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The pituitary gland is located within the brain and is split into 2 sections; the anterior pituitary gland, and the posterior pituitary gland. The pituitary gland produces and releases hormones which helps complete bodily functions.

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The posterior pituitary gland is one of the lobes within the pituitary gland, which sits posteriorly.

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The anterior pituitary gland is one of the lobes within the pituitary gland which sits anteriorly.

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The pineal gland is located in the centre of the brain and is a very small gland. The pineal gland releases hormones to control the sleep-wake cycle.

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The thyroid gland is located on anterior surface of the neck, near the larynx. The thyroid gland releases hormones to regulate bodily functions.

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The parathyroid gland are two pairs of oval shaped glands which are embedded on the posterior side of the thyroid gland. The parathyroid gland releases hormones which controls the blood calcium levels within the blood.

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The adrenal glands are two organs which sit directly on top of each of the kidneys. The adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex make up the adrenal gland. The adrenal gland releases hormones which regulate the immune system, blood pressure, metabolism and other essential functions.

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The adrenal cortex is the outer most layer of the adrenal gland which produces its own hormones.

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The adrenal medulla makes up the inner part of the adrenal gland, which is responsible for its own hormones.

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The pancreas is a vital organ which has roles in multiple body functions. The pancreas sits on top of the transverse colon and behind the stomach. The pancreas releases hormones to maintain the optimal blood glucose levels.

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The ovaries are only present in biological born females and are located on either sit of the uterus and produces female sex characteristics including reproductive development and menstruation.

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The testes are only present in biological born males and are located external to the body and is covered by scrotum. The testes are responsible for male sex characteristics.

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Human Growth Hormone promotes insulin like growth factors and promotes cell division. Human Growth hormone is regulated by growth hormone releasing hormone from the hypothalamus. The mechanism which is responsible for controlling the release of Human Growth Hormone is hormonal.

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Thyroid Stimulating Hormone stimulate the thyroid gland to produce thyroxin and triiodothyronine. Thyroid stimulating hormone is produced in response to the hypothalamus releasing thyroid-releasing hormone. The mechanism which is responsible for controlling the release of Thyroid Stimulating Hormone is hormonal.

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Stimulates sperm production in males and the maturation of ovarian follicles in females. Follicle Stimulating Hormone is regulated by the hypothalamus releasing gonadotrophin-releasing hormone. The mechanism that is responsible for controlling the release of Follicle Stimulating Hormone is hormonal.

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Luteinizing Hormone stimulates testosterone production in males and stimulates ovulation in females. Luteinizing Hormone is regulated by gonadotrophin release hormone being released by the hypothalamus. The mechanism which is responsible for controlling the release of Luteinizing Hormone is hormonal.

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Prolactin stimulates milk production in the mammary glands. The production of prolactin increases by prolactin releasing hormone being released from the hypothalamus after the response to the baby suckling at the breast. The mechanism which is responsible for controlling the release of Prolactin is hormonal.

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Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone stimulates the production and release of hormones from the adrenal cortex. Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone is secrete due to corticotropin- releasing hormone being released from the hypothalamus. The mechanism which controls the release of Adrenocorticotropic is hormonal

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Oxytocin increases contractions in the uterus during child birth and is responsible for milk ejection during breastfeeding. Oxytocin is regulated through receptors in the cervix and nipples which send signals to the hypothalamus which releases the hormone. The mechanism which controls the release of oxytocin is neural.

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Antidiuretic Hormone increases water reabsorption in the kidney allowing more water in the blood. Antidiuretic Hormone is stimulated by an increase in plasma osmolality as well as decreased blood volume. The mechanism which is responsible for releasing antidiuretic hormone is humoral.

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Melatonin indues sleepiness and resets circadian rhythm. It is responsible for the sleep wake cycle. Melatonin is released by the suppression of a bright light. The mechanism which controls melatonin being released is neural

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Thyroid Hormones (T3 and T4) increase cell growth, metabolic rate and the production of body heat. Thyroid Hormones are regulated thyroid stimulating hormone which is released from the anterior pituitary gland. The mechanism which controls the release of Thyroid Hormones is hormonal.

