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This article talks about the problem of gender expectations and how negative generalizations about gender limit opportunities to explore different aspects of personalities. This relates to R+J and TFIOS because both Augustus and Romeo are forced onto roles of stereotypical men, unable to express sorrow and vulnerability.

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Gender norms are deeply ingrained in our society and can significantly impact individuals, particularly children. Restrictive gender norms often limit children's potential and opportunities, affect their self-esteem and mental health, and shape their relationships with peers.

Gender norms can be particularly detrimental to those living in poverty, as well as the ALICE (Asset Limited, Income Constrained, Employed) population, as gender norms perpetuate cycles of inequality and limit access to resources and opportunities. For instance, according to the 2023 ALICE Reports, single mothers in the United States are more likely to live in poverty due to gender discrimination and limited access to affordable childcare. We must challenge harmful gender norms to create a more equitable and inclusive world for future generations.

What Are Gender Norms?

Gender norms are societal expectations and rules regarding how men and women should behave, express themselves and interact with others according to their gender. Media, socialization and culture contribute to the development of gender norms and they differ across time and place.

Gender socialization is one of the primary ways gender norms affect children. Gender socialization refers to how children learn the appropriate behavior, appearance and attitudes for their gender. For example, boys learn to be assertive, competitive and independent, while girls are encouraged to be nurturing, emotional and compliant. These gendered messages can shape children's self-concept, beliefs and expectations about themselves and others.

Research suggests that adherence to gender norms can negatively influence a child's mental health, social development and academic performance.

For instance, boys who feel pressured to conform to traditional masculine standards may be less likely to seek help for emotional problems or engage in prosocial behaviors. On the other hand, girls who internalize restrictive feminine norms may experience lower self-esteem and limited leadership opportunities.

Examples of Gender Norms in Society

Gender norms are pervasive in society and are identifiable in various aspects of our lives, including media, education and family. Here are some examples of gender norms in each of these areas:

Media:

Many TV shows and movies feature predominantly male protagonists who are strong, dominant and aggressive while portraying female characters as emotional, dependent and sexualized.

Commercials and advertisements often use gendered stereotypes to sell products, such as associating men with sports and outdoor activities, and women with beauty and domesticity.

In video games, male characters are heroic and violent, while female characters are hypersexualized and serve as objects of male desire.

Education:

Teachers may inadvertently reinforce gender norms by calling on boys more often, praising girls for being quiet and compliant or discouraging boys from communicating their feelings.

Textbooks and other reading materials often portray men as inventors and leaders, while women are absent or assume passive roles.

Sports programs in schools often prioritize male athleticism and show less attention to girls' teams.

Family:

Parents may have separate expectations and rules for their sons and daughters, such as encouraging boys to pursue careers in STEM fields and girls to prioritize raising a family and nurturing relationships.

Gendered household chores are typical, such as girls being responsible for cooking and cleaning while boys do yard work and repairs.

Children may bully their siblings who do not conform to gender norms, such as boys who like dolls or girls who prefer sports.

These are just a few examples of how gender norms operate in society and can shape our beliefs and behaviors. Recognizing and challenging these norms can help us create a more equitable and inclusive world for everyone.

How Gender Norms Affect Children

Gender norms can significantly impact a child's development, affecting his or her self-esteem and opportunities for growth. Restrictive gender norms often discourage children from pursuing interests that are "inappropriate" for their gender, limiting their potential and opportunities for exploration.

For example, girls may feel discouraged from pursuing careers in STEM fields or leadership positions, while boys face ridicule for expressing interest in traditionally feminine activities like dancing or cooking. The pressure to conform to gender norms can also negatively influence children's mental health, leading to anxiety and depression. If boys feel that they cannot communicate their emotions or seek help, they may begin to feel stressed and isolated. Girls who feel the need to prioritize appearance and social status may experience eating disorders or body dissatisfaction.

Children who do not conform to gender norms may experience lower self-esteem and negative self-concept, as they are made to feel like they don't fit in or are "abnormal." Boys perceived as weak or feminine may face bullying and social exclusion, while girls who are not conventionally feminine may feel pressure to conform to unrealistic beauty standards.

