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Literacy Assessment Selection Tool-Grades K-6 ODEW

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Literacy Assessment Selection Tool-Grades K-6 ODEW

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Literacy Assessment Selection Tool-Grades K-6 ODEW

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Really Great Reading: Complimentary Reading Assessments (K-12)

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Really Great Reading: Complimentary Reading Assessments (K-12)

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Identify decoding strengths and weaknesses with free diagnostic surveys for targeted literacy instruction.

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Quickly identify student needs and get targeted instruction with the only licensed digital version of the research-based DIBELS 8th Edition assessment.

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Advantages

Acadience Reading has been trusted by educators for over a decade to help improve student outcomes. When your approach is backed by research, it means less guesswork in the classroom. Acadience assessments are:

standardized

reliable and valid

fast to administer and report

assess core early literacy skills

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Acadience Reading K-6 | Acadience Learning

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Acadience Reading makes it easier to detect K-6 students who are at risk for early reading difficulties to provide timely support and prevention.

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Dyslexia Basics - International Dyslexia Association

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Dyslexia Basics - International Dyslexia Association

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What is dyslexia?

Dyslexia is a language-based learning disability. Dyslexia refers to a cluster of symptoms, which result in people having difficulties with specific language skills, particularly reading. Students with dyslexia usually experience difficulties with other language skills such as spelling, writing, and pronouncing words. Dyslexia affects individuals throughout their lives; however, its impact can change at different stages in a person's life. It is referred to as a learning disability because dyslexia can make it very difficult for a student to succeed academically in the typical instructional environment, and in its more severe forms, will qualify a student for special education, special accommodations, or extra support services.

What causes dyslexia?

The exact causes of dyslexia are still not completely clear, but anatomical and brain imagery studies show differences in the way the brain of a person with dyslexia develops and functions. Moreover, most people with dyslexia have been found to have problems with identifying the separate speech sounds within a word and/or learning how letters represent those sounds, a key factor in their reading difficulties. Dyslexia is not due to either lack of intelligence or desire to learn; with appropriate teaching methods, students with dyslexia can learn successfully.

How widespread is dyslexia?

About 13-14% of the school population nationwide has a handicapping condition that qualifies them for special education. Current studies indicate that one half of all the students who qualify for special education are classified as having a learning disability (LD) (6-7%). About 85% of those students have a primary learning disability in reading and language processing. Nevertheless, many more people-perhaps as many as 15-20% of the population as a whole-have some of the symptoms of dyslexia, including slow or inaccurate reading, poor spelling, poor writing, or mixing up similar words. Not all of these will qualify for special education, but they are likely to struggle with many aspects of academic learning and are likely to benefit from systematic, explicit, instruction in reading, writing, and language.

Dyslexia occurs in people of all backgrounds and intellectual levels. People with dyslexia can be very bright. They are often capable or even gifted in areas such as art, computer science, design, drama, electronics, math, mechanics, music, physics, sales, and sports.

In addition, dyslexia runs in families; parents with dyslexia are very likely to have children with dyslexia. For some people, their dyslexia is identified early in their lives, but for others, their dyslexia goes unidentified until they get older.

What are the effects of dyslexia?

The impact that dyslexia has is different for each person and depends on the severity of the condition and the effectiveness of instruction or remediation. The core difficulty is with word recognition and reading fluency, spelling, and writing. Some individuals with dyslexia manage to learn early reading and spelling tasks, especially with excellent instruction, but later experience their most debilitating problems when more complex language skills are required, such as grammar, understanding textbook material, and writing essays.

People with dyslexia can also have problems with spoken language, even after they have been exposed to good language models in their homes and good language instruction in school. They may find it difficult to express themselves clearly, or to fully comprehend what others mean when they speak. Such language problems are often difficult to recognize, but they can lead to major problems in school, in the workplace, and in relating to other people. The effects of dyslexia reach well beyond the classroom.

Dyslexia can also affect a person's self-image. Students with dyslexia often end up feeling "dumb" and less capable than they actually are. After experiencing a great deal of stress due to academic problems, a student may become discouraged about continuing in school.

How is dyslexia diagnosed?

Before referring a student for a comprehensive evaluation, a school or district may choose to track a student's progress with a brief screening test and identify whether the student is progressing at a "benchmark" level that predicts success in reading. If a student is below that benchmark (which is equivalent to about the 40 th percentile nationally), the school may immediately deliver intensive and individualized supplemental reading instruction before determining whether the student needs a comprehensive evaluation that would lead to a designation of special education eligibility. Some students simply need more structured and systematic instruction to get back on track; they do not have learning disabilities. For those students and even for those with dyslexia, putting the emphasis on preventive or early intervention makes sense. There is no benefit to the child if special instruction is delayed for months while waiting for an involved testing process to occur. These practices of teaching first, and then determining who needs diagnostic testing based on response to instruction, are encouraged by federal policies known as Response to Intervention (RTI). Parents should know, however, that at any point they have the right to request a comprehensive evaluation under the IDEA law, whether or not the student is receiving instruction under an RTI model.

A comprehensive evaluation typically includes intellectual and academic achievement testing, as well as an assessment of the critical underlying language skills that are closely linked to dyslexia. These include receptive (listening) and expressive language skills, phonological skills including phonemic awareness, and also a student's ability to rapidly name letters and numbers. A student's ability to read lists of words in isolation, as well as words in context, should also be assessed. If a profile emerges that is characteristic of readers with dyslexia, an individualized intervention plan should be developed, which should include appropriate accommodations, such as extended time. The testing can be conducted by trained school or outside specialists. (See the Dyslexia Assessment Fact Sheet for more information.)

What are the signs of dyslexia?

The problems displayed by individuals with dyslexia involve difficulties in acquiring and using written language. It is a myth that individuals with dyslexia "read backwards," although spelling can look quite jumbled at times because students have trouble remembering letter symbols for sounds and forming memories for words. Other problems experienced by people with dyslexia include the following:

Learning to speak

Learning letters and their sounds

Organizing written and spoken language

Memorizing number facts

Reading quickly enough to comprehend

Persisting with and comprehending longer reading assignments

Spelling

Learning a foreign language

Correctly doing math operations

Not all students who have difficulties with these skills have dyslexia. Formal testing of reading, language, and writing skills is the only way to confirm a diagnosis of suspected dyslexia.

How is dyslexia treated?

Dyslexia is a lifelong condition. With proper help, many people with dyslexia can learn to read and write well. Early identification and treatment is the key to helping individuals with dyslexia achieve in school and in life. Most people with dyslexia need help from a teacher, tutor, or therapist specially trained in using a multisensory, structured language approach. It is important for these individuals to be taught by a systematic and explicit method that involves several senses (hearing, seeing, touching) at the same time. Many individuals with dyslexia need one-on-one help so that they can move forward at their own pace. In addition, students with dyslexia often need a great deal of structured practice and immediate, corrective feedback to develop automatic word recognition skills. For students with dyslexia, it is helpful if their outside academic therapists work closely with classroom teachers.

Schools can implement academic accommodations and modifications to help students with dyslexia succeed. For example, a student with dyslexia can be given extra time to complete tasks, help with taking notes, and work assignments that are modified appropriately. Teachers can give recorded tests or allow students with dyslexia to use alternative means of assessment. Students can benefit from listening to audiobooks and using text reading and word processing computer programs.

Students may also need help with emotional issues that sometimes arise as a consequence of difficulties in school. Mental health specialists can help students cope with their struggles.

