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- “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.”

- granted African American men the right to vote

-important

guarantee protection against racial discrimination in voting

- controversial: suffragists thought their rights were not as prioritized as the rights of African American

-  radical changes

African American sit in the congress (Hiram Rhodes Revels)

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- "seperate but equal"

- segregation law between black people and white people

- meant to marginalize African Americans by denying them the right to vote, hold jobs, get an education or more other opportunities

- Those who attempted to oppose Jim Crow laws often faced arrest, fines, jail sentences, violence and death

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Black Codes

The roots of Jim Crow laws began as early as 1865, immediately following the ratification of the 13th Amendment, which abolished slavery in the United States.

Black codes were strict local and state laws that detailed when, where and how formerly enslaved people could work, and for how much compensation. The codes appeared throughout the South as a legal way to put Black citizens into indentured servitude, to take voting rights away, to control where they lived and how they traveled and to seize children for labor purposes.

The legal system was stacked against Black citizens, with former Confederate soldiers working as police and judges, making it difficult for African Americans to win court cases and ensuring they were subject to Black codes.

These codes worked in conjunction with labor camps for the incarcerated, where prisoners were treated as enslaved people. Black offenders typically received longer sentences than their white equals, and because of the grueling work, often did not live out their entire sentence.

Ku Klux Klan

During the Reconstruction era, local governments, as well as the national Democratic Party and President Andrew Johnson, thwarted efforts to help Black Americans move forward.

Violence was on the rise, making danger a regular aspect of African American life. Black schools were vandalized and destroyed, and bands of violent white people attacked, tortured and lynched Black citizens in the night. Families were attacked and forced off their land all across the South.

The most ruthless organization of the Jim Crow era, the Ku Klux Klan, was born in 1865 in Pulaski, Tennessee, as a private club for Confederate veterans.

The KKK grew into a secret society terrorizing Black communities and seeping through white Southern culture, with members at the highest levels of government and in the lowest echelons of criminal back alleys.

Jim Crow Laws Expand

At the start of the 1880s, big cities in the South were not wholly beholden to Jim Crow laws and Black Americans found more freedom in them.

This led to substantial Black populations moving to the cities and, as the decade progressed, white city dwellers demanded more laws to limit opportunities for African Americans.

Jim Crow laws soon spread around the country with even more force than previously. Public parks were forbidden for African Americans to enter, and theaters and restaurants were segregated.

Segregated waiting rooms in bus and train stations were required, as well as water fountains, restrooms, building entrances, elevators, cemeteries, even amusement-park cashier windows.

Laws forbade African Americans from living in white neighborhoods. Segregation was enforced for public pools, phone booths, hospitals, asylums, jails and residential homes for the elderly and handicapped.

Some states required separate textbooks for Black and white students. New Orleans mandated the segregation of prostitutes according to race. In Atlanta, African Americans in court were given a different Bible from white people to swear on. Marriage and cohabitation between white and Black people was strictly forbidden in most Southern states.

It was not uncommon to see signs posted at town and city limits warning African Americans that they were not welcome there.

Ida B. Wells

As oppressive as the Jim Crow era was, it was also a time when many African Americans around the country stepped forward into leadership roles to vigorously oppose the laws.

Memphis teacher Ida B. Wells became a prominent activist against Jim Crow laws after refusing to leave a first-class train car designated for white people only. A conductor forcibly removed her and she successfully sued the railroad, though that decision was later reversed by a higher court.

Angry at the injustice, Wells devoted herself to fighting Jim Crow laws. Her vehicle for dissent was newspaper writing: In 1889 she became co-owner of the Memphis Free Speech and Headlight and used her position to take on school segregation and sexual harassment.

Wells traveled throughout the South to publicize her work and advocated for the arming of Black citizens. Wells also investigated lynchings and wrote about her findings.

A mob destroyed her newspaper and threatened her with death, forcing her to move to the North, where she continued her efforts against Jim Crow laws and lynching.

Charlotte Hawkins Brown

Charlotte Hawkins Brown was a North Carolina-born, Massachusetts-raised Black woman who returned to her birthplace at the age of 17, in 1901, to work as a teacher for the American Missionary Association.

After funding was withdrawn for that school, Brown began fundraising to start her own school, named the Palmer Memorial Institute.

Brown became the first Black woman to create a Black school in North Carolina and through her education work became a fierce and vocal opponent of Jim Crow laws.