Gender norms can also affect a child's relationships with their peers, as they may face pressure to conform to societal expectations. Additionally, these norms can influence children's future career choices and opportunities, as they may face gender inequity or bias in traditionally gendered fields. For example, girls may be discouraged from pursuing careers in politics or law enforcement, while boys may face stigma for choosing caregiving professions like nursing or teaching.

Gender Roles

Gender roles are the social and cultural expectations for how people should behave according to their assigned gender. These roles shape the behaviors, attitudes and responsibilities considered appropriate for men and women.

Gender roles evolve over time but still trend toward traditional and stereotypical notions of masculinity and femininity. Gender roles can limit and restrict people's choices and prospects based on their gender, perpetuating gender inequality.

Gender Stereotypes

Gender stereotypes are beliefs or assumptions about characteristics, traits, behaviors and roles of people based on their gender. These stereotypes are created and reinforced by gender norms and can lead to biased judgments and discrimination against individuals who do not conform to them. Gender stereotypes can be positive and negative, but they tend to fit rigid ideas of masculinity and femininity.

How to Break Gender Norms

Breaking down gender norms can be difficult, but it is essential for creating a more inclusive and fair society that supports children's well-being and growth. Here are some strategies for challenging gender norms:

Parenting

Parents can challenge gender norms by avoiding stereotypes and encouraging children to pursue their interests and passions, regardless of gender. For example, instead of relegating activities and toys according to gender norms, parents can provide a wide range of things to do without limiting them based on gender stereotypes.

Parents should also foster an environment that encourages open communication and allow their children to express themselves in their preferred way without judging or criticizing them. By being mindful of their own biases and challenging them, parents can create a home for their children that encourages them to express themselves emotionally, regardless of gender.

Educators

Educators play a critical role in contesting gender norms and promoting inclusion and diversity in the classroom. Creating an inclusive and equitable learning space can help students feel valued and supported, regardless of gender identity or expression. Teachers should avoid using gendered language or stereotypes in the classroom. Instead, educators should strive to create opportunities for all students to participate in all activities and subjects.

One way to create an inclusive learning space is by introducing diverse books and resources representing all gender identities and expressions. Teachers can also encourage students to explore their interests and pursue non-traditional paths, breaking away from gender stereotypes that limit potential and opportunities. Additionally, educators can provide opportunities for open discussions on gender and identity and promote respectful communication and understanding among students.

Media

The media we consume plays a significant role in shaping our perceptions and beliefs about gender, making it essential for creators to develop diverse and inclusive representations of gender in their work. By avoiding harmful stereotypes and tropes that reinforce gender norms, media creators can take significant steps toward promoting gender equality. For instance, instead of relying on traditional expectations, creators can develop characters that challenge these norms, allowing viewers to see beyond the confines of rigid gender categories.

To create authentic and respectful representations of gender, media creators must work collaboratively with experts and members of marginalized communities. Consulting with these individuals can help creators further understand the problems regarding gender, which can inform their work and promote inclusivity. Furthermore, providing a positive representation of nonbinary and gender nonconforming individuals can help to reduce the discrimination they struggle with.

Creating a Gender-Equal World

Creating a gender-equal world is essential for the well-being and development of all children. We can create a more equitable society where everyone will thrive if we unite to break down restrictive gender norms and promote inclusivity. Each one of us has a part to play in the movement toward gender equality.

One way to take action is by challenging gender norms in our own lives, whether it's by breaking down gender stereotypes in the media we consume, encouraging children to pursue their interests and dreams, or creating an inclusive place to learn in schools. We can also support organizations that work toward gender equality, such as the ALICE Lives Here initiative, which seeks to support families living in poverty and break down the barriers to upward mobility.

It's important to remember that taking action to create a gender-equal world is a collective effort, and it requires ongoing work and education. By staying informed, raising awareness and actively working toward gender equality, we can create a better future for all children.

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Gender Roles & Gender Norms: Definition & Examples | United Way NCA

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Gender norms outline how children are expected to act, speak, dress, groom, & conduct themselves based on assigned sex. Learn more in our blog.

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This article explores the rights of women in the middle ages, and commonly used character “tropes” of that time.

This relates to R&J by showing us possible ways Shakespear could have depicted the women.