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Calcitonin decreases blood calcium concentration through promoting storage of calcium in the bones and obstructing calcium absorption by the intestines. Calcitonin is regulated by the blood calcium concentration in the body. The mechanism which controls the release of Calcitonin is humoral.

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Parathyroid Hormone increases blood calcium concentration by increasing calcium absorption as well as stimulating the activity of osteoclasts, which absorbes calcium from bones. Parathyroid Hormone is also regulated by the blood calcium concentration within the body. The mechanism which controls the release Parathyroid Hormone is humoral.

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Aldosterone increases sodium reabsorption in the kidney, which increases water reabsorption and blood volume in the body. Aldosterone's primary mechanism is the production of angiotensin 2 which is produced in response to low blood pressure. The mechanism which controls the release of aldosterone is hormonal.

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Cortisol increases protein breakdown, the formation of glucose and slows down the immune system. Cortisol is stimulated due to the anterior pituitary gland releasing adrenocorticotropic. The mechanism which controls the release of cortisol is hormonal.

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In women, Androgens promote libido which is then converted into oestrogen by tissues in the body. It still isn't fully known how androgens are regulated, however the main hormone which stimulates the secretion of androgens is adrenocorticotropic. Due to the presence of adrenocorticotropic, the mechanism which controls the release of androgens is hormonal.

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Epinephrine and norepinephrine is associated with the effects of the fight or flight response by increasing the effects of sympathetic division within the autonomic nervous system during a stressful situation. The mechanism which controls the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine is neural.

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Glucagon is responsible for increasing blood glucose levels when the levels are lower than the normal range. The release of Glucagon is regulated by blood glucose levels, therefore, if blood levels are too high, glucagon will no longer be released. The mechanism which controls glucagon being released in humoral.

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Insulin is responsible for decreasing blood glucose levels in the body. Glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver due to the release of insulin. Insulin is also regulated by blood glucose concentration, however, once blood glucose levels are too low, insulin will no longer be released. The release of insulin is the humoral mechanism.

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Oestrogen and Progesterone are responsible for all female bodily functions including regulating the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, preparing mammary glands for lactation as wells as developing female sex characteristics. Oestrogen and Progesterone as regulated by the presence of follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone. The mechanism which is responsible for the release of these hormones is hormonal.

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Testosterone is responsible for the different male bodily functions including sperm production and also the development of male sex characteristics. Testosterone is regulated by the presence of luteinizing hormone. The mechanism which is responsible for the release of testosterone is hormonal.

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Gigantism is a rare condition which occurs in a child who has alarmingly high levels of Human Growth Hormone. In a normal pituitary gland, normal levels of human growth hormone is produced, however in individuals who have gigantism, there is a tumour on the pituitary gland which produces excessive amounts of the growth hormone. The large amount of the hormone will increase growth of the body including muscles, bones and tissues. However, early diagnosis can treat the condition (Cleveland Clinic, 2022). Symptoms of Gigantism include a large head, large and noticeable forehead, usual facial features, large hands and feet and general weakness. Individuals who have successfully treated gigantism will still exhibit symptoms including muscle weakness (Healthdirect, 2019).

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Clinical Connection 2: Cushing's Syndrome  

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Clinical Connection 2: Cushing's Syndrome  

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Cushing's syndrome is a condition which occurs when the body produces too much cortisol hormone which can result in the body making too much cortisol or even medications can increase cortisol levels. Another cause of Cushing's syndrome is a tumour on the adrenal gland or anterior pituitary gland which will affect the secretion of adrenocorticotropic. Cushing's syndrome is also known as hypercortisolism. Cortisol is released from the body in stress periods which increases heart rate, blood pressure and muscle tension as well as managing blood glucose levels (Cleveland Clinic, 2022a). Common symptoms of Cushing syndrome is weight gain in the trunk and face, fatty lump which sits between the shoulders, pink or purple stretch marks around the body and frail skin which bruises easily (Mayo Clinic, 2023).

