention at year's end. Nine other protesters received administrative fines.

c. Freedom of Religion

See the Department of State's International Religious Freedom Report at https://www.state.gov/religiousfreedomreport/ .

d. Freedom of Movement

The law provides for freedom of internal movement, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation and the government generally respected these rights, with some exceptions. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the government restricted foreign travel and closed or partially closed international borders with neighboring countries.

In Transnistria "authorities" continued to restrict travel to and from the region and imposed additional travel restrictions during the year, citing concerns regarding the COVID-19 pandemic.

In-country movement: Transnistrian "authorities" continued to impose restrictions on travel to and from the region and installed 37 (later reduced to 11) illegal checkpoints in the Nistru Valley Security Zone without Joint Control Commission authorization on the pretext of responding to the COVID-19 pandemic. Movements through separatist checkpoints were subject to prior approval from the Transnistrian "COVID-19 crisis center," headed by the Transnistrian "minister of interior," Ruslan Mova. The Moldovan government, Moldovan human rights NGOs, and Transnistria residents condemned the movement restrictions as abusive and a human rights violation.

Foreign Travel: Although citizens generally may depart from and return to the country freely, there were some limitations on emigration and COVID-19-related travel restrictions. The law requires individuals to settle before emigrating all outstanding financial obligations with other persons or legal entities. The government did not strictly enforce this requirement. The law also provides that close relatives who are financially dependent on a potential emigrant must concur before the prospective emigrant may depart the country. Authorities did not enforce this law.

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the country's borders with Ukraine and Romania remained closed or partially closed for most of the year. Moldovan citizens and permanent residents, accredited diplomats, and those with preapproved travel were permitted to enter the country during the state of emergency and there were no restrictions on departing the country.

f. Protection of Refugees

The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in providing protection and assistance to refugees, returning refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern.

Refoulement: On July 15, the Buiucani branch of the Chisinau Court found former Security and Information Service director Vasile Botnari guilty of the illegal deportation of seven Turkish teachers (the verdict was sealed until September). The teachers had been forcibly returned to Turkey in 2018, where they were imprisoned. The court ordered Botnari pay a fine of 88,000 lei ($5,300) and he was given a five-year ban on holding public office. Botnari was also ordered to reimburse the state 125,000 euros ($150,000) for damages to the teachers' families as a result of a 2019 ECHR ruling that their human rights had been violated. Botnari was also ordered to pay the 348,432 lei ($21,000) cost of renting the plane used for the deportation. Prosecutors initially requested a three-year prison sentence for Botnari but did not appeal the court's July 15 ruling. Opposition parties criticized the judiciary for the unusually lenient sentence and called on prosecutors to reopen the investigation. Prosecutions against the former deputy head of the intelligence service and the head of the Bureau for Migration and Asylum were dropped during the year.

Access to Asylum: The law provides for granting asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. The process for obtaining formal refugee status was slow, but conducted in line with international and European standards. Authorities issued refugees identity cards valid indefinitely; beneficiaries of humanitarian protection received identification documents valid for three years; and asylum seekers received temporary identification cards. UNHCR provided refugees financial support. A temporary accommodation center administered by the Bureau of Migration and Asylum was available for asylum seekers. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the government halted deportations of asylum seekers but did not formally extend their visas. The law does not allow unemployed asylum seekers to purchase state health insurance, but asylum seekers still had access to health care during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Safe Country of Origin/Transit: The country has a policy of presumptive denial of asylum seekers from Ukraine displaced by the armed conflict in eastern Ukraine. The country had previously accepted Ukrainian asylum seekers but determined that Ukraine's process for protecting and resettling internally displaced persons was sufficient. The majority of displaced Ukrainians preferred to transit Moldova, then seek asylum in the EU.

Temporary Protection: The government also provided humanitarian protection to individuals who may not qualify as refugees and provided it to approximately 246 persons registered in the national asylum system as of July.

Section 3. Freedom to Participate in the Political Process

The law provides citizens the ability to choose their government in free and fair periodic elections held by secret ballot and based on universal and equal suffrage.

Elections and Political Participation

Recent Elections: Presidential elections were held on November 1, with a runoff November 15, in which former prime minister Maia Sandu defeated the incumbent president, Igor Dodon, with 57.7 percent of the vote, making her the country's first female president. Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe election observers noted in their preliminary findings that fundamental freedoms of assembly and expression were respected, but divisive campaigning and polarizing media coverage hindered voters' access to quality information. Local and international election observers noted other irregularities, including allegations of illegal mass transportation and vote buying of voters from the Transnistria region. Parliamentary elections in February 2019 met most Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, Council of Europe, and other international commitments, although observers noted allegations of vote buying and misuse of administrative resources.

Due to challenges stemming from the COVID-19 pandemic, the OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR) provided a limited election observation mission that primarily monitored the campaign climate, campaign financing, and media freedom in the lead up to the elections with a limited presence observing election-day procedures. Local observers worked to largely fill this gap. International and local observers from ODIHR and local NGO Promo-LEX released preliminary reports November 2 and 16, noting the elections generally respected fundamental freedoms and preliminary results reflected voters' will. Observers noted some election irregularities, including allegations of illegal mass transportation and vote-buying of voters from the Transnistria region.

A pre-election report by the European Network of Election Monitoring Organizations found some deficiencies and electoral code violations, including: unclear electoral legislation which allowed for varying interpretations of the law; negative campaign tactics and candidates' use of hate speech; candidates making electoral promises which are not within the president's powers to fulfill; and unlawful campaigning during the candidate signature collection process.