What are the rights of a person with dyslexia?

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act 2004 (IDEA), Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) define the rights of students with dyslexia and other specific learning disabilities. These individuals are legally entitled to special services to help them overcome and accommodate their learning problems. Such services include education programs designed to meet the needs of these students. The Acts also protect people with dyslexia against unfair and illegal discrimination.

Suggested Readings

Moats, L. C., & Dakin, K. E. (2008). Basic facts about dyslexia and other reading problems. Baltimore: The International Dyslexia Association.

Shaywitz, S. (2003). Overcoming dyslexia: A new and complete science-based program for reading problems at any level. New York: Knopf.
The International Dyslexia Association (IDA) thanks Louisa C. Moats, Ed.D., and Karen E. Dakin, M.Ed., for their assistance in the preparation of this fact sheet.
The International Dyslexia Association (IDA). IDA encourages the reproduction and distribution of this fact sheet.
If portions of the text are cited, appropriate reference must be made. Fact sheets may not be reprinted for the purpose of resale. © Copyright 2020. The International Dyslexia Association (IDA). For copyright information, pleaseclick here.

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DYSLEXIA BASICS - International Dyslexia Association

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Dr. Tim Odegard - Understanding Dyslexia: A Brain-Based Learning Difference

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Dr. Tim Odegard - Understanding Dyslexia: A Brain-Based Learning Difference

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Dr. Tim Odegard - Understanding Dyslexia: A Brain-Based Learning Difference

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What Is Curriculum-Based Measurement and What Does It Mean to My Child?

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What Is Curriculum-Based Measurement and What Does It Mean to My Child?

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What Is Curriculum-Based Measurement and What Does It Mean to My Child?

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Not only must schools teach academic skills, but they must measure how successful each child is acquiring these skills. One way to do this is Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM), which uses brief, timed tests made up of academic material taken from the child's school curriculum.

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Advantages

Acadience Reading has been trusted by educators for over a decade to help improve student outcomes. When your approach is backed by research, it means less guesswork in the classroom. Acadience assessments are:

standardized

reliable and valid

fast to administer and report

assess core early literacy skills

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Acadience Reading K-6 | Acadience Learning

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Acadience Reading makes it easier to detect K-6 students who are at risk for early reading difficulties to provide timely support and prevention.

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Criterion- and Norm-Referenced Score Reporting article

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Criterion- and Norm-Referenced Score Reporting article

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Criterion- and Norm-Referenced Score Reporting article

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Reliability in literacy screening is the consistency of a set of scores that are designed to measure the same thing.

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Explore the importance of screening validity in literacy assessments. Learn how screening validity ensures accurate measurement of academic progress.

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Reading Assessment Basics - Keys to Literacy

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Reading Assessment Basics - Keys to Literacy

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Reading assessment is essential for supporting effective reading instruction. Reading assessment data provides teachers important information to guide instructional decisions. It also helps guide school leadership as they make reading curriculum decisions. The Institute of Education Sciences (IES) practice guide Using Student Achievement Data to Support Instructional Decision Making (Hamilton et al., 2009) highlights the value of assessment data:

"Using data systematically to ask questions and obtain insight about student progress is a logical way to monitor continuous improvement and tailor instruction to the needs of each student. Armed with data and the means to harness the information data can provide, educators can make instructional changes aimed at improving student achievement, such as:

prioritizing instructional time;

targeting additional individual instruction for students who are struggling with particular topics;

more easily identifying individual students' strengths and instructional interventions that can help students continue to progress;

gauging the instructional effectiveness of classroom lessons;

refining instructional methods; and

examining schoolwide data to consider whether and how to adapt the curriculum based on information about students' strengths and weaknesses." (p. 5)

This goal of this blog post is to share basic explanations of key terms related to reading assessments. The text and graphics are from from Module 11 of the Keys to Beginning Reading professional development online course (Sedita, 2019).
Assessment Reliability and Validity Reliability
Reliability refers to how consistently a test provides dependable, consistent measurement of a skill or ability. If a test is reliable, the same result should be achieved regardless of who administers the test. Personal judgment to determine a score should not be part of the process. Related Essential question: Are the test scores reliable between test administrators? Testing contexts? Test forms?
Validity
A test is valid if it measures the skill or ability it says it is measuring. The results from a valid test are used to make useful, accurate and beneficial decisions. A test is only valid if it is being used for the purposes for which it was designed. Related Essential question: Are we using the test for the right purpose?
Types of Reading Assessments
There are four main types of reading assessments that are used in schools: Screening, Diagnostic, Progress Monitoring, Summative.
Screening and Benchmark
Screening assessments are typically administered to all students at the beginning, middle and end of the year to identify students who might be at risk for reading difficulty. They provide an initial indication of which students might need extra instruction or intensive interventions if they are to reach grade-level reading standards by the end of the school year. The goal of these assessments is to identify students early before start to fail. Sometimes information from the previous year's summative assessments can be used as part of the screening process. Screening assessments are not diagnostic - they do not provide detailed information about why a student is struggling.
Progress Monitoring
Progress monitoring assessments are sometimes called formative assessments and are given periodically to determine whether students are making adequate progress. The primary goal of these assessments is to determine if the instructional practices being used are enabling students to make sufficient progress related to the development of reading skills. The focus is on developing student learning. Progress monitoring is especially helpful to make sure that students at risk for reading difficulty are making adequate progress and to identify any students who may be falling behind.

There are two types of progress monitoring tests. Curriculum-embedded tests assess the extent to which students have learned the material taught in the current unit of a reading program. They help the teacher identify which students have mastered the material and whether the class is ready to move on to the next unit in the program. There may not be information about the reliability or validity of these tests, but they are useful because they provide information related to which students have learned what has just been taught (Torgesen, 2006).

The second type of progress monitoring tests measure reading skills (e.g., phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, comprehension) but are not tied to a reading program. These assessments, based on developmental research, establish benchmarks (performance targets) for the beginning, middle, and end of a school year that predict success at meeting grade-level reading standards (Torgesen, 2006).

General progress monitoring assessments should be given at least three times a year for grades K-3. However, at risk students who are receiving intervention instruction should be progress monitored more frequently to determine if the interventions are successful. They can be given as often as weekly (Torgesen, 2006).
Diagnostic
Diagnostic assessments are used to provide information about individual students who may be having reading difficulty. The results of these assessments help determine the cause of that difficulty, and help teachers plan appropriate supplemental instruction or intensive interventions based on individual student needs. There are many kinds of diagnostic assessments that range from informal reading tasks to formal assessments used for psycho-educational testing. They tend to be lengthy, but provide in-depth, reliable assessment of essential reading skills.