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Character Tropes of Women in Medieval Literature Throughout the Medieval period, women were viewed as second class citizens, and their needs always were an afterthought. They were either held to be completely deceitful, sexual, innocent, or incompetent. Therefore, women were mostly withheld from positions of power or speaking their voice; males made decisions for them, and their lives were dictated by the men that ran the society. Despite their lack of validation and suppression, however, women in Medieval literature were certainly present in many works and in various forms. Some tropes feed into the idea that women are subservient and inferior to men such as the Virgin, which portrays females as passive and weak, or the mother whose very life circles around making a better life for her family and especially for her husband, or even the whore who has no power in her sexuality and must give it away for the well being of her family or the men in society. However, there are some archetypes that break this cycle like the Trickster or Witch who break the social norms and stand out, displaying qualities of cunning intelligence, intimidation, and power. The sections below will dive deeper into the disparity between how women were viewed in Medieval society and how they were portrayed in the literature of the time. "The Virgin"
Perhaps the most common, and most positively looked upon character trope to be affiliated with women in literature is "The Virgin". According to the majority of early literature, women's primary function was to remain "pure" until they are wed and then permitted to produce children. If an unwed woman were to appear in literature back in Medieval times, she would almost indefinitely be made into a virtuous, pure woman.

Like many tropes in literature, this character ideology originated in The Bible. Saint Mary, the mother of Jesus Christ, also called The Virgin Mary, is the first notable person recorded with this all around encompassing identity. St. Mary took a vow of virginity and remained faithful to it her entire life, despite giving birth to a child. Mary was so pure of character that her pregnancy was an immaculate conception. The angel Gabriel came to her and told her she would bear the son of God. St. Mary lived her life completely within the parameters of being a perfect Christian woman. It is her life and her behavior that created this "ideal" religious woman.

In Medieval literature, The Virgin is often the voice of reason. She is rational, down-to-earth, and guiding (as far as guiding the main character towards the path that God has set out for them). Telling the hero what God has in store for them is The Virgin's primary job. She tires to keep the hero on their quest. She is often described as beautiful, graceful. Though still generally a secondary or even tertiary character in Medieval literature, The Virgin is still important to the plot. She is respected and protected in some way throughout the story. Even when she is in trouble, the author doesn't do any physical damage to her, often just putting her to sleep or locking her somewhere until the hero can save her.

In Spenser's The Faerie Queene, Una is the saintly princess that the Red Cross Knight must protect on his journey. She appears riding right along side the Red Crosse Knight, riding a donkey "white then snow, yet she much whiter" (783). We all know that white signifies purity, and the point made about her being whiter than her ride gives us an idea about how Virginly she is. Reading further, "So pure and innocent, as that same lambe, she was in life and every vertuous lore, and by descent from Royall lynage came" (783), explaining that Una gets her virtue from her royal upbringing. During the story, Una quite literally keeps the Knight on the forest past, discouraging him from straying and finding other things to do: "'Be well aware,' quoth then that Ladie milde, 'Least suddain mischiefe ye too rash provoke: The danger hid, the place unknowne and wilde,'" (785).