On March 15, authorities conducted parliamentary by-elections in single-mandate district No. 38 in Hincesti after the parliamentary seat became vacant. Opposition parties and civil society criticized the government for conducting elections amid COVID-19 outbreaks in two district villages. On March 16, an entire village was quarantined. Promo-LEX reported correct voting procedures were generally followed but that the COVID-19 pandemic and lack of clear health and safety precautions led to low turnout.

Political Parties and Political Participation: Opposition parties reported fewer incidents of intimidation and politically motivated criminal cases against their members by authorities. Some 20 parliamentarians from the Democratic Party of Moldova defected to join the Pro Moldova Party or the Shor Party amid allegations of bribery and intimidation. Pro Moldova parliamentarians complained of alleged intimidation, wiretapping, and illegal surveillance. Political migration resumed on the eve of the November 1 presidential elections. Several days before the election, five Pro Moldova members of parliament announced their defection from the party and their merger with the Shor Party parliamentary faction to create a new "For Moldova" Platform. As of mid-November, the "For Moldova" Platform consisted of 16 members.

Several alleged politically motivated cases against members of parliament and political party leaders ensued throughout the year. On July 2, the Prosecutor General's Office launched a criminal investigation into a complaint by parliamentarian Stefan Gatcan alleging he was kidnapped, threatened, and forced to resign from parliament after defecting from the ruling Party of Socialists to join Pro Moldova. After reportedly fleeing the country, Gatcan withdrew his criminal complaint and returned to parliament and the Party of Socialists.

On March 13, the Supreme Court of Justice ordered Shor Party candidate Vitalie Balinschi to be removed from the ballot in the parliamentary by-election for the single-mandate district No.38 in Hincesti two days before the election. Balinschi was removed from the ballot for exceeding the electoral expenditures threshold. The Shor Party complained that the removal was politically motivated, and independent election monitors noted that similar infractions committed by other candidates were not punished.

The criminal case against Gheorghe Petic, the leader of the opposition Dignity and Truth Platform Party branch in Ungheni, was under review at year's end. Petic was sentenced to three years and six months' imprisonment on charges of rape after harshly criticizing the ruling party's leadership and the country's Border Police for allegedly covering up illegal smuggling activities, in what Petic alleged was a politically motivated case. In July 2019, after the Democratic Party of Moldova ceded power, Petic was released from detention and his case was sent for reconsideration to the district court.

After he fled the country in June 2019 due to alleged threats against him and his family, prosecutors in May charged former Democratic Party of Moldova chairman Vladimir Plahotniuc for his role in a $1 billion banking fraud in 2014-15, issued an arrest warrant, and sought his extradition.

Court hearings in Shor Party leader Ilan Shor's case resumed in September after an almost two-year delay. Shor was appealing his seven-and-a-half year prison sentence for large-scale fraud and money laundering related to the 2014 billion dollar banking fraud. In November the case was put on hold again after the judge examining the case resigned, allegedly under pressure, and Shor's lawyers appealed a nonconstitutionality exception clause to the Constitutional Court.

Participation of Women and Members of Minority Groups: No laws limit the ability of women and members of minority groups to participate in the political process, and they did participate. The law provides that each gender must have a minimum of 40 percent of candidates on the party lists of candidates for parliamentary and local elections. As of September, 35 percent of national legislature candidates were women, and 25 percent of the elected positions in the national legislature were occupied by women. The law provides for a 10 percent financial supplement from the state budget for political parties to promote female candidates elected in single-mandate districts. The law requires that 20 percent of public subsidy allocations to parties and candidates be used to promote women candidates. The law provides for sanctions against political parties that publicly promote discriminatory messages or stereotypes, use discriminatory language in mass media, or fail to meet the required gender quotas. Civil society observers reported this law was not enforced.

The president, Maia Sandu, is a woman.

Section 4. Corruption and Lack of Transparency in Government

While the law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, the government failed to implement the law effectively, and officials frequently engaged in corrupt practices with impunity. Despite some improvement, corruption remained a serious problem. Corruption in the judiciary and other state structures was widespread.

The law authorizes the National Anticorruption Center to verify wealth and address "political integrity, public integrity, institutional integrity, and favoritism." The National Integrity Authority (NIA), which was formed to check assets, personal interests, and conflicts of interest of officials, was not fully operational due to prolonged delays in selecting integrity inspectors, as required by law. The former ruling coalition harshly criticized both the National Anticorruption Center and the NIA for lack of action in investigating corrupt officials. For example the National Anticorruption Center detained 10 persons on corruption charges in 2018, including three judges from the Court of Appeals, two judges from the Chisinau Central Court, and a prosecutor from the Chisinau prosecutor's office. During preliminary hearings in April, only seven of the 10 suspects showed up in court; the cases continued at year's end. In December, Socialist and Shor Party members of parliament adopted a law that limited NIA powers and reduced the term for asset reviews for dignitaries from three years to one year following their term in office. The opposition criticized the law and challenged its constitutionality at the Constitutional Court.

Corruption: Two key anticorruption institutions, the NIA and the Criminal Assets Recovery Agency, made limited progress on investigations of illicit enrichment or asset seizures.

The 2019 Transparency International Corruption Perception Index report noted that the government hindered anticorruption efforts through stagnant reform of the judiciary, lack of true investigation of banking fraud and state capture, and lack of progress in recovering stolen money. The report concluded that these practices were indicative of high-level corruption and political corruption, which led to what it labelled "state capture" (i.e., private interests significantly influencing a state's decision-making processes).