Torgesen (2006) notes that it is important to distinguish between diagnostic tests and diagnostic information. "Diagnostic information is any knowledge about a child's skills and abilities that is useful in planning instruction. It can come from student work, teacher observations, or other tests, as well as diagnostic tests. Diagnostic tests are one important way to obtain diagnostic information that can help guide interventions for students who are experiencing difficulty learning to read. However, reliable and valid diagnostic information can come from sources other than formal diagnostic tests." (p. 6)

Diagnostic assessments should be administered only for students who are having difficulty learning to read.
Summative
Summative assessments are sometimes called outcome assessments. The most common are standardized tests that are group administered and used to give school leaders and teachers feedback about the overall effectiveness of their reading curriculum and program. They are typically given at the end of the school year. The focus is on measuring student learning at a given point in time. The results from these assessments help determine if the instruction provided by all the educators in the school is sufficient to help all students achieve grade-level reading standards by the end of each year.
More Assessment Terms Norm-Referenced
These are formal, standardized assessments that compare a student's reading skills and ability to other students at the same grade or age level. They are usually not administered more than once in a year.
Criterion-Referenced
These can be formal or informal assessments that compare a student's reading skills to a set of skills, or criterion, that are identified as needed for mastery. They are often administered before and after instruction to measure growth in a particular skill. They can be administered more than once in year.
Curriculum Based Measurement (CBM)
A Curriculum Based Measurement, often referred to as a CBM, is a criterion-referenced assessment of targeted reading skills. The reading skill measures are tied to skills taught as part of the reading curriculum. CBM assessments can be used for screening and benchmarking purposes, and also for progress monitoring.

CBM assessments are typically given to all students three times during the school year: beginning, middle, and end to determine if students are learning specific reading skills at a growth rate expected for their grade level. When used for this purpose, grade-level assessments are used and student scores are compared to norms based on scores of students at the same grade or age level. Two common examples of CBM subtests for grades K-3 reading foundation skills include the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Litearcy Skills (DIBELS) and Acadience Reading. They measure skills such as letter naming fluency, letter-sound fluency, phoneme segmentation fluency, nonsense and whole word reading fluency, and oral reading fluency.

However, CBM assessments can be given more often as a progress monitoring tool to determine if struggling readers are making sufficient gains from intervention instruction. When used for this purpose, sub-tests from earlier grade levels might be used if a student's skills are below-grade level. If this is the case, the student scores can be compared to previous scores to determine if progress is being made, but the scores should not be compared to the typical grade-level norms.
Using Assessment to Identify Student Needs
Assessment tools are vehicles we use to gather data, while the assessment process refers to the decisions we make and actions we take as we administer tools, and interpret and communicate data. Review the stages in the assessment process below.

Adapted from MA DESE: Adolescent Literacy Professional Development

Assessment Across the School Year

For students who are making grade-appropriate gains in their reading skills, the assessment plan shown in the graphic above should be followed. At the beginning of the year, screening assessments that provide data about the major components of reading are given to all students to identify students who might be at risk. Progress monitoring of gains in reading skills are given at intervals throughout the school year to determine if all students are making adequate progress. A summative assessment is given at the end of the year to determine if the students have reached grade-level proficiency.
Modifying the Plan for Students with Below-Grade Level Skills
The assessment plan needs to be modified for students who appear to be at risk for not achieving grade-level proficiency. If the screening assessment at the beginning of the year indicates that a student may be at risk, diagnostic assessments should be administered to determine the areas for which supplemental or intervention should be given. The progress monitoring assessments will need to be given on a more frequent basis to monitor if that instruction is sufficient or if a different instructional plan should be made. The graphic below represents this modified plan.

Additional Resources

Watch a 5 minute video about the role of progress monitoring from the Institute of Education Sciences.

Access a helpful infographic that summarizes assessment terms offered by the Institute of Education Sciences.

Learn more about early reading assessments a the Reading Rockets website.

References

Hamilton, L., Halverson, R. Jackson, Ss, Mandinach, E., Supovitz, J., & Wayman, J. (2009). Using student achievement data to support instructional decision making (NCEE 2009-4067). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.

Sedita, J (2019). Keys to Beginning Reading. Rowley, MA: Keys to Literacy.

Torgesen, J. K. (2006) A comprehensive K-3 reading assessment plan: Guidance for school leaders. Portsmouth, NH. RMC Research Corporation, Center on Instruction https://www.fcrr.org/assessment/pdf/K-3%20Reading%20assessment.pdf

Joan Sedita

Joan Sedita is the founder of Keys to Literacy and author of the Keys to Literacy professional development programs. She is an experienced educator, nationally recognized speaker and teacher trainer. She has worked for over 35 years in the literacy education field and has presented to thousands of teachers and related professionals at schools, colleges, clinics, and professional conferences.

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Reading Assessment Basics - Keys to Literacy

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Reading assessment is essential for supporting effective reading instruction. Reading assessment data provides teachers important information to guide instructional decisions. It also helps guide school leadership as they make reading curriculum decisions. This goal of this blog post is to share basic explanations of key terms related to reading assessments.

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Demonstrate understanding of best practices for test construction and formats (e.g., reliability, validity, criterion, normed).

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Demonstrate understanding of best practices for test construction and formats (e.g., reliability, validity, criterion, normed).

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Learn more about the four types of reading assessments: universal screeners, diagnostic tests, progress monitoring tools, and summative assessments. It’s important to begin by asking yourself: “What do I want to know about my students? What do I want to assess?”

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Screening and Assessment in MTSS and Dyslexia UC/SCA Module

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Screening and Assessment in MTSS and Dyslexia UC/SCA Module

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Screening and Assessment for Dyslexia – UC/CSU California Collaborative for Neurodiversity and Learning

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UC / SCU Dyslexia Module Intro (Maryanne Wolf)

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UC / SCU Dyslexia Module Intro (Maryanne Wolf)

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Introduction to Dyslexia – UC/CSU California Collaborative for Neurodiversity and Learning

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Maryanne Wolf Reading Brain and Dyslexia 

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Maryanne Wolf Reading Brain and Dyslexia 

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Maryanne Wolf: Exploring the Intersection Between Reading Instruction and Social Justice

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You Can't Intervene Your Way Out of a Tier 1 Problem

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You Can't Intervene Your Way Out of a Tier 1 Problem

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Michelle Elia  "You Can't Intervene Your Way Out of a Tier One Problem

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Tim Odegard - Designing Instruction and Using Decision Rules

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Literacy Interventions Decision Flowchart Video

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Structured Literacy Interventions: Teaching Students with Reading Difficulties, Grades K-6 (The Guilford Series on Intensive Instruction)

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Structured Literacy Interventions: Teaching Students with Reading Difficulties, Grades K-6 (The Guilford Series on Intensive Instruction) [Spear-Swerling, Louise] on Amazon.com. *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. Structured Literacy Interventions: Teaching Students with Reading Difficulties, Grades K-6 (The Guilford Series on Intensive Instruction)

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Structured Literacy Vs. Typical Literacy Practices

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Structured Literacy Vs. Typical Literacy Practices

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Intensifying Literacy Instruction in MTSS

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Intensifying Literacy Instruction in MTSS

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Intensifying Literacy Instruction: Intensive Intervention | NCII

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The Intensifying Literacy Instruction guide offers ways educators and educational leaders can increase their capacity to develop skilled readers and writers.

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Learn more about the four types of reading assessments: universal screeners, diagnostic tests, progress monitoring tools, and summative assessments. It’s important to begin by asking yourself: “What do I want to know about my students? What do I want to assess?”

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Screening vs. Diagnostic Assessments — When and How to Use Each One

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Oral language encompasses both speaking and listening. Oral language skills include learning how spoken words sound, what words and sentences mean, and how to communicate ideas. Nurturing oral language skills provides a strong foundation for learning to read.

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The connection between oral language development and reading proficiency is symbiotic, with a key emphasis on oral skills as the foundation for understanding written text. Nurturing these skills is especially critical for younger, non-reading children, as the symbiotic relationship between oral language and reading is not yet accessible to them. As reading skills progress, comprehension of written text aligns with earlier language comprehension.

