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There are seven official EU institutions, which can be roughly grouped by their executive, legislative, judicial,

and financial functions. Checks and balances were built into the system to prevent any single body from

imposing its preferences unilaterally.(egyoldalúlag)

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Dear students, the EU's story begins with the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951. As a Hungarian teacher, I find it fascinating how six countries decided to unite their industrial resources to prevent future wars. This evolved into the European Economic Community (1957) and finally the European Union with the Maastricht Treaty (1993).

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The EU grew from 6 to 27 members through various waves of expansion. As someone from Hungary, I'm particularly proud that our country joined in 2004 along with other Central and Eastern European nations. This historic enlargement (Eastern enlargement) helped heal the divide between Eastern and Western Europe.

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The European Parliament: Voice of the People

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The European Parliament: Voice of the People

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Based in both Brussels and Strasbourg, the European Parliament represents EU citizens directly. With 705 MEPs, including 21 from Hungary, it's the only directly elected EU institution. I always emphasize to my students how crucial it is to participate in European elections!.

Representatives are apportioned by each

member state’s population. Unlike traditional legislatures, it can’t propose legislation, but laws can’t pass

without its approval. It also negotiates and approves the EU budget.  Parliament is currently led by Maltese

politician Roberta Metsola.

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European Commission: The Executive Branch

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European Commission: The Executive Branch

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The Commission, led by ormer German Minister of Defence Ursula von der Leyen, proposes legislation and implements EU policies. Each member state has one Commissioner. Currently, Olivér Várhelyi represents Hungary, handling the Neighbourhood and Enlargement portfolio. The European Commission, the EU’s primary executive body: partly political body, partly administration. It

has 28 members – one from each member state. The College is headed by the Commission President,

currently Jean-Claude Juncker=Ursula van der Leyen.  It has four responsibilities that are central to the EU’s

operation: it proposes legislation it manages EU policy and the EU budget; it acts as the guardian of the

treaties, monitoring compliance with EU law and it leads foreign trade negotiations.

The members of the commission are appointed by the European Council and approved by the European

Parliament.

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This is where national ministers meet to adopt laws and coordinate policies. As a teacher, I find it interesting how each member state, regardless of size, has a voice here, though voting weights vary based on population.

The Council of the European Union, also known as the Council of Ministers to avoid confusion, is a second

legislative branch whose approval is also needed for legislation to pass. This council consists of the

government ministers from all EU members, organized by policy area. For instance, all EU members’ foreign

ministers meet together in one group, their agriculture ministers in another, and so on.

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The European Council and the Council of the EU are served by a single administration, the General Secretariat of the Council (GSC).

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20 out of 27 EU members use the Euro. Though Hungary still uses the Forint, many of my students ask about eventual Euro adoption. The common currency brings benefits like easier travel and trade, but also requires strict economic criteria and coordination.

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To join the Eurozone, countries must meet the Maastricht criteria: stable prices, sound public finances, stable exchange rates, and low interest rates. It's a topic we often debate in economics class!

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As a Hungarian educator, I've witnessed numerous advantages: free movement (my students love the Erasmus program!), single market access, regional development funds, and stronger diplomatic influence. Our infrastructure has improved significantly thanks to EU funding.

Economic Benefits

1. Single Market Access

Free trade of goods, services, capital, and labor across EU countries.

2. Stronger Bargaining Power

EU negotiates as a bloc in global trade, giving members more influence.

3. Regional Development Funds

Less developed areas receive financial support to improve infrastructure and economy.

4. Common Currency (Euro) (for Eurozone countries)

Simplifies trade and travel between member states using the euro.

5. Business Opportunities

Easier to expand or operate businesses across borders within the EU.

✈️ Freedom & Mobility

6. Freedom of Movement

Citizens can live, work, study, and retire in any EU country.

7. Erasmus+ Program

Access to funded education, training, and exchange opportunities across Europe.

8. No Border Checks (Schengen Area)

Faster, easier travel between many European countries.

🛡 Political & Global Influence

9. Stronger International Voice

More influence in world affairs through collective representation.

10. Promotes Peace & Stability

The EU has helped maintain peace between member countries since WWII.

11. Shared Values & Democracy

Promotes human rights, rule of law, and democratic standards.

🌱 Environmental & Social Policies

12. Joint Climate Action

Coordinated efforts on renewable energy, emissions reduction, and sustainability.

13. High Consumer and Health Standards

Strong protections for food, products, and public health.

14. Human Rights Protections

EU law enforces equality, anti-discrimination, and fundamental rights.

🤝 Solidarity & Support

15. Crisis Response

Mutual support during pandemics, natural disasters, and security threats.