On June 24, the Prosecutor General's Office decided against opening an investigation into alleged corruption by President Igor Dodon after a video was released showing former Democratic Party of Moldova leader Vladimir Plahotniuc handing Dodon a plastic bag during a private meeting. The Prosecutor's Office stated there was not sufficient evidence that a crime was committed to open an investigation.

In 2016 the Anticorruption Prosecution began a criminal case to investigate 30 million lei (over $1.3 million) transferred before that year's presidential election from an offshore company in the Bahamas that allegedly ended up on the accounts of some Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova members of parliament. No progress was reported in the investigation as of year's end.

The criminal investigation of former Supreme Court of Justice president Ion Druta and four other judges accused of money laundering and illicit enrichment that began in September 2019 continued during the year. In July the Anticorruption Prosecutor's Office announced it was still waiting for financial investigation data from the Criminal Assets Recovery Agency before it could send the case to court. In December the Chisinau Court of Appeals canceled the Superior Council of Magistrates decision that allowed Druta's criminal investigation and closed the case.

On October 26, the Superior Council of Magistrates approved a request to reinstate five judges detained in September 2016 on money laundering charges in the "Russian Laundromat" scheme that illegally channeled millions of dollars through the Moldovan banking and legal system. The requests for reinstatement came after the Prosecutor General's controversial September decision to drop the money laundering investigation against 13 judges involved in the scheme. It was also ruled that the five judges would receive approximately five million lei ($300,000) in damages for back pay from the state budget. The decision drew criticism from anticorruption advocates, opposition parties, and civil society.

Financial Disclosure: Laws require financial disclosure by public officials, including state officials, judges, prosecutors, civil servants, and local officials holding leadership positions. The NIA has the legal power to apply sanctions. The law provides that officials who fail to declare their assets may be dismissed from office and barred from holding public office. NIA integrity inspectors have authority to alert relevant authorities, the Tax Office and the Prosecutor's Office, and request seizure of illegally acquired assets by a court decision. The law requires the heads of state enterprises and local councilors to submit income statements and provides for an online system for wealth and interest statement submissions. By law officials must make public income statements within 30 days of their appointment and before March 31 of each year for the duration of their term in office.

Both opposition and ruling coalition members of parliament sent multiple requests to the NIA to verify assets and incomes of other parliamentarians. Consideration of those requests continued at the year's end.

Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Abuses of Human Rights

A variety of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials were somewhat cooperative and responsive to their views.

Authorities in Chisinau did not have full access to or control over the Transnistrian region. According to local and international experts, authorities in Transnistria continued to monitor and restrict activities of human rights NGOs. There were credible reports that no human rights NGO in the region investigated serious human rights violations due to fear of repression and harassment from authorities.

Government Human Rights Bodies: There are three human rights bodies in the country: The Office of the People's Ombudsman, the Agency for Interethnic Relations, and the Council for the Prevention of Discrimination and Ensuring Equality (Equality Council). The People's Ombudsman and the Equality Council are independent institutions that report to parliament, while the Agency for Interethnic Relations is part of the government. All three institutions were fully operational and active in reporting on human rights issues during the year.

The law provides for the independence of the people's ombudsman from political influence and appointment to a seven-year, nonrenewable term. The Office of the People's Ombudsman may initiate an investigation based on complaints or on its own authority. Although the Office of the People's Ombudsman lacked the power to enforce decisions, it acted as a monitor of human rights conditions, including in prisons and other places of detention. A separate ombudsman for children's rights operates under the same framework within the Office of the People's Ombudsman.

The Equality Council is responsible for reviewing complaints of discrimination and making recommendations, but lacks enforcement powers.

The Agency for Interethnic Relations oversees and implements state policies in the area of interethnic relations and the use of languages in the country.

Parliament also has a separate standing committee for human rights and interethnic relations, but the committee's powers and areas of oversight were narrowed during the year.

Section 6. Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons

Women

Rape and Domestic Violence: The law defines domestic violence as a criminal offense, provides for the punishment of perpetrators, defines mechanisms for obtaining restraining orders against abusive individuals, and extends protection to unmarried individuals and children of unmarried individuals. The law covers five forms of domestic violence-physical, psychological, sexual, economic, and spiritual. The maximum punishment for family violence offenses is 15 years' imprisonment. The law also criminalizes rape, including spousal rape, or forcible sexual assault and establishes penalties for violations ranging from three years to life in prison. It requires, however, that the victim prove they were subjected to violence. Domestic violence resulting in "nonsignificant bodily harm" falls under the Contraventions Code, rather than the Criminal Code, and may be punished by a fine or community service.

The law provides for cooperation between government and civil society organizations, establishes victim protection as a human rights principle, and allows third parties to file complaints on behalf of victims. The international NGO La Strada operated a hotline to report domestic violence, offered victims psychological and legal aid, and provided victims options for follow-up assistance. The Women's Law Center also offered legal, psychological, and social support to domestic violence victims. During the year 10 centers providing assistance to domestic violence victims were operational in the country. An additional two centers provided counselling and resocialization services to family aggressors.

In July parliament adopted legislation to improve reporting in domestic violence cases, streamline the victims' referral system and the use of restriction orders, improve access to state-guaranteed legal assistance for domestic and sexual violence victims, and expand the use of electronic monitoring devices in domestic violence cases. Rape remained a problem, and there were no specific governmental rape prevention activities.

In its concluding observations on its sixth periodic report on the country in March, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women noted concerns about the high prevalence of gender-based violence against women, including domestic violence and economic and psychosocial violence, and underreporting of gender-based violence against women, in particular domestic violence, due to fear of stigmatization and revictimization. The committee also noted limited financial compensation in gender-based violence cases, a lack of shelters and victims' support services, including psychosocial counselling, legal assistance, and rehabilitation programs, particularly in rural areas and Transnistria.