Isaiah Montgomery

Not everyone battled for equal rights within white society-some chose a separatist approach.

Convinced by Jim Crow laws that Black and white people could not live peaceably together, formerly enslaved Isaiah Montgomery created the African American-only town of Mound Bayou, Mississippi, in 1887.

Montgomery recruited other former enslaved people to settle in the wilderness with him, clearing the land and forging a settlement that included several schools, an Andrew Carnegie-funded library, a hospital, three cotton gins, a bank and a sawmill. Mound Bayou still exists today, and is still almost 100 percent Black.

Jim Crow Laws in the 20th Century

As the 20th century progressed, Jim Crow laws flourished within an oppressive society marked by violence.

Following World War I, the NAACP noted that lynchings had become so prevalent that it sent investigator Walter White to the South. White had lighter skin and could infiltrate white hate groups.

As lynchings increased, so did race riots, with at least 25 across the United States over several months in 1919, a period sometimes referred to as " Red Summer." In retaliation, white authorities charged Black communities with conspiring to conquer white America.

With Jim Crow dominating the landscape, education increasingly under attack and few opportunities for Black college graduates, the Great Migration of the 1920s saw a significant migration of educated Black people out of the South, spurred on by publications like The Chicago Defender, which encouraged Black Americans to move north.

Read by millions of Southern Black people, white people attempted to ban the newspaper and threatened violence against any caught reading or distributing it.

The poverty of the Great Depression only deepened resentment, with a rise in lynchings, and after World War II, even Black veterans returning home met with segregation and violence.

Jim Crow in the North

The North was not immune to Jim Crow-like laws. Some states required Black people to own property before they could vote, schools and neighborhoods were segregated, and businesses displayed "Whites Only" signs.

In Ohio, segregationist Allen Granbery Thurman ran for governor in 1867 promising to bar Black citizens from voting. After he narrowly lost that political race, Thurman was appointed to the U.S. Senate, where he fought to dissolve Reconstruction-era reforms benefiting African Americans.

After World War II, suburban developments in the North and South were created with legal covenants that did not allow Black families, and Black people often found it difficult or impossible to obtain mortgages for homes in certain "red-lined" neighborhoods.

When Did Jim Crow Laws End?

The post-World War II era saw an increase in civil rights activities in the African American community, with a focus on ensuring that Black citizens were able to vote. This ushered in the civil rights movement, resulting in the removal of Jim Crow laws.

In 1948 President Harry Truman ordered integration in the military, and in 1954, the Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education that educational segregation was unconstitutional, bringing to an end the era of "separate-but-equal" education.

In 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act, which legally ended the segregation that had been institutionalized by Jim Crow laws.

And in 1965, the Voting Rights Act halted efforts to keep minorities from voting. The Fair Housing Act of 1968, which ended discrimination in renting and selling homes, followed.

Jim Crow laws were technically off the books, though that has not always guaranteed full integration or adherence to anti-racism laws throughout the United States. Several recent pieces of legislation-such as House Bill 1020 in Mississippi, which aimed to disenfranchise the majority-Black capital city of Jackson by creating a new judicial district overseen by white leaders-are often compared to Jim Crow laws.

Sources

The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow. Richard Wormser.
Segregated America. Smithsonian Institute.
Jim Crow Laws. National Park Service.
"Exploiting Black Labor After the Abolition of Slavery." The Conversation.
"Hundreds of black Americans were killed during 'Red Summer.' A century later, still ignored." Associated Press/USA Today.
"Here's What's Become Of A Historic All-Black Town In The Mississippi Delta." NPR.

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Jim Crow Laws: Definition, Facts & Timeline | HISTORY

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Jim Crow laws were state and local statutes that legalized racial segregation. Enacted after the Civil War, the laws denied equal opportunity to Black citizens.

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Impeachment of Andrew Johnson (Choi sungjun)

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Impeachment of Andrew Johnson (Choi sungjun)

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- He fired Secretary of War Stanton(enemy of Johnson) to test the act, but eventually it gave pretext to Radicals to impeach him.

- Only way to remove him was to impeach with vote of 2/3 from Senate.

- 1868/03/30: Senator met to try impeachment on Johnson
- Johnson was clean, 'constitution man', so Radicals couldn't prove that he committed crime.

- 1868/03/16: Vote result: (guilty:35 / X guilty: 19), one vote less than 2/3 which made Johnson to remain as president.