One thing to note is that individuals with dyslexia may excel in oral language but struggle with decoding words, impacting print comprehension.

The spoken word, a powerful tool of communication, serves as the gateway to unlocking the vast world of written language. Children naturally build oral language skills through various experiences and interactions, including listening, speaking, and engaging in meaningful conversations. The ability to comprehend spoken language and to express oneself verbally forms a strong base upon which the intricate structure of reading comprehension can be built .

Every child is unique, and language development occurs at different rates. Providing a language-rich environment, being responsive to children's attempts to communicate, and fostering a love for language through enjoyable activities are fundamental in supporting the development of strong oral language skills.

Components of Oral Language Development

There are five key components of oral language. These include:

Phonology

Phonology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic organization of sounds in language. Children build capacity to process speech sounds with activities such as rhyme recognition, and identifying and manipulating syllables and individual phonemes in words.

Syntax

Syntax pertains to the art of assembling words and phrases into coherent sentences. When children adeptly construct sentences that adhere to the established structures of language, they showcase their syntactic skills.

Semantics

Semantics involves grasping the meanings of words, phrases, and sentences, as well as employing word meanings accurately. This includes tasks like labeling objects and categorizing words which fall hand in hand with vocabulary development.

Morphology

Morphology involves comprehending the smallest components of words and their respective meanings by recognizing prefixes, suffixes, and roots Morphemic analysis can be beneficial to learners in building vocabulary.

Pragmatics

Pragmatics encompasses the social conventions of language, involving an awareness of conversational norms and the ability to adjust speaking and listening behaviors to align with the situational context.

As children progress in their oral language development, they naturally build essential comprehension skills. The ability to understand spoken language effortlessly translates into the capacity to comprehend written text. Proficient readers draw upon their oral language foundation to infer meaning, make connections, and engage with the material on a deeper level.

It is important to understand that individuals with dyslexia may face unique challenges in this progression. Despite possessing strong oral language skills, students with dyslexia often encounter difficulties in decoding written words, affecting their ability to navigate text. For these students, additional support in decoding strategies and tailored interventions can bridge the gap between robust oral language abilities and challenges in print comprehension. Addressing these specific needs ensures a more inclusive approach to literacy development.

Activities to Build Oral Language Skills

Conversations

Conversations, both at home and in the classroom, help to nurture oral language skills. Encouraging open-ended discussions, active listening, and thoughtful responses creates an environment where children can develop the communication skills necessary for effective reading.

Storytelling Sessions

Encourage students to share their own stories or retell a familiar tale. Discuss characters, settings, and plot elements to enhance descriptive language. You can even have students engage in role-playing scenarios to promote conversational skills and understanding of different perspectives. This can be particularly effective for practicing pragmatic language skills.

Listening Activities

Play audio recordings, podcasts, or stories and discuss what was heard. Ask students to arrange key points in chronological order. This enhances listening comprehension and the ability to summarize information.

Oral language takes center stage when it comes to literacy development. The journey from spoken words to written text is a continuum, and a strong oral language foundation is the key to unlocking the full potential of reading proficiency. As educators, parents, and advocates for literacy, we must recognize the vital role of oral language development in shaping the literate minds of our youngest readers.

Resources
Please connect with us on Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, LinkedIn, and Pinterest to get tips and tricks from your peers and us. Read the IMSE Journal to hear success stories from other schools and districts, and be sure to check out our digital resources for refreshers and tips.

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The Role of Oral Language Development in Reading Proficiency - IMSE - Journal

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The journey from spoken words to written text is a continuum, and a strong oral language foundation is the key to unlocking the full potential of reading proficiency.

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All Ohio Literacy Screening and Interventions

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All Ohio Literacy Screening and Interventions

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FL3. Screening and Intervention – ALL Ohio

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Understanding Dyslexia All Ohio Literacy

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Understanding Dyslexia All Ohio Literacy

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High standards of honesty and integrity are expected when completing professional development within this learning management system. Academic dishonesty includes, but is not limited to, dishonesty in the completion of activities and/or claiming credit for work not done or done by others. Any violation of these expectations can result in removal from this learning management system.

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High standards of honesty and integrity are expected when completing professional development within this learning management system. Academic dishonesty includes, but is not limited to, dishonesty in the completion of activities and/or claiming credit for work not done or done by others. Any violation of these expectations can result in removal from this learning management system.

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All Ohio Literacy Structured Literacy Module

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All Ohio Literacy Structured Literacy Module

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FL2. What is Structured Literacy? – ALL Ohio

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Demonstrate the ability to analyze, integrate, summarize, and communicate (orally and in writing) the meaning of educational assessment data for sharing with students, parents, and other teachers.

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Demonstrate the ability to analyze, integrate, summarize, and communicate (orally and in writing) the meaning of educational assessment data for sharing with students, parents, and other teachers.

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Demonstrate understanding of how to read and interpret frequently utilized diagnostic tests used by psychologists, speech language professionals, and educational evaluators.

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Demonstrate understanding of how to read and interpret frequently utilized diagnostic tests used by psychologists, speech language professionals, and educational evaluators.

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Demonstrate understanding and utilization of informal diagnostic surveys of phonological and phoneme awareness, decoding skills, oral reading fluency, comprehension, spelling, and writing.

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Demonstrate understanding and utilization of informal diagnostic surveys of phonological and phoneme awareness, decoding skills, oral reading fluency, comprehension, spelling, and writing.

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Demonstrate understanding and application of progress monitoring and reporting with Curriculum-Based Measures (CBMs).

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Demonstrate understanding and application of progress monitoring and reporting with Curriculum-Based Measures (CBMs).

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ALL Ohio (Advancing Literacy Learning in Ohio) is a compilation of high-quality professional learning resources for Ohio's P20 education system. ALL Ohio serves as a tool to strengthen educators' knowledge and skills in evidence-based language and literacy practices grounded in the science of reading.

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Demonstrate understanding and utilization of well-validated screening tests designed to identify students at risk for reading difficulties.

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Demonstrate understanding and utilization of well-validated screening tests designed to identify students at risk for reading difficulties.

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Demonstrate understanding of the differences among and purposes for screening, progress-monitoring, diagnostic, and outcome assessments.

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Demonstrate understanding of the differences among and purposes for screening, progress-monitoring, diagnostic, and outcome assessments.

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Demonstrate understanding of adapting instruction to accommodate individual differences in cognitive, linguistic, sociocultural, and behavioral aspects of learning.

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The multi-level prevention system includes three tiers of intensity for instruction, intervention, and supports. Tier 1 includes high-quality, schoolwide academic, social, emotional and behavioral programming and supports designed to meet the needs of all students. At Tier 2, schools provide small group, standardized academic interventions or targeted behavioral or mental health supports using validated intervention programs to support students identified as at-risk. Tier 3 includes intensive intervention for students not responding to Tier 2 through instruction and supports that are intensified and individualized based on student need. At all levels, attention should be on selection of evidence-based practices and fidelity of implementation, with consideration for cultural and linguistic responsiveness and recognition of student strengths.

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Core programming at Tier 1 includes academic, social, emotional, and behavioral curriculum, instruction, and supports aligned to grade-level standards and student needs. At Tier 1, educators use instructional strategies and practices shown to be effective for the student population and educational context. In effective Tier 1 systems, most students benefit from Tier 1 programming alone and teachers use differentiation to ensure all students can access and benefit from core programming. Consistency in the use of evidence-based practices and supports is essential for collective efficacy at Tier 1. Effective Tier 1 ensures positive school climate and conditions for learning.