Police reported a similar number of domestic violence criminal cases during the year with 1,409 cases registered in the first nine months, including 10 domestic violence cases that resulted in death. The General Police Inspectorate issued 3,205 restraining orders. From January to September, the courts issued 534 protection orders.

Police protection of victims and proper execution of protective orders improved slightly; the law requires that authorities issue protective orders within 24 hours. This provision was often not implemented, however, particularly for protection order requests filed on Fridays and examined by the courts the next Monday. A law adopted during the year authorizes the Ministry of Justice to expand the use of electronic devices for monitoring accused aggressors in domestic violence cases.

Police and human rights NGOs reported an increase in domestic violence complaints during the COVID-19 state of emergency and the subsequent state of public health emergency. From January through April, the General Police Inspectorate reported a 24 percent increase in the number of complaints of domestic violence received, and the Women's Law Center reported that the number of calls to their domestic violence hotline doubled during the state of emergency. NGOs attributed the increase to domestic violence victims staying in isolation with their abusers for lengthy periods of time without the ability to seek assistance. From March 17 to May 31, the NGO La Strada's Women and Girls' Trust Line received 390 calls, including 247 complaints of domestic violence. During the state of emergency (March 17-May 15), shelters for domestic violence victims did not accept new applicants to reduce the risk of COVID-19 infections. Authorities did not take steps to provide placement for survivors. While police and courts established protection measures for victims of violence, in most cases a lack of coordination between members of local multidisciplinary teams (which are meant to bring together law enforcement, health professionals, social workers, spiritual leaders, and local public officials to assist victims) left victims without the resources and protections the courts intended to provide for them.

According to La Strada, the subject of sexual violence remained sensitive for the country. Societal attitudes affected the behavior and the reticence of sexual violence victims to report incidents. Sexual abusers frequently used information technologies to threaten, frighten, humiliate, or cause the victim not to report abuses to law enforcement agencies. Specialists responsible for intervening in sexual violence cases were affected by prejudice and stereotypes and sometimes contributed to the victimization of or discrimination against victims of sexual crimes. Media outlets sometimes reinforced stereotypes and contributed to social stigma in their reporting on cases of sexual violence.

In Transnistria domestic violence without "substantial bodily harm" (such as broken bones or a concussion) remains an administrative, rather than criminal, offense only punishable by a fine.

Sexual Harassment: Sexual harassment remained a problem. The law provides criminal penalties for sexual harassment ranging from a fine to a maximum of three years' imprisonment. The law prohibits sexual advances that affect a person's dignity or create an unpleasant, hostile, degrading, or humiliating environment in a workplace or educational institution. There are no criminal penalties or civil remedies for sexual harassment in employment. According to NGOs, law enforcement agencies steadily improved their handling of sexual harassment cases, addressing harassment of students by university professors and several instances of workplace harassment. Civil society groups, however, criticized the judicial system for displaying inadequate concern for the safety of victims and for not holding perpetrators accountable for their behavior.

According to an informative note on a January bill published by the Ministry of Health, Labor, and Social Protection calling for the review of national legislation on sexual harassment, one in five women in the country experience sexual harassment in the workplace. Similarly, a 2018 Partnership for Development Center survey concluded that one in five women reported being sexually harassed by a teacher. Societal attitudes and lack of interest from law enforcement discouraged victims from reporting instances of sexual harassment.

Reproductive Rights: Couples and individuals have the right to decide the number, spacing, and timing of their children; to manage their reproductive health; and to have the information and means to do so, free from discrimination, coercion, and violence. By law minors under the age of 16 must have permission from a parent or legal guardian to obtain reproductive health services; a medical provider may waive this requirement if the minor's life or health are in danger.

The state provides contraception free of charge to citizens through primary care providers. Although minors have access to contraception without parental consent through a network of Youth-Friendly Health Centers, many are reluctant to request contraception from family doctors due to social stigma.

Victims of sexual violence have access to sexual and reproductive health services on the same basis as other citizens.

Coercion in Population Control: There were no reports of coerced abortion or involuntary sterilization on the part of government authorities.

Discrimination: Women and men enjoy the same legal status in family, labor, property, nationality, inheritance law, and in the judicial system. The law requires equal pay for equal work, which authorities generally respected. The law requires that women fill a minimum of 40 percent of decision-making positions in government and political offices; prohibits sexist and discriminatory language and images in the media and advertising; and spells out employers' responsibilities in ensuring that workplaces are free of discrimination and sexual harassment. The law also establishes a minimum quota of 40 percent female representation on the electoral lists of political parties and sanctions for noncompliance. During the February 2019 parliamentary elections, 41.8 percent of candidates were women on the political parties' electoral lists and over 25 percent of members of parliament were women. During the November presidential elections, only one woman ran for office. While launching his electoral campaign for the second round, incumbent president Igor Dodon made gender-based discriminatory statements against his political opponent in the runoff, Action and Solidarity Party leader Maia Sandu.

According to a report issued in February by the Union for HIV Prevention and Harm Reduction and Promo-LEX, female drug users, sex workers, and inmates were the most vulnerable to multiple risks, such as HIV or AIDS, human trafficking, harassment, and violence due to discrimination, criminalization, stigmatization, and exclusion from society. Despite such vulnerabilities authorities did not protect basic rights to health care and justice for women in these categories.

Discrimination with respect to employment, pay, and access to pension benefits persisted in the country (see section 7.d.).