16. Shared Resources

Coordination in areas like research, energy, and defense.

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The EU faces several challenges: Brexit aftermath, migration issues, rule of law debates, and energy security. In my classroom, we often discuss how these challenges affect Hungary and other member states.

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Future-Proofing Europe: Challenges and Opportunities Presented by Enlargement of the European Union

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The EU is pushing for climate neutrality by 2050 and digital innovation. As I tell my students, these initiatives will shape their future careers and daily lives. Hungary, too, is adapting its economy to meet these new challenges.

The European Green Deal is the EU’s strategy to make Europe climate-neutral by 2050, meaning it will emit no more greenhouse gases than it absorbs.

🎯 Main Goals:

1. Climate Neutrality by 2050

No net greenhouse gas emissions.

2. Clean Energy

More renewables, less fossil fuel use.

3. Sustainable Industry

Help companies reduce emissions and become eco-friendly.

4. Building Renovation

Make homes and buildings more energy efficient.

5. Sustainable Transport

Boost public transport and electric vehicles.

6. Farm to Fork Strategy

Make food systems healthier and more sustainable.

7. Biodiversity Protection

Restore forests, oceans, and nature.

8. Zero Pollution

Clean air, water, and soil.

💶 How Will It Work?

Funded by the European Green Deal Investment Plan, aiming to mobilize at least €1 trillion over 10 years.

Supported by laws like the European Climate Law and initiatives like the Just Transition Mechanism (to help regions that rely on coal or heavy industry).

🌱 Why Is It Important?

Fights global warming 🌡️

Boosts green jobs and innovation 💼

Improves public health 🏥

Makes Europe a global leader in climate action 🌐

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Discover the European Commission’s proposals to transform the EU into a modern, resource-efficient and competitive economy while reaching climate neutrality by 2050.

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The Conference on the Future of Europe has sparked debates about deeper integration, common defense, and democratic reforms. From our perspective in Central Europe, these discussions are crucial for ensuring all voices are heard in shaping the EU's future.

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💰 Economic & Financial Concerns

1. Membership Costs

Countries contribute large sums to the EU budget, which some argue could be spent domestically.

2. One-size-fits-all Policies

Economic policies may not suit all members equally, especially smaller or less wealthy states.

3. Eurozone Limitations (for Euro countries)

Countries using the euro lose control over their own monetary policy (like setting interest rates).

4. Financial Responsibility for Others

Stronger economies may be expected to bail out weaker ones during financial crises.

🏛 Sovereignty & Political Control

5. Loss of National Sovereignty

EU laws can override national laws, limiting a country’s independent decision-making.

6. Bureaucracy

EU institutions can be seen as overly complex and slow to act.

7. Democratic Deficit

Some argue that decision-making in the EU lacks transparency and is too distant from ordinary citizens.

8. Limited Border Control (Schengen Area)

Some countries feel they’ve lost control over their borders and immigration policies.

📉 Social & Cultural Concerns

9. Unequal Migration Impact

Some countries experience pressure on public services due to high levels of immigration.

10. National Identity Concerns

Critics argue that EU integration can dilute national cultures and identities.

11. Tension Between Member States

Differences in economic performance or migration policy can cause friction.

🧩 Other Challenges

12. Complex Regulations

EU rules can be difficult for small businesses and national governments to implement or follow.

13. Slow Decision-Making

Reaching consensus among 27 countries often leads to delays in taking action.

14. Risk of Overdependence

Smaller nations may become too reliant on EU funding or support.

15. Political Fragmentation

Growing euroscepticism can lead to internal division or even referendums to leave (e.g., Brexit).

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The European Council, (Európai Tanács) the EU’s supreme political body meeting every 3 months. A group of

the EU’s top political leaders, consists of the 27 president/prime ministers of every member state. It sets the

union’s political direction and settles urgent/sensitive high-level issues. Its members elect a president, who

can serve up to two two-and-a-half-year terms. currently Charles Michel.

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💶 Economic Power of the EU

1. World’s Largest Single Market

Over 450 million people; companies can trade freely across borders.

2. Global Trade Leader

One of the world’s top exporters and importers of goods and services.

3. Strong Collective GDP

Combined GDP makes the EU one of the top three economic powers globally (alongside the US and China).

4. Influence on Global Standards

EU regulations (especially on safety, data, and the environment) often set global benchmarks.

5. Powerful Trade Negotiator

As a bloc, the EU negotiates trade deals with other countries, giving it more leverage.

6. Investment Hub

Stable economy attracts global investment; major financial centers like Frankfurt, Paris, and Amsterdam.