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At Tier 2, schools provide small group, standardized academic interventions or targeted behavioral or mental health supports using validated intervention programs. Teams select or design interventions and supports that have demonstrated positive effects for desired outcomes and are aligned with student needs. Tier 2 interventions and supports are delivered with fidelity at an appropriate duration and frequency to ensure students have increased opportunities for practice and corrective feedback.

Intensive Intervention at Tier 3

At Tier 3, schools implement intensive intervention to help students with severe and persistent learning and/or behavioral needs, including students with disabilities. Data-based individualization (DBI) is a validated approach to providing intensive intervention in academics and behavior. It is not a specific program, but a data-driven process that is characterized by increased intensity and individualization of instruction and tailored supports.

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The multi-level prevention system includes three tiers of intensity for instruction, intervention, and supports. Tier 1 includes high-quality, schoolwide academic, social, emotional and behavioral programming and supports designed to meet the needs of all students. At Tier 2, schools provide small group, standardized academic interventions or targeted behavioral or mental health supports using validated intervention programs to support students identified as at-risk.

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Welcome to DLD and Me! Spreading the word about Developmental Language Disorder Latest Articles What is Developmental Language Disorder? DLD is a brain difference that makes talking and listening difficult. DLD affects about 2

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Screening: What is it and Why is it Important?

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Screening: What is it and Why is it Important?

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Screening: What Is It and Why Is It Important?

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For a downloadable PDF click here. Summer 2016
By Carolyn D. Cowen

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What Is Structured Literacy? - International Dyslexia Association

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Stephanie Stollar - What is Structured Literacy?

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Stephanie Stollar - What is Structured Literacy?

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Structured Literacy | Structured literacy supports all students, especially those with #dyslexia. | By Stephanie Stollar Consulting | Facebook

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Shifting from Balanced Literacy - Do This Not That

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Achieve the Core

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Improve instruction and help all students achieve at high levels by making these research-based adjustments to your balanced literacy program. This guidance outlines some of the most common challenges of a balanced literacy model, how they can impede students' learning, and how you can adapt your reading program to better serve students.
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Improve instruction and help all students achieve at high levels by making these research-based adjustments to your balanced literacy program. This guidance outlines some of the most common challenges of a balanced literacy model, how they can impede students' learning, and how you can adapt your reading program to better serve students.

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Research of Importance to All Educators

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Introduction

Patterns of reading difficulty provide an educationally useful way to think about different kinds of reading problems, whether those problems are mainly experiential in nature (e.g., those common among English learners) or associated with disabilities (e.g., those typical of children with dyslexia).

This article reviews research on three common patterns of poor reading: specific word-reading difficulties, specific reading-comprehension difficulties, and mixed reading difficulties.

The purpose of the article is to explain how teachers can use assessments to identify individual struggling readers' patterns of reading difficulties, and how this information is valuable in differentiating classroom instruction and planning interventions.

Recently I visited the classroom of a third-grade teacher, Ms. Jackson (all names are pseudonyms). Like many teachers, Ms. Jackson had a diverse group of students, which included many children who were English learners or who had limited home experiences with academic language and literacy. Several children with disabilities also were included in her classroom, three with learning disabilities and one with high-functioning autism. Ms. Jackson had great enthusiasm and dedication for teaching her students, but she was concerned about the number of children who entered her class with problems in reading, commenting quietly to me at one point, "So many of them are needy, but in different ways."

Individual children do vary in important ways, including in their specific interests, personalities, and prior learning experiences. However, when it comes to reading problems, three common patterns of difficulties tend to recur repeatedly, and most struggling readers in Ms. Jackson's class probably fit one of these patterns. Recognizing the underlying pattern of poor reading is particularly helpful to providing effective intervention and differentiation of classroom instruction. This article reviews research on common patterns of reading difficulties and explains how understanding those patterns is useful both to classroom teachers and literacy specialists.

What are the three types of reading problems?

As displayed in Figure 1, the three common patterns (often termed profiles) of poor reading involve specific word-reading difficulties (SWRD), specific reading comprehension difficulties (SRCD), and mixed reading difficulties (MRD; Catts, Compton, Tomblin, & Bridges, 2012; Leach, Scarborough, & Rescorla, 2003; Lesaux & Kieffer, 2010; Lipka, Lesaux, & Siegel, 2006; Valencia, 2011). The descriptions of common types of reading problems in this article build on continuing scientific studies as well as earlier research such as that of Valencia and Buly (2004), who outlined six types of reading difficulties, which are consolidated in these three common patterns.

Ficure 1. Common Patterns of Reading Problems

Children with SWRD have problems related specifically to reading words, not to core comprehension areas such as vocabulary or background knowledge. Those with SRCD have the opposite pattern: poor reading comprehension despite at least average word-reading skills. And those with MRD have a combination of weaknesses in word-reading skills and core comprehension areas. Knowledge of these patterns is useful for helping students with many kinds of reading problems-not only those involving certain disabilities (Aaron, Joshi, Gooden, & Bentum, 2008; Nation, Clarke, Wright, & Williams, 2006) but also more experientially based reading difficulties, such as those sometimes found among English learners or children from low-socioeconomic-status backgrounds (Allington & McGill-Franzen, 2008; Kieffer, 2010; Lesaux & Kieffer, 2010).

Many studies have shown that children with difficulties in word reading benefit from explicit, systematic phonics interventions, whereas children with comprehension difficulties benefit from explicit teaching and modeling of text comprehension strategies as well as from interventions that promote vocabulary and oral language development (Aaron et al., 2008; Clarke, Snowling, Truelove, & Hulme, 2010; Ehri, 2004; Snowling & Hulme, 2012). Aaron, Joshi, Gooden, and Bentum (2008) studied the performance of elementary-age struggling readers who received differentially targeted interventions, depending on whether they had weaknesses specific to word recognition (systematic phonemic awareness and phonics intervention) or comprehension (intervention in comprehension strategies such as questioning and summarization). Relative to comparison children who received undifferentiated intervention in resource rooms, the intervention groups made significantly more progress in their weak area of reading.

Differentiating classroom instruction according to different patterns also may improve children's reading outcomes. For example, Juel and Minden-Cupp (1999-2000) observed four experienced grade 1 teachers at two schools serving primarily low-income students throughout a school year. At the end of the year, overall reading achievement was lowest in the classroom of the teacher who provided the least differentiation of instruction.

In addition, however, children who entered first grade with the lowest phonics skills did best in reading with the teacher who provided the most emphasis on explicit, systematic phonics for the first half of the school year, with more emphasis on vocabulary and discussion of text later in the year. Conversely, children who began grade 1 with strong basic reading skills did very well in reading with a teacher who provided relatively little direct phonics teaching but emphasized discussion of text from trade books and meaning-oriented writing activities from the start; presumably, these children had less need for systematic phonics teaching because they already possessed these skills. This study suggests that differentiating classroom reading instruction according to individual children's word recognition needs and comprehension needs can be beneficial.

Determining patterns of reading difficulties

The three types of difficulties mentioned in the preceding section involve underlying patterns of strengths and weaknesses in specific language and reading abilities, sometimes termed components of reading (Aaron et al., 2008; Hoover & Gough, 1990). Important components of reading include phonemic awareness, word decoding, fluent text reading, vocabulary, and listening comprehension (National Reading Panel, 2000). The first step in determining a struggling reader's pattern involves assessment of these abilities that underlie reading development.