Children

Birth Registration: Persons may acquire citizenship through birth to a citizen parent, birth in the country to stateless persons, birth to parents who cannot transmit their citizenship to the child, or through adoption by citizen parents. Registration of birth is free of charge for all citizens. The lack of registration certificates for a number of children, especially in rural areas and in Romani families, remained a problem.

Education: Primary education was free and compulsory until the ninth grade. Education of Romani children remained a problem; only half of Romani children attended school and one in five attended preschool. According to Romani representatives, absenteeism and school dropout rates in Romani communities stemmed from poverty and fear of discrimination.

All schools, kindergartens, and other educational institutions closed and were replaced with online schooling during the COVID-19 state of emergency that began on March 17. While some schools had the necessary resources and human capacity to hold classes online, most educational institutions, particularly in rural areas, failed to provide proper education through the end of the academic year. At the start of the new academic year on September 1, there were 11 schools out of 1,252 that remained closed due to COVID-19 cases among teachers and students. An additional eight schools closed after the school year started. By September 14, there were over 200 COVID-19 cases in schools in Chisinau; 1,325 students and 57 teaching and technical staff from 21 educational institutions were quarantined and there were 35 active cases in kindergartens.

Child Abuse: Although the law prohibits child neglect and specific forms of abuse, such as forced begging, child abuse remained a problem. The Ministry of Health, Labor, and Social Protection has noted that social norms created a permissive environment for violence against children at home and at school.

The Ministry of Education, Culture, and Research reported 4,738 cases of violence against children in the first half of the 2019-20 academic year. Some 2,171 children reported physical violence and 1,316 children reported neglect, while there were 40 cases of labor exploitation and 17 of sexual abuse. Local public authorities failed to monitor all cases of abuse against children, claiming a lack of experts. The ombudsman for children's rights stated that most child neglect cases were due to alcohol abuse in the family.

An April study by the Ministry of Education, Culture, and Research and the National Center for the Prevention of Child Abuse noted that children were exposed to more risks during the COVID-19 pandemic due to increased psychosocial stress, a sense of fear and panic generated by the pandemic, the suspension of school activity, infection with coronavirus or quarantine, access to and improper use of disinfectants and alcohol, their increased vulnerability to exploitation for child labor, social discrimination, and the limited availability of services for children with disabilities. Following the closure of schools and kindergartens, 32 children who were left home unsupervised died from accidents in the first six months of the year.

A special unit for minors in the Prosecutor General's Office, the Juvenile Justice Unit, is responsible for ensuring that particular attention and expertise are devoted to child abuse victims and child offenders.

Child, Early, and Forced Marriage: The legal minimum age for marriage is 16 for women and 18 for men. There were no official statistics regarding child marriages.

Child marriage was most common in Romani communities, where it was reportedly acceptable to marry off girls between the ages of 12 and 14. This either took the form of a forced marriage, whereby a girl is married off to an adult man against her will, or an arranged marriage, whereby "match makers" arranged for two children to be married in the future. In such cases marriage takes place without official documentation or registration. After marriage, girls commonly dropped out of school to take on household duties.

Sexual Exploitation of Children: The exploitation of a child in a commercial sex act is punishable by 10 to 12 years' imprisonment. Authorities punished commercial sex with minors as statutory rape. The law prohibits the production, distribution, broadcasting, import, export, sale, exchange, use, or possession of child pornography, for which the punishment is one to three years' imprisonment and fines. These laws were generally enforced. The minimum age for consensual sex is 16. The country is a destination for child sex tourism. According to the International Organization for Migration's 2020 Violence a gainst Children and Youth Survey report for Moldova, 7.6 percent of girls and 5.4 percent of boys between the ages of 13 and 17 experienced sexual violence in the previous year.

The Prosecutor's Office to Combat Organized Crime and Special Cases is responsible for investigating and prosecuting child sexual abuse cases, and the Antitrafficking Bureau of the Prosecutor General's Office is responsible for investigating and prosecuting child trafficking and child sexual exploitation. During the first 10 months of the year, law enforcement officials identified 42 victims of child online sexual exploitation, ranging in age from eight to 17 years old. La Strada's Child Safeguarding Team registered 81 new cases of child sexual exploitation and sexual abuse that included 27 cases of child pornography, 21 cases of child trafficking for the purpose of sexual exploitation, and 33 cases of sexual abuse. Law enforcement bodies referred 63 cases for assistance.

Institutionalized Children: During the year the number of children placed in residential institutions decreased to 961, including 195 children with disabilities. The government also operated family-type homes, maternal centers, and daycare centers that provided various services for deinstitutionalized children, including children with disabilities. Another 26 mobile teams assisted over 840 beneficiaries across the country, including 485 children with disabilities. Children raised in residential institutions were at greater risk of unemployment, sexual exploitation, trafficking, and suicide as adults compared with their peers raised in families. According to human rights watchdogs and the ombudsperson for children's rights, legal protective mechanisms to prevent recidivism and reinstitutionalization of homeless children were not functional during the year.

International Child Abductions: The country is a party to the 1980 Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction. See the Department of State's Annual R eport on International Parental Child Abduction at HYPERLINK "" HYPERLINK "https://travel.state.gov/content/travel/en/International-Parental-Child-Abduction/for-providers/legal-reports-and-data/reported-cases.html"https://travel.state.gov/content/travel/en/International-Parental-Child-Abduction/for-providers/legal-reports-and-data/reported-cases.html.

Trafficking in Persons

See the Department of State's Trafficking in Persons Report at https://www.state.gov/trafficking-in-persons-report/ .