- Dictatorship of Congress might have started if Johnson was removed.

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a system where a tenant is granted access to property in exchange for a part of the crop produced there by the landlord or planter

Poor farmers were given access to tiny farming plots under a sharecropping agreement. They were compelled to offer the landowner shares—a percentage of the crop yield—instead of paying rent in cash.

Tenant farm families were frequently held heavily in debt due to high interest rates, erratic harvests, and dishonest landlords and merchants, necessitating carrying the obligation over to the following year or the next.

it increased the amount of debt that poor people owed the plantation owners.

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- Ku Klux Klan
- flogged, maimed, and killed blacks who tried to vote or to have same equal as whites

uniform
- pointed hat with white hood for hiding face
- long white or black coat

- There were more similar groups as Tennessee Pale Face, or   Red Jacket etc..

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The new  reconstructed  government in south were consist of:

1. Scalawags: White Southerners
2. Carpet-baggers:  Northerner in the South after the American Civil War usually seeking private gain under the Reconstruction governments
3. Black

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- South was divided into 5 pieces, and Northern generals take care of each one.

- Radicals were afraid to give liberty of vote or holding office, because the newly elected Southerns might be against them.

- Stevens who considered economic over political power wanted to give rebel properties to black, but it didn't came to pass.

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- Policy to make southern states to conquered provinces was passed, and white southerns were afraid that they might be ruled by blacks (rebellion).

- All adult males could vote regardless of skin color

- Former leaders of Confederacy couldn't neither vote nor hold office.

- Their elections were under the new Military districts' surveillance

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Impeachment of Andrew Johnson (Choi sungjun)

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Impeachment of Andrew Johnson (Choi sungjun)

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- Andrew Johnson enforced unwise laws(out of control of Radicals), which made the radicals turned against him. They passed 'Command of the Army Act' to take away power from president.

- Radicals were willing to oust Johnson, hoping him to violate even one law.

- Tenure Office Act, act from Radicals that president can't fire any federal official without consent of Senate, touched Johnson's limit of patient.

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- regulations for the purpose of ensuring the rights of black slaves and their descendants

- repealed Dred Scott V. Sanford and drew up a new amendments

- it forbade any state from depriving citizens of their rights& privileges

- allow former slaves immediate US citizenship

- clear terms of North: if South accepted this amendment, they could enter the union

- the reaction of other states

Tennessee: Reconstruction was largely over

Other states: followed Andrew Johnson’s lead and refused to adopt the amendment

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- first meetings of the new state government, they adopted “black codes”

- based on old slave codes

- restrict freedom of blacks -> marry, vote, job(agriculture, domestic service)

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- New President (after Lincoln)

- he was vice president at the time of President Abraham Lincoln's assassination

-he wanted to quickly bring the seceded Southern states back into the Union

- no schooling Johnson life, wife Eliza taught him to write

- appointed governor of Tennessee

- he clashed repeatedly with the Republican(controlled reconstruction)

- the first president to be impeached

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- wanted to punish white Southerners
- wanted to give slaves fair treatment

After war (different opinion with Lincoln)
- Southern states couldn't claim rights under the Constitution
- ruled by military governors
- treat Southern states as "conquered provinces"
- depend on their behavior, they get a chance to govern themselves and take part in government

2 Leaders
(1) Thaddeus Stevens (The House of Representatives)
(2) Charles Sumner (The Senate)

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- congress followed the [Freedmen’s Bureau bill] with this bill

- this bill was to protect blacks in the South

prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, national origin

- Moderates urged Johnson to accept this law -> Andrew Johnson vetoed the bill

- Republican members

joined the Radicals

passed the civil rights act over the presidents veto -> passed a new [Freedmen’s Bureau bill]

- examples of the civil rights bill

1. the right to vote

2. the right to a fair trial

3. the right to government services

4. the right to a public education

5. the right to use public facilities

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The Wade-Davis plan (July 2, 1864) (Jueun)

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The Wade-Davis plan (July 2, 1864) (Jueun)

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- Lincoln's "one-tenth" plan didn't satisfied the Radical Republicans

(1) each Southern states should make a list of all its white men
(2) state couldn't be recognized until the majority of the people on that list agreed to support the Constitution

Lincoln refused to sign -> issued a new proclamation
- Any states should be allowed to choose between Lincoln's plan and Radicals' plan