Begin by Assessing Key Components of Reading

Table 1 shows the most important components of reading to consider in a diagnostic assessment of elementary-age struggling readers, with examples of possible measures to use and suggestions for interpreting them or for additional measures that may be warranted. Various measures may be used to assess each area, as long as the assessments are technically adequate (e.g., reliable and valid) and as long as they provide benchmarks, grade levels, or norm-referenced scores to determine whether children perform appropriately for their grade or age. Children who are poor comprehenders (i.e., those with SRCD or MRD) usually benefit from more in-depth assessment of specific areas of comprehension-for example, consideration of not only their vocabulary but also their performance on different types of comprehension questions such as those involving inferencing, knowledge of text structure, or background knowledge. More in-depth assessment of all component areas, including standardized testing, is warranted in certain situations, such as when children are failing to progress in interventions or a disability is suspected.

Table 1. Key Components of Reading to Assess in Struggling Readers

Component

Examples of Useful Assessments

Suggestions

Out-of-context word decoding (and spelling)

IRI graded word lists

CBMs with nonsense words

Informal spelling inventories

Include at least one assessment containing nonsense words.

If nonsense word decoding is weak, assess PA.

Spelling inventories may be useful for screening groups.

Oral text reading accuracy

IRI graded passages: child's accuracy of word reading in context

Consider whether the child applies known decoding skills when reading passages or over-relies on context.

Oral text reading fluency

IRI graded passages: child's rate of reading in context

CBMs involving oral passage reading fluency

Prosody rating scales

Consider whether fluency problems involve 1) poor decoding, 2) weak vocabulary/listening comprehension, or 3) both areas.

Oral vocabulary

Informal classroom assessments of child's oral vocabulary knowledge

Consider whether weak vocabulary accounts for weak listening/reading comprehension.

Listening comprehension (sentences/passages)

IRI graded passages: child's listening comprehension for passages read aloud by the teacher

Follow up with multiple measures or more in-depth assessment if needed.

Reading comprehension

Answering comprehension questions about passages read

Maze CBMs

Follow up with multiple measures or more in-depth assessment if needed.

An Example: Ayisha, Ben, and Calvin

Ms. Jackson wanted to determine how best to help three struggling readers in her class - Ayisha, Ben, and Calvin - who all had low scores on reading comprehension assessments at the beginning of grade 3. Ms. Jackson had fall universal screening data for these students, which used curriculum-based measures (CBMs) involving oral reading fluency and which provided information about all three children's accuracy and rate of text reading. She also had collected informal reading inventory (IRI) data for the children, which showed their performance on graded word lists, in reading graded passages, and in answering comprehension questions.

This existing assessment data provided some useful information about components of reading involving out-of-context word reading, accuracy and fluency of passage reading, and reading comprehension. Ms. Jackson also considered the children's prosody of oral reading on the IRI passages - that is, whether they read with appropriate phrasing and expression. Prosody is an important aspect of fluency because poor fluency may be based in vocabulary and language limitations as well as in decoding (Kuhn, Schwanenflugel, & Meisinger, 2010; Valencia et al., 2010). Children might read the words in a passage with ease but still read with halting prosody because they do not understand the meaning of the text. Timed measures of oral passage reading are useful for assessing reading accuracy and rate, whereas rating scales may be more useful for assessing prosody (see, e.g., Benjamin et al., 2013; Zutell & Rasinski, 1991).

In addition to readily available assessment data, Ms. Jackson also needed further information about the children's specific decoding skills, vocabulary, and listening comprehension. She knew that some use of nonsense words is important in assessing decoding because nonsense words provide information about whether children can decode unfamiliar words, whereas they may recognize real words from memory (Siegel, 1999). When she administered this kind of decoding assessment to Ayisha, Ben, and Calvin, only Calvin did well; Ayisha and Ben both had decoding problems, mainly in relation to two-syllable words. Ms. Jackson also knew that poor decoders' phonemic awareness (PA) - such as children's ability to perform oral phoneme blending or segmentation tasks - should be considered. However, neither Ayisha nor Ben had difficulties with blending or segmenting phonemes.

Finally, Ms. Jackson recognized that vocabulary knowledge is particularly central to both listening and reading comprehension (Pearson, Hiebert, & Kamil, 2007) and that vocabulary assessments of struggling readers should be oral. If vocabulary assessments require reading, children with decoding weaknesses may perform poorly simply because they cannot read the words. When Ms. Jackson probed all three students' vocabulary and comprehension performance during classroom instruction over the next week or so, she found that Ayisha's oral vocabulary knowledge seemed excellent; Ayisha also consistently performed well in listening comprehension tasks (e.g., during teacher read-alouds).

However, Ben clearly had vocabulary weaknesses, and both he and Calvin sometimes had comprehension difficulties even during teacher read-alouds-that is, they appeared to have weaknesses in listening comprehension. Unlike Ben, Calvin had good vocabulary knowledge; his comprehension difficulties were more often tied to problems in recognizing key points of a text, understanding text structure, and summarization. Table 2 displays each child's performance on important components of reading.

Table 2. Performance of Ayisha, Ben, and Calvin on Component Assessments

As Ms. Jackson's experience shows, assessing important components of reading does not require administering an exhaustive battery of tests to every struggling reader. Classroom teachers often have some student data available from commonly collected formative assessments and district-wide universal screening and progress monitoring. They also have observational data based on their students' everyday classroom performance. When more extensive assessment is necessary for a particular child-for instance, if a child's difficulties seem especially serious or difficult to interpret-classroom teachers can consult support staff such as reading specialists, special educators, or Title I teachers. These specialists may be able to help classroom teachers by providing information about available assessments or by administering assessments. For children with disabilities, detailed assessment data about important components of reading and language may already be available in the child's individualized education plan (IEP).

Interpret Assessment Measures to Determine the Pattern of Reading Difficulty

Once teachers have information about the specific component abilities of individual struggling readers, they can interpret these data to determine the type of reading difficulties each student has. Teachers should look for patterns of specific strengths and weaknesses in important component reading and language skills. They also should consider the dynamic underlying children's problems in reading fluency as well as reading comprehension (Spear-Swerling, 2013, 2015), because each pattern may (or may not) be accompanied by difficulties in reading fluency. Moreover, slow reading may sometimes be an adaptive strategy, as when a child intentionally reads slowly better to comprehend a difficult text (e.g., Valencia & Buly, 2004). Table 3 displays the typical patterns for poor readers with SWRD, SRCD, and MRD.