Persons with Disabilities

The law prohibits discrimination against persons with physical, sensory, intellectual, and mental disabilities in employment, education, access to public facilities, health services, or the provision of other government services, but authorities rarely enforced the law.

Investigation of degrading treatment of patients in psychoneurological institutions was deficient. In most cases prosecutors refused to investigate complaints submitted by patients, questioning the accuracy of allegations made by persons with mental disabilities. According to Promo-LEX, most prosecutors and investigators lacked technical skills to investigate acts of violence or torture in psychiatric institutions. Authorities also lacked a regulatory framework for the psychological assessment of victims of torture and inhuman or degrading treatment in psychiatric institutions.

During the first nine months of the year, members of the Council for Prevention of Torture, as part of the National Mechanism for the Prevention of Torture (NMPT), conducted preventive visits to residential institutions for persons with disabilities. The NMPT identified a number of problems in such institutions, including a shortage of personnel in most residential institutions, including of medical staff in institutions hosting persons with disabilities; verbal and physical abuse by personnel of persons with disabilities; involuntary confinement of patients; insufficient qualified staff at specialized institutions for children with disabilities; and lack of complaint mechanisms.

During its monitoring activities, the Moldovan Institute of Human Rights identified systemic deficiencies in psychiatric hospitals and temporary placement centers for persons with disabilities. Experts reported cases of forced medication without a legally mandated court order. Patients isolated in temporary placement centers reported the administration of psychotropic drugs without consent and mistreatment by personnel. The institute also found deficiencies in documentation, investigation, and management of cases involving persons with mental or psychosocial impairments by police, prosecutors, judges, and health service providers. While all institutions are required to document and report any unexplained injuries to the Anti-Torture Prosecutor's Office, officials at the Codru Psychiatric Hospital reported no such cases during the year, despite IDOM monitors finding numerous patients with visible injuries during the course of their audit.

According to the Moldovan Institute of Human Rights, Balti Psychiatric Hospital lacked a separate ward for patients who committed crimes, leaving them to be housed and treated alongside civilly committed and voluntarily committed patients. Persons with different types of disabilities and widely different ages were sometimes lodged in the same rooms, and unjustified restrictive measures were sometimes applied. There was no separation of persons who were civilly committed as presenting a danger to themselves or others from those who voluntarily committed themselves in any of the country's three psychiatric hospitals.

During the March 17 to May 15 state of emergency declared in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, all "closed institutions" including psychiatric hospitals and temporary placement centers for persons with disabilities ("social care centers"), suspended discharges, keeping patients and residents involuntarily confined. Visitors and outside monitors were also denied access to these facilities during the state of emergency "as a quarantine measure." Independent monitors reported that stresses imposed on patients, residents, and staff by the quarantine measures led to an increase in mistreatment cases and hurt the mental health of patients and residents.

The law requires new construction and transportation companies' vehicles to be accessible to persons with disabilities. Authorities implemented the provisions of the law only to a limited extent. While many newly built or reconstructed buildings were accessible, older buildings often were not. According to the disability rights NGO Motivation, more than 70 percent of public institutions lacked access ramps for persons with disabilities. Persons with mobility disabilities complained about the lack of access to public transportation and public institutions as well as the shortage of designated parking places. Despite some improvements during the year, city authorities and construction companies often disregarded legal requirements on accessibility for persons with mobility impairments.

An audit on the accessibility of polling stations conducted by the Central Electoral Commission and the UN Development Program in 2019 found that only 1 percent of 612 stations assessed were fully accessible for wheelchair-bound persons. Most polling stations had no ramps or accessible toilets, narrow entrances, and dark hallways, which led to many persons with disabilities requesting mobile ballot boxes. According to Central Election Commission data, there were 170,000 persons with disabilities of voting age. There were no measurable improvements to these metrics reported in the year.

The government continued the deinstitutionalization of persons with disabilities and provided alternative community-based services under the National Program of Deinstitutionalization of People with Intellectual and Psychosocial Disabiliti es from r esidential i nstitutions for 2018-26. Deinstitutionalization was temporarily halted during the COVID-19 state of emergency from March 17 to May 15.

Human rights observers criticized the country's guardianship system. A person placed under guardianship loses all standing before the law and cannot perform social and legal acts, such as marriage, voting, claiming social benefits, and consenting to or refusing medication. Most residential institutions lacked proper accommodation for persons with mobility impairments.

Most schools were poorly equipped to address the needs of children with disabilities. Some children with disabilities attended mainstream schools, while authorities placed others in segregated boarding schools, or they were home schooled. Although the law provides for equal employment opportunities and prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities (with the exception of jobs requiring specific health standards), many employers either failed to provide accommodations or avoided employing persons with disabilities.

According to NGOs providing services for persons with mobility impairments, the COVID-19 pandemic negatively affected persons with disabilities, particularly those in wheelchairs. Authorities suspended the provision of most health-care rehabilitation and social services during the state of emergency and public health state of emergency, negatively affecting the physical and psychological condition of persons with disabilities.

In Transnistria the "law" provides for protection of the rights of persons with disabilities in the areas of education, health care, and employment. According to the latest 2019 report of the Transnistrian "ombudsman," there were 17,121 persons with disabilities registered in Transnistria as of December 2019, including 1,304 children with disabilities (aged under 18 years old). The same report noted 188 patients as of October 2019 in the region's only psychiatric institution in Vyhvatintsy village. Reliable information about the treatment of persons with disabilities in Transnistria was generally unavailable, but there were reports that children with disabilities rarely attended school and lacked access to specialized resources.