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Interconnection with the Gastrointestinal System 

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Interconnection with the Gastrointestinal System 

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The gastrointestinal system is responsible for the ingestion and digestion of food, water and other nutrients. The Gastrointestinal system is made up of two groups of organs; the gastrointestinal tract extends from the mouth to the anus which were where the process of digestion takes place and the accessory organs assist digestion directly or indirectly.

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Interconnection to cardiovascular system 

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Interconnection to cardiovascular system 

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The cardiovascular system transports rich oxygenated blood to tissues around the oxygen and transports carbon dioxide, nutrients and hormones around the body. The cardiovascular system is made up of the heart, which pumps blood to all the parts within the body, as well as blood and blood vessels. The endocrine system is interconnected with the endocrine system as epinephrine and norepinephrine increase heart rate

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Tissue Type: Endocrine Tissue

Endocrine tissues are made up of different which produce and are responsible for hormones which are involved in different individual processes.

Cells that form Pancreatic Islets

Alpha Cells - Alpha cells are endocrine cells which secrete the hormone glucagon which will increase the blood glucose levels within the blood steam.

Beta Cells - Beta cells are endocrine cells which produce insulin to decrease blood glucose levels in the blood steam to control the blood levels.

Delta Cells- In the pancreas, delta cells secrete the hormone somatostatin, which is produced to inhibit the release of any pancreatic hormones.

F-Cells- In the pancreas F cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide which is a hormone that suppresses gastric emptying and biliary secretion to control the digestion of food.

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Mechanisms that Control Hormone Release 

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Mechanisms that Control Hormone Release 

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Hormone secretion is regulated by the stimulation from the nervous system.

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Hormone secretion is regulated by any chemical changes in the blood.

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Hormone secretion is regulated by the presence of other hormones

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Cleveland Clinic. (2022a). Cushing Syndrome: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment. Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/5497-cushing-syndrome

Cleveland Clinic. (2022b, May 9). Gigantism: What it is, causes, symptoms & treatment. Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/22954-gigantism

Healthdirect. (2019, January 24). Gigantism. Healthdirect.gov.au; Healthdirect Australia. https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/gigantism

Mayo Clinic. (2023, June 7). Cushing syndrome - symptoms and causes. Mayo Clinic; Mayo Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cushing-syndrome/symptoms-causes/syc-20351310

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Both Epinephrine and Norepinephrine influences the heart, but increasing the heart rate by increasing vascular resistance

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Increased Heart rate results in Increased Cardiac output

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Increased Heart rate results in Increased Cardiac output

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Cardiac output is the volume of blood which is ejected from the left ventricle per minute. An increased cardiac output allows the body to pump more oxygen and blood around the body and to working muscles.

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The Fight or Flight response is the human body's response to react to a stressful situation and needing to escape that situation. Epinephrine and Norepinephrine assist in increasing heart rate, resulting in the heart pumping at a harder and faster rate which will deliver oxygen around the body to muscles, which may be required for the response.

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Lipid Soluble Hormones are mainly obtained from cholesterol and is transported in the blood by proteins. Lipid Soluble hormones pass through cell membranes and bind to the receptor which is inside the target cell. The binding causes gene expression to change forming new mRNA which directs synthesis of protein, which causes a particular hormone response.

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Water Soluble Hormones are obtained from amino acids and peptides. Water Soluble Hormones dissolve into blood plasma but however are unable to pass through the cell membrane. Instead they bind to the surface of receptors activating G proteins which activate adenylate cyclase. Adenylate coverts into cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) which activates cellular protein kinases which alter cell activity.

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In the digestive system, epinephrine and norepinephrine slow the digestive process down. The release of adrenaline relaxes muscles in the intestines and stomach, which will then affect the blood flow to organs by decreasing blood flow which eventually slows digestion.

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Gastrin - Gastrin is the secretion of G-cells and gastrin increases gastric juice secretions and increases gastric emptying. Increased gastric emptying contributes to acceleration of the emptying process.

Cholecystokinin - Cholecystokinin is the secretion of enteroendocrine cells which also increases gastric juice secretion and increases gastric emptying.

Secretin - Secretin is the secretion of enteroendocrine cells which stimulate pancreatic juice and restrict gastric juice. Pancreatic juice is important for the digestive process as it helps break down the ingested food making digestion easier.