7. Innovation & Research Leader

Major funding for science, green tech, and digital development through programs like Horizon Europe.

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⚠️ Economic Hardships & Challenges

1. Economic Disparities

Big gap between richer northern countries (e.g., Germany, Netherlands) and poorer southern/eastern members (e.g., Greece, Bulgaria).

2. Unemployment in Some Regions

Especially among youth in countries like Spain or Italy.

3. Eurozone Challenges

Sharing a currency means individual countries can't adjust interest rates or devalue currency during crises.

4. Dependency on External Energy & Trade

Vulnerable to supply chain disruptions and geopolitical conflicts (e.g., gas from Russia).

5. Aging Population

Many EU countries face shrinking workforces and rising pension/healthcare costs.

6. Debt Issues

Some member states (like Greece or Italy) struggle with high national debt and strict EU spending rules.

7. Impact of Brexit

Loss of the UK (a major economy) affected trade, budgets, and political balance within the EU.

8. Slow Decision-Making

Economic reforms can be delayed by the need for consensus among many diverse countries.

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Ukraine as an Aspirant Country to the EU

🧭 What is an Aspirant Country?

An aspirant country is a nation that wants to join the European Union and is working toward meeting the requirements for membership.

Ukraine is one of these countries — it has officially expressed its intention to join the EU, and the process is already underway.

🗓️ Timeline of Key Events

2014: Association Agreement Signed

Ukraine and the EU signed a political and economic cooperation deal.

Marked a turning point in Ukraine’s EU integration path.

February 2022: Formal Application

Right after Russia’s invasion, Ukraine formally applied for EU membership.

June 2022: EU Candidacy Status Granted

Ukraine was granted official candidate status — a major milestone.

Ongoing: Reforms & Negotiations

Ukraine must implement democratic, legal, and economic reforms to meet EU standards.

🎯 What Ukraine Needs to Do (EU Requirements)

To become a full member, Ukraine must meet the Copenhagen criteria:

1. Stable democratic institutions

2. Rule of law and human rights

3. A functioning market economy

4. Adoption of EU laws and regulations

Ukraine is working on:

Judicial reforms

Anti-corruption measures

Economic modernization

Alignment with EU laws (acquis communautaire)

💪 Why Ukraine Wants to Join the EU

Economic growth opportunities

Access to the single market

Stronger political and security ties

Support for democratic values and institutions

Closer ties with Western Europe

⚠️ Challenges Ukraine Faces

Ongoing war and security threats

Corruption and institutional reform

Economic instability

Energy and infrastructure damage due to war

Rebuilding while integrating EU standards

📍 Summary

Ukraine is a committed EU aspirant country, already making big steps toward membership.
While challenges remain—especially due to the war—the EU continues to support Ukraine politically, financially, and through reform guidance.

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Turkey as an EU Aspirant Country

🧭 Background

Turkey has had a long and complicated relationship with the European Union. It is officially a candidate country for EU membership, but negotiations have been largely frozen in recent years.

🗓️ Key Milestones

1963: Association Agreement (Ankara Agreement)

Laid the foundation for closer ties between Turkey and the European Economic Community (EEC).

1987: Application for Membership

Turkey formally applied to join the EU.

1995: Customs Union Agreement

Turkey and the EU formed a customs union, allowing goods to be traded with fewer restrictions.

2005: Accession Negotiations Begin

Formal membership talks started, but progress has been very slow.

🎯 What Turkey Needs to Do

To join the EU, Turkey must meet the Copenhagen criteria:

1. Stable democratic institutions

2. Respect for human rights and rule of law

3. Functioning market economy

4. Alignment with EU laws and values

⚠️ Challenges and Stalled Progress

Turkey’s accession process has faced numerous obstacles, including:

Human rights concerns

Issues with press freedom, judicial independence, and political opposition crackdowns.

Democratic backsliding

Accusations of increasing authoritarianism, especially after the 2016 coup attempt.

Tensions with EU member states

Conflicts with Greece and Cyprus over maritime boundaries and gas exploration in the Eastern Mediterranean.

Migration and border politics

Turkey hosts millions of refugees and has been part of the EU-Turkey migration deal.

Disagreements over foreign policy

Turkey’s actions in Syria, Libya, and its closeness with Russia have raised concerns in the EU.

🤝 Current Status

Turkey remains an official candidate, but accession talks are effectively frozen.

The EU continues to cooperate with Turkey on trade, migration, and regional security, but full membership is unlikely in the near future.

📍 Summary

Turkey is an aspirant country with deep historical, political, and economic ties to the EU.
However, political tensions and internal challenges have severely slowed its path toward membership.