Members of National/Racial/Ethnic Minority Groups

Roma continued to be one of the most vulnerable minority groups in the country and faced a higher risk of marginalization, underrepresentation in political decision making, illiteracy, and social prejudice. Roma had lower levels of education, more limited access to health care, and higher rates of unemployment than the general population (see section 7.d.). According to a study released during the year by the Partnership for Development Center, the employment rate among Roma was only 6.4 percent. The unemployment rate among the Romani community stood at 45 percent. Romani women were particularly vulnerable to social exclusion and discrimination.

Approximately 60 percent of Romani families lived in rural areas. Some Romani communities lacked running water, sanitation facilities, and heating. Other problems facing Roma included lack of emergency health-care services in secluded settlements, unfair or arbitrary treatment by health practitioners, and lower rates of health insurance coverage. Authorities lacked an effective mechanism to address vulnerable families whose children did not attend school.

According to a 2019 survey of 476 Romani women from 48 localities conducted by the Roma Women Network in Moldova, the most serious problems reported were limited access to education, the job market, medical services, and information about health and hygiene. The survey showed that only 36.6 percent of Romani women attended some form of state-guaranteed education, while 57.8 percent said they did not have an opportunity to continue their studies. About 84.7 percent of respondents were unemployed, and many of them alleged that they were subject to discrimination when trying to get a job. According to the survey, one-third of women reported discrimination when consulting a doctor; 70 percent of women reported not having access to information about health and hygiene. There were no measurable improvements to these metrics reported in during the year.

According to Romani leaders, the community faced a high rate of emigration and the state did not provide financing for Romani community mediators, as prescribed by law. A total of 54 Romani community mediators were active during the year. The government earmarked 3.5 million lei ($210,000) for Romani community mediators during the year, but its 2016-20 action plan for the community was unfunded.

Acts of Violence, Criminalization, and Other Abuses Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity

The law prohibits employment discrimination based on sexual orientation, but societal discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity continued. The lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and intersex (LGBTI) community reported verbal and physical abuse. In most cases police were reluctant to open investigations against the perpetrators. According to a survey conducted by the Antidiscrimination Council in 2018, the LGBTI community had the lowest societal acceptance rate of any minority group.

In June the NGO Genderdoc-M organized the 19th annual Moldova Pride Festival. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, events were conducted almost exclusively online. Genderdoc-M rented three billboards bearing the festival's theme, "I Am Close to You but You Don't Know Me," to carry information about LGBTI pride for one month. The company leasing the billboards removed the signs after two weeks, reportedly at the request of Chisinau city government. Genderdoc-M filed a complaint with the Equality Council, which had not ruled on the matter at year's end.

A 2019 Promo-LEX report, Hate Speech and Discrimination in the Public Space and Media, noted that hatred and discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity dropped by approximately 30 percent in 2019 compared to 2018. The LGBTI community remained among the groups that were most vulnerable to hate speech and was subjected to some of the most aggressive and violent speech registered by authorities. During the electoral campaign for the November 15 runoff presidential election, President Igor Dodon promised to ban LGBTI parades.

Genderdoc-M reported eight verbal and nine physical assaults against LGBTI individuals during the year. On May 8, the parents of a 15-year-old girl reportedly beat her after they were told that she was a lesbian. The girl filed a complaint at the Securuel police station in Riscani, Chisinau, with the support of Genderdoc-M representatives. The responding police officer initially refused to accept the complaint and called the girl's parents to the station. Only after a Genderdoc-M representatives threatened to call the national emergency number did the officer begin recording the complaint and call a victims specialist. Genderdoc-M later filed a complaint against the officer with the Ministry of Interior.

On April 15, a young man was walking in central Chisinau when a minibus stopped next to him and several individuals forced him into the vehicle. He was taken to an alley where a group of assailants beat him and threatened him using derogatory terms for homosexuals. He was forced to put a condom on his head and then forced to eat a second condom. The attackers threatened to set him on fire and additional unspecified violence if he reported the attack. The attack was recorded on one of the attackers' cell phone and later posted on social media. Police were investigating the attack at year's end.

Civil society organizations reported that, although transgender individuals were allowed to change their names (e.g., from a male to a female name) on legal identity documents, including passports, the government did not permit them to update gender markers to reflect their gender identity. Transgender individuals also experienced employment discrimination (see section 7.d.).

In Transnistria consensual same-sex sexual activity is illegal, and LGBTI persons were subjected to official as well as societal discrimination. A young gay man in Transnistria was reported to be under investigation by "authorities" for refusing conscription into the separatist military. He expressed fear of violence and discrimination within the "military" and relocated to Moldovan government-controlled territory to escape persecution.

Section 7. Worker Rights

b. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor

The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, with exceptions. The law and a government decision allow central and local authorities as well as military bodies to mobilize the adult population under certain conditions, such as in the event of a national disaster, and to employ such labor to develop the national economy. The government did not invoke this provision during the year. Penalties for persons who engage workers in forced labor were commensurate with those for other serious crimes.

The government did not effectively enforce the law. Resources, inspections, and remediation for forced labor were generally inadequate. Men and women were subjected to labor trafficking within the country and in other parts of Europe and the Middle East. Internal trafficking occurred in all regions of the country, focused mostly on farms and begging in larger towns. Internal trafficking for begging and labor exploitation, particularly in the agriculture and construction sectors, was steadily on the rise. Official complicity in trafficking continued to be a significant problem that the government attempted to curb by prosecuting those involved.