Table 3. Common Patterns of Reading Problems

Pattern

Description

Strengths

Intervention Needs

Specific word reading difficulties (SWRD)

Decoding (and sometimes PA) below average

Spelling below average

Oral vocabulary and listening comprehension at least average

Fluency often below average due to decoding problems

Reading comprehension often below average due to decoding problems

Good ability to learn orally (e.g., through class discussions and teacher read-alouds)

Reading comprehension strong when children read texts they can decode

Explicit, systematic phonics intervention

PA and fluency intervention if needed

Ample opportunities to apply decoding skills in oral text reading, with teacher feedback

Specific reading comprehension difficulties (SRCD)

Decoding at least average

Reading comprehension below average

Oral vocabulary and listening comprehension may be weak

Fluency may be weak due to language limitations (not poor decoding)

Good foundational reading skills

Spelling often strong

Explicit, systematic intervention targeting specific comprehension weaknesses (e.g., vocabulary, inferencing)

Include oral vocabulary and language in intervention

Mixed reading difficulties (MRD)

Decoding below average

Reading comprehension below average, even in texts children can decode

Reading fluency often weak due to limitations in both decoding and language

Individual children usually have strengths in specific areas of language or reading (e.g., their knowledge base about specific interests)

Combination of intervention needs for first two patterns

Multicomponent interventions may be especially useful

Despite their difficulties with word decoding, children with SWRD usually do well in situations in which information is presented verbally. These students may shine during teacher read-alouds and class discussions, able to answer sophisticated comprehension questions accurately and thoughtfully, especially when text content has been presented orally. Although some children with SWRD may have considerable knowledge of sight words, the hallmark of this pattern involves difficulty decoding unfamiliar words using phonics knowledge. These children also may have difficulties with reading fluency due to inaccurate or labored decoding, and they nearly always have poor spelling.

Sight-word knowledge, ability to use context cues, and verbal strengths may enable some children with SWRD to compensate well enough to score at average levels for reading comprehension; however, compensation becomes increasingly difficult as children advance beyond the earliest grades. In relation to implementation of the Common Core State Standards currently influencing English language arts instruction in many states (Shanahan, 2013), students with SWRD can grasp challenging vocabulary and comprehension standards as well as typical readers, particularly in an oral context or with accommodations for their difficulties in reading grade-level text, but will need help meeting foundational standards from the Common Core.

Children with SRCD struggle with reading comprehension despite having at least average decoding skills. Often, their comprehension difficulties are tied to mild weaknesses in vocabulary or broad language comprehension, although generally these difficulties are not severe enough to make them eligible for speech-language services (Nation, 2005). Poor comprehenders may have weaknesses in many specific areas, including use of comprehension strategies, text structure, and background knowledge (Neuman & Celano, 2006; Rand Reading Study Group, 2002). Reading fluency may be poor because of language comprehension weaknesses-that is, a child may read slowly because he or she does not understand the text.

Children with SRCD are likely to meet foundational standards from the Common Core as well as typical readers but may have difficulties with many comprehension-related standards, such as those involving vocabulary, summarization, author's craft, or citing evidence from texts. Although they can decode grade-appropriate texts, they may need considerable teacher scaffolding in order to comprehend them (see, e.g., Shanahan, Fisher, & Frey, 2012).

Children with MRD have a combination of the problems seen in the first two patterns: weaknesses in decoding and phonological skills, but also in core comprehension areas such as vocabulary or listening comprehension. (This is why Figure 1 shows this pattern in an overlapping area between SWRD and SRCD.) Unlike readers with SWRD, those with MRD have difficulties in reading comprehension even when reading texts they can decode well, because of their core comprehension weaknesses. Reading fluency may be poor due to a combination of decoding problems and language limitations. These students often have difficulty meeting both foundational and comprehension-related standards from the Common Core.

Although students with MRD have more generalized reading problems than those with SWRD or SRCD, these students typically do have individual areas of strength, which teachers can capitalize upon in intervention. For example, a student with a combination of decoding and general vocabulary weaknesses may have a strong interest in a specific topic, such as animals or sports, about which he or she has considerable background knowledge and motivation to read.

Ms. Jackson looked at the information from the assessments of component abilities for Ayisha, Ben, and Calvin, and she also reflected on the dynamics underlying each child's reading problems. Ayisha's reading comprehension and reading fluency difficulties obviously were tied entirely to decoding. Her vocabulary was excellent; her comprehension was consistently strong during teacher read-alouds or when she was reading text she could decode; and her slow rate of reading and poor prosody clearly stemmed from labored decoding. Ayisha's pattern of poor reading involved SWRD.

Calvin had the opposite pattern: good decoding and text reading accuracy, as well as grade-appropriate fluency (both in terms of rate and prosody), but weaknesses in reading comprehension and language comprehension. His difficulties in summarization and lack of knowledge about text structure were apparent whether he was reading or listening, an indicator of a core comprehension weakness. His pattern involved SRCD.

Like Ayisha, Ben had problems in decoding, but unlike Ayisha, his difficulties in reading comprehension were not always tied to faulty decoding; they also appeared linked to vocabulary weaknesses. Furthermore, his reading fluency problems likely related to both areas, labored decoding and language comprehension difficulties. Ben's pattern of poor reading involved MRD.

Effective instruction and interventions for each pattern

Clearly, interventions for Ayisha, Ben, and Calvin need to differ in some important ways. The far-right column of Table 3 shows the intervention needs associated with each type of reading difficulty.

Children with SWRD, such as Ayisha, typically require highly explicit, systematic phonics intervention. Ayisha did not have problems in phonemic awareness, but for children with these weaknesses, PA intervention should be integrated with phonics instruction (Ehri, 2004); children can learn PA skills such as phoneme blending and segmentation in the context of decoding and spelling words from specific phonics categories. More advanced students with SWRD like Ayisha - those learning to decode two-syllable or multisyllabic words - often benefit from learning syllabication strategies and structural analysis. Struggling decoders also must apply their developing decoding skills in oral reading of text that provides a reasonable match to their word-reading skills, with teacher guidance and feedback (Cheatham & Allor, 2012; Vadasy, Sanders, & Peyton, 2005).

Children with SRCD, like Calvin, need interventions focused on the specific comprehension areas in which they are weak. Because knowledge of text structure and the ability to summarize texts were areas of difficulty for Calvin, Ms. Jackson modeled for him how to identify key points in texts and construct a summary. She also used graphic organizers to teach him about text structure. Ms. Jackson taught these skills in the context of oral activities, such as during read-alouds and classroom discussions, as well as in the context of Calvin's own reading. Many comprehension abilities can be developed through listening as well as reading, and including oral language development as part of the intervention may be particularly useful for children with SRCD (Clarke et al., 2010).

Children with MRD, like Ben, need phonics interventions and opportunities to apply decoding skills in reading text, coupled with explicit teaching targeting their specific comprehension weaknesses. Ben's difficulties in comprehension tended to involve vocabulary. For children with limitations in this area, direct teaching of target academic words and strategies for inferring word meanings from context, as well as morphological instruction focused on the meanings of root words and affixes, is often effective (Goodwin & Ahn, 2013). Vocabulary development should occur through oral activities such as teacher read-alouds as well as through students' reading. Multicomponent interventions that address multiple components of reading in an integrated way (e.g., Gelzheiser, Scanlon, Vellutino, Hallgren-Flynn, & Schatschneider, 2011) also may be especially valuable for students with MRD.

For all types of reading difficulties, the suggestions for intervention in Table 3 should be implemented as part of a more comprehensive program of English language arts instruction, with strong collaboration between classroom teachers and interventionists to ensure an effective program. For example, children with SWRD, like Ayisha, need instruction in vocabulary, language, and comprehension; however, they do not need intervention in these areas and can usually receive their vocabulary and comprehension development as part of the core general education program, as long as any necessary adaptations of instruction are made (e.g., oral presentation of grade-level material that children cannot read themselves). Likewise, children with SRCD, like Calvin, need to learn the foundational decoding and spelling skills that are part of the expectations for their grade, but they do not need intervention in these areas.