"The Mother"
Throughout the Medieval Period, women's most important role was that of a mother or child bearer, whether she was rich or poor, children were her first priority. Women's role in society was often compared to that which is written in the Bible. Real life women were subservient and oppressed due to the fact that Bible dictated they should be that way and religion was so closely adhered to. Eve, the creator of Original Sin was often seen as why women should be suppressed and obedient, though the Virgin Mary provide a contrast of Eve and was looked upon to be great. She did everything to help support the men in her family, as Alixe Bovey states, "Just as rural women helped with their husbands' work, urban women assisted their fathers and husbands in a wide variety of trades and crafts". Everything that a woman did related to how it would better men's lives. Women had every loyalty to their husbands and families. Raising a son who was well suited for society was the best and most important thing a woman could do because men were true contributions to society. Richer women who were mothers did not directly raise their children, though bearing them was still their most important job in the household. Men still ruled the roost especially as C.N. Trueman states, "producing a male heir within a rich family was considered vital". Poor women needed to bear a lot of children, preferably males, in order to create a work force for their husband. Everything circles back to the importance of men and women providing men and for men in the society.
Medieval literature often represents women in very distinct lights, and most of them are not very becoming. While the light may not always be a good one, there is always a light shining on women, as they are usually central to the story. The role of mother is often necessary, but often seen as the subservient, protective-from-afar character that classified a real life medieval woman. The women who are portrayed as mothers such as in The Second Shepherd's Play are exemplified to reflect women in the Bible such as the Virgin Mary during the play within the play, because it is a mystery play that real life Medieval people would be able to relate to while watching. The mother who does not act as the Virgin Mary, or is not the image of perfection is seen to be failing at her only job in life. As one of the shepherds, Mak, states, "[My wife] Lies waltering, by the rood, By the fire, lo! And a house full of brood. She drinks well, too: Ill speed other good That she will do! But sho Eat as fast as she can; and ilk year that comes to man She brings forth a lakan-and some years two" (340-350). By a man's standards she is falling down on her wifely duties, but what should be her redeeming quality, bearing a lot of children, does not even seem to cheer him up. Men dictate exactly the way that a woman should be and this man believes that if his wife is not taking what he believes to be proper care of her children, then she should not be having them. Every woman should be a mother, but only if she is a good one. This woman is defined by what her husband thinks of her and even though she is fulfilling her duty, she is not doing it well enough for him and therefore is completely belittled.
In the epic poem, Beowulf, Grendel's mother exemplifies a different type of protectiveness. While she does take on a more masculine role, she is simply conforming to the society that she is placed in the way other mothers in medieval literature abide by all of society's rules. "She does demonstrate an awareness and acceptance of a code of honor when she seeks revenge for the death of her son. '"In the European Middle Ages, as in virtually all periods of human history, warfare is see as a masculine activity;"' (O'Pry-Reynolds). While she does not conform to the normal mother and subservient woman, she does become who she has to in order to uphold the ideals of the society. While she does not take on the normal role of women in the society, it requires that she protect her son in a different manner and therefore she does what she has to in order to be the best mother she can be.

Portrait of Medieval Mother by Jeremias van Winghe

"The Witch"
Witches are women who posses knowledge and power, depending on when in history the witch is living in she could either be an important member of society, or she could live at risk of being drowned or burned alive. During the hay day of the witch hunts any women who is different than the societal expectation of a women would be at risk of being tried as a witch. Because of this fear of those who are different witches are often viewed as villainous people.

Origin of trope
Witchcraft, folk magic, and magical figures have been a part of human life dating all the way back to the paleolithic era with illustrations in caves of shamans. As time progressed and people moved around the world and evolved so did their magic. During the Medieval period there were two types of witches, white witches and black witches. White witches were often wise old women who worked with herbs (such as mandrake, datura, cannabis, belladonna, henbane, hemlock, etc) to try to fin cures, or at the very least aid ailments that have no cure. These women were incredibly important members of Medieval European society.
Black witches however, were not viewed so highly by society. They practiced the secret art of witchcraft that causes harm to others.

Characteristics of trope
Witches are women, usually older women, many of them were wise women and their craft was passed down from generation to generation. Black witches are the witches who we often think of today, with dark spells and ominous potions.
The distinction between these two categories of witches was lost during the Bubonic Plague, during this time filled with death, despair, and confusion people were seeking to find a scapegoat for all the death. Witches were one of the groups of people who are "different" and are to blame for the deaths of the plague. Then Malleus Maleficarum (or the Hammer of Witches) was written about a century later in 1486 by Jacob Sprenger, and Heinrich Kramer. In this book witches were described as "satanic and sexual abominations", and while the black death may be over this was still a time filled with famines and death. The people suffering wanted a scapegoat; so they turned to witches who were now the blame the all the misfortunes in people's lives such as: animals dying, a bad harvest, houses being burnt down, and curdled food. Around the writing of the Hammer of Witches Pope Leo X made a bill decreeing that all those convicted with witchcraft were to be executed.