Also see the Department of State's Trafficking in Persons Report at https://www.state.gov/trafficking-in-persons-report/ .

c. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment

The minimum age for employment is 15. The law permits juveniles between the ages of 16 and 18 to work under special conditions, including shorter workdays (35 hours per week and no night, weekend, holiday, or overtime work). With written permission from a parent or guardian, 15-year-old children may work. Work for children who are 15 or 16 should not exceed 24 hours per week. Children younger than 18 are not allowed to perform hazardous and dangerous activities in 30 industries, including construction, agriculture, food processing, and textiles. The law prohibits the worst forms of child labor and provides for three to 15 years' imprisonment for persons engaging children in such activities. Under aggravated circumstances, courts can increase the sentence to life imprisonment. These penalties for violations were commensurate with those for other serious crimes. Authorities did not effectively enforce legal protections, and child labor remained a problem, especially in the agriculture and construction industries. The government was unable to make unannounced inspections and could only take action on a violation directly related to a complaint. If child labor violations were observed during a complaint based inspection, the government did not have the authority to take action.

Parents who owned or worked on farms often sent children to work in fields or to find other employment. Children left behind by parents who had emigrated abroad also worked on farms. The vast majority of child laborers worked in family businesses or on family farms.

Also see the Department of Labor's Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor at https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/resources/reports/child-labor/findings .

d. Discrimination with Respect to Employment and Occupation

The law prohibits discrimination based on sex, age, race, color, nationality, religion, political opinion, social origin, residence, disability, HIV-positive status, and membership or activity in trade unions, as well as other criteria. The law requires employers to provide for equal opportunity and treatment of employees without discrimination, to apply the same criteria to assess each employee's work, and to provide equal conditions for men and women relating to work and family obligations. The law defines and prohibits both direct and indirect discrimination. Penalties for violations were commensurate with those of other crimes related to denial of civil rights. The law does not mandate equal remuneration for work of equal value.

Discrimination on the basis of sex in access to pension benefits persisted in the country. The age at which men and women can retire with either full or partial benefits is not equal, nor is the mandatory retirement age for men and women.

Discrimination in employment and occupation occurred with respect to gender, disability, minority status, sexual orientation, gender identity, and HIV-positive status. Gender-based violence and harassment in the workplace is common in the country. Pregnant women reported being denied employment opportunities, since such employment was associated with additional benefits payable after childbirth.

The law also stipulates that the Equality Council be responsible for reviewing complaints of discrimination and making recommendations. As of September the council made decisions on 193 cases of alleged discrimination, 3.2 percent more than in 2019.

In Transnistria job segregation "laws" ban women from more than 300 jobs. Prohibited occupations include a wide variety of occupations deemed "too dangerous or demanding" for women, including welding, pouring, driving, snow blowing, gas extracting, and climbing.

e. Acceptable Conditions of Work

The law provides for a national minimum wage that is less than the poverty level. According to the National Trade Union Confederation (NTUC), as of July salary arrears were more than 20.9 million lei ($1.2 million).

The law sets the maximum workweek at 40 hours with overtime compensation, provides for at least one day off per week, and mandates paid annual leave of at least 28 calendar days (government holidays excluded). Different paid leave plans may be used in some sectors, such as education, health care, and public service. The law prohibits excessive compulsory overtime. Foreign and migrant workers have the same legal status as domestic workers.

The government sets occupational safety and health standards. According to labor law, workers can remove themselves from situations that endanger their health or safety without jeopardy to their employment.

The labor code requires work contracts for employment but the central government did not have an effective mechanism to monitor compliance. In the agricultural sector, approximately 63 percent of workers were employed informally, according to NTUC.

Government efforts to enforce requirements for minimum wage, work hours, and occupational health and safety standards were limited and ineffective. The law requires the government to establish and monitor safety standards in the workplace but inspections could only occur when a complaint was received and not all complaints met the criteria for a workplace inspection. Penalties for violations were not commensurate with those for other similar crimes.

Labor inspectors were generally required to give advance notice before conducting labor investigations and were generally prohibited from conducting onsite inspections if the information sought could be obtained in writing, which undercut their enforcement ability. The 10 sectoral inspection agencies responsible for occupational health and safety controls did not have sufficient trained staff to carry out adequate inspections. In the first eight months of the year, the SLI reported 334 unplanned inspections in areas defined by law as "labor relations," 42 in "salary payments" and 46 in "occupational safety and health." Labor inspectors could not confirm that any of these unplanned inspections were unannounced. In person, onsite inspections were suspended during the state of emergency declared between March 17 and May 15, and the moratorium continued under the public health state of emergency that continued from May 16 to the end of the year in response to the coronavirus pandemic.

A thriving informal economy accounted for a significant portion of the country's economic activity. According to the International Labor Organization, 30.9 percent of the total employed population had an informal job. Workers in the informal economy did not have the same legal protections as employees in the formal sector. No government social programs targeted workers in the informal economy who were hardest hit by the COVID lockdowns during the year.

Poor economic conditions led enterprises to spend less on safety equipment and to pay insufficient attention to worker safety. There is a consensus among stakeholders that after the change in the legislation governing labor inspections, occupational safety and health standards in the workplace worsened during the year. In the first eight months of the year, the SLI reported 231 work accidents involving 235 victims. The SLI also reported 13 work-related deaths. Enterprise committees investigated 170 cases of temporary incapacitation resulting from work accidents, involving 171 persons.

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Moldova - United States Department of State

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Note: Except where otherwise noted, all references in this report exclude the secessionist region of Transnistria. The Republic of Moldova is a parliamentary democracy with competitive multiparty elections. The constitution provides for executive and legislative branches as well as an independent judiciary and a clear separation of powers.