Of course, most classroom teachers have very limited time for implementing interventions with struggling readers. However, information about common types of reading difficulties can still be helpful to general educators in differentiating classroom instruction. A primary-grade teacher like Ms. Jackson could differentiate instruction through small flexible groups, with one group to meet the most frequent needs of third graders with SWRD (e.g., additional explicit phonics instruction focused on syllabication and decoding of two-syllable and multisyllabic words) and another to meet the most frequent needs of those with SRCD (e.g., additional instruction in vocabulary and background knowledge). Children with MRD might participate in both groups. This approach is unlikely to meet the needs of all struggling readers in a class, but it could still benefit many students.

Indeed, this is what Ms. Jackson did for Ayisha, Ben, and Calvin. Ayisha and Ben made very good progress with this approach. Calvin made some progress, but he ultimately needed more intensive intervention through a reading specialist, to which he responded well.

Additional information about the patterns

Early- and Late-Emerging Reading Problems

Each pattern of reading difficulties may emerge relatively early or relatively later in schooling, with early-emerging problems generally defined as reading difficulties evident by grade 3 and late-emerging problems as those first manifesting in grade 4 or later (Leach et al., 2003). Ayisha, Ben, and Calvin's problems, apparent at the beginning of grade 3, would all be considered early-emerging.

Early-emerging reading difficulties often involve problems in decoding - that is, either an SWRD or MRD pattern (Leach et al., 2003)-because learning to decode is central to children's early reading development (Ehri, 2004). Still, some decoding problems do not manifest in the earliest grades, and frequently these weaknesses involve decoding of complex or multisyllabic words rather than one-syllable words (Catts et al., 2012; Lipka et al., 2006). A child might have mild weaknesses in phonological skills that do not greatly affect her decoding of simple words but that become more problematic as she advances into grades 4 or 5 and encounters harder words.

As Calvin's example shows, reading problems involving SRCD can appear in the earliest grades. More often, however, these problems are late-emerging (Catts et al., 2012; Leach et al., 2003), related to escalating demands for reading comprehension in grades 4 and up. A student with mild weaknesses in vocabulary or background knowledge might progress normally in reading comprehension at first but have more difficulties as the expectations for comprehension increase across grades. These students do often have early language weaknesses, but the language weaknesses may not actually affect reading until the middle or upper elementary grades.

Research on late-emerging reading problems suggests that screening and intervention for both broad language weaknesses and phonological weaknesses may help prevent future reading difficulties (Scarborough, 2005). Also, these studies indicate that even the best primary-grade screening and intervention efforts cannot be expected to prevent all reading problems, so providing opportunities for reading intervention beyond the primary grades is essential.

Prevalence of Different Patterns in Specific Groups of Children

The prevalence of different types of reading difficulties depends not only on grade level but also on the school population. For instance, many studies suggest that children from certain demographic groups, such as English learners and those from low-income families, may tend to have weaknesses in vocabulary, academic language, and academic background knowledge (August & Shanahan, 2006; Barone & Xu, 2008; Neuman & Celano, 2006). Teachers at schools serving these populations, such as Ms. Jackson, can expect to encounter relatively greater numbers of children with MRD or SRCD as opposed to SWRD. Some children will experience decoding problems, but because they may often have vocabulary weaknesses too, they may tend to demonstrate a pattern of MRD rather than SWRD. If schools serving these populations provide a strong emphasis on vocabulary and academic language from the earliest grades, this may help to prevent many children's reading difficulties.

Certain patterns also tend to be associated with some disabilities. Children with high-functioning autism often have a pattern of SRCD, with poor reading comprehension despite average or even better-than-average word decoding skills and with comprehension difficulties connected to the specific cognitive-linguistic weaknesses associated with autism. Conversely, children with dyslexia typically display a pattern of SWRD (Huemer & Mann, 2010) usually associated with phonological weaknesses. Although assessment of individual poor readers' component abilities always is important, teachers' awareness of the patterns commonly associated with these disabilities can provide an initial basis for planning instruction and accommodations.

As the preceding discussion suggests, individual children's experiences (including instructional experiences), as well as their intrinsic abilities, can influence their patterns of reading difficulties. Children can have vocabulary weaknesses because of language disabilities or simply because they were not exposed to the vocabulary words; they can have decoding problems because of a learning disability such as dyslexia or because of inadequate phonics instruction. However, knowledge about causation is not necessary for information about the child's pattern of reading difficulty to be valuable in instruction; children with decoding or vocabulary weaknesses need intervention in those areas regardless of the ultimate cause of the weaknesses.

Points to remember

Information about individual poor readers' patterns of reading difficulties provides an extremely helpful starting point for teachers of reading. Children with SRCD aren't likely to profit from phonics intervention, whereas those with SWRD and MRD generally are. Successful phonics intervention should enable struggling readers with SWRD to attain grade-appropriate reading comprehension, whereas those with MRD also will require a comprehension component in their interventions. A fluency intervention that emphasizes speed and automaticity of word decoding may help children with SWRD and MRD, but it is unlikely to help a disfluent reader with SRCD, who may benefit much more from interventions focused on vocabulary and comprehension development.

Children with different patterns of reading difficulty also tend to benefit from different technology supports (Erickson, 2013) and to display different kinds of strengths that can be tapped in the classroom. And they require different types of progress-monitoring measures to gauge their progress during intervention - a measure sensitive to decoding growth for SWRD, one sensitive to growth in vocabulary and/or comprehension for SRCD, and both types of measures for MRD. Information about common patterns of reading difficulties may be only a starting point, but it is a valuable foundation for differentiating instruction and planning effective interventions in reading.

About the author

Louise Spear‐Swerling is a professor at Southern Connecticut State University, New Haven, USA; e‐mail [email protected]

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Common Types of Reading Problems and How to Help Children Who Have Them

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Patterns of reading difficulty provide an educationally useful way to think about different kinds of reading problems, whether those problems are mainly experiential in nature (e.g., those common among English learners) or associated with disabilities (e.g., those typical of children with dyslexia).

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Swerling - Identifying Common Profiles of Reading Difficulties and their Implications

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Demonstrate understanding of how to use data to determine the reader profile and intervention needs of struggling readers and writers within a Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) framework and how behavior is connected to reading in the MTSS model.

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Demonstrate understanding of how to use data to determine the reader profile and intervention needs of struggling readers and writers within a Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) framework and how behavior is connected to reading in the MTSS model.

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Demonstrate understanding and application of the general principles and practices of structured language and literacy teaching, including explicit, systematic, cumulative, teacher-directed instruction.

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Demonstrate understanding and application of the general principles and practices of structured language and literacy teaching, including explicit, systematic, cumulative, teacher-directed instruction.

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Recognize the tenets of IDA’s definition of dyslexia and identify the distinguishing characteristics of dyslexia; and explain how reading difficulties vary and change over time in response to development and instruction.

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Recognize the tenets of IDA’s definition of dyslexia and identify the distinguishing characteristics of dyslexia; and explain how reading difficulties vary and change over time in response to development and instruction.

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Demonstrate understanding of language as foundational to reading development, and difficulty with language may lead to reading difficulties

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Demonstrate understanding of language as foundational to reading development, and difficulty with language may lead to reading difficulties

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Defining Guide Video Series: Dr. Tiffany Hogan Explains the Quadrant Model

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Defining Guide Video Series: Dr. Tiffany Hogan Explains the Quadrant Model

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Defining Guide Video Series: Dr. Tiffany Hogan Explains the Quadrant Model