Examples in literature
Witches have been an inspiration in literature for hundreds of years, whether they are just characters, or are the inspiration for a whole literary piece. Morgan la Fey is a part of many literary works, and has been an inspiration for many young girls in the Mists of Avalon series. She is always Arthur's older sister, is always present in the story line, and is often has a very prominent role in Arthurian story lines, but in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight she has a minimal role where the audience sees her. She is introduced in the beginning of the story line as an old crone in great detail, and does not have a major appearance again until the end of the story line when the characters who inhibit the castle reveal themselves as who they truly are and we see the the crone is in fact Morgan la Fey and was using magic to turn King Bertilak into the Green Knight and is the heart of this magical adventure.

Witches do not only appear in epic tales but in the Bible as well (this is one of the many instances of Pagan and Christian ideologies influencing each other). In the Bible those who practice witchcraft, or magic of any variety are seen as sinners who are worthy of death. Although in early Catholic Christianity having Saints and relics was a step from the plethora of pagan religious deities, and there was magic used by Christians. This magic did not focus on demons but on spells and mechanical remedies for ailments, and the lord's prayer was often said while mixing potions for these remedies.

Significance/impact of trope
During a time when there were no doctors are we know them today, no clean water, or hospitals, witches were expected to help those with diseases that have no known cure. These women were helping to move medical knowledge forward from the Greek ideas of the balancing of the humors. But once witches were being blamed for the problems in people's lives, and the church encouraged the prosecution of witches, the definition of who was a witch broadened to anyone who worked with herbs to find a cure. It has been said that "
those who used herbs for cures did so only through a pact with the Devil, either explicit or implicit", this fear of women with intelligence and power put a stall on medical advancements.

Portrayal of Witchcraft by Ulrich Molitor
A short play featuring Arthurian characters

"The Whore"
Upon the many character tropes to be associated with, when discussing Medieval literature, "The Whore" is probably the most negative. In the Middle Ages, Women were widely considered lower than men, thus not worthy of performing the same task or activities that men typically did.

Most of the medieval social structure made it very hard for women to find their place in society. Women did not have the same rights as men, or same privileges as men, so many of them just did whatever society told them they were supposed to do. Overtime, as women were constantly told their place in society, many women started fulfilling their taught role of the Medieval Prostitute, otherwise known as "The Whore" of Medieval society. As time progressed into the 16th and 17th century, Female prostitution became a huge issue for Europe's nation, where women commonly solicited their bodies for money on the streets of Europe's countries. The "Medieval Prostitute" became a popular topic for profound writers of the century to explore and incorporate into their works of literature.

The history of Medieval Prostitution stretches far back in the European time line, dating back to almost the beginning of the middle age era. According to an online article, "Prostitution was not necessarily a woman's sole career choice and there are many examples of women who used prostitution to supplement their everyday income" (Fantaesque). Most women did not want to become prostitutes or "whores" of Europe's streets, but they acknowledged the fact that they needed to make money to support themselves and survive when times were tough. Due to poor living conditions and poverty stricken lives, many women were left with no choice into becoming Medieval prostitutes. Many women, particularly of poverty, in the Medieval society were always put down on the intellectual scale, compared to Men. Eventually these women of poverty started to conform into the ideas about their purpose and place in society that they were told by officials and the world, thus medieval prostitutes were born. Just as we have had numerous amounts of prostitution issues evident in our present society, many females back in the middle ages who engaged themselves in prostitution were heavily looked down upon and some were even killed for their soliciting practice.

Despite the representation of medieval prostitution industry as a "dirty business", the practice of Medieval prostitutes caught the eye of many people, and eventually was seen by a large percentage of Europe as a form an institutional money making business. At first most of Europe disapproved of the prostitution industry and gave it a negative label early on towards the beginning of its existence. However, somewhere along the line of the medieval prostitution industry expansion, certain countries of Europe started to recognize the sexual desires and needs of married and unmarried men. Many Medieval city leaders and town officials started to accept the idea and practice of prostitution and ultimately created designated places where women were legally permitted to solicit their bodies. They started to use the activity to their advantage in making profits. These specified areas "where women were allowed to ply their trade without interference or harassment." (Fantesque) were referred to as "brothels" and were created in both public and private environments. According to some research on the history of Medieval Prostitution, the law making decisions that put these "brothels" in operation actually gave the authorities of either the city or town some level of control over the soliciting practice.

In literature, writers use their language and literary devices to bring our attention to worldwide themes. One of the biggest themes we have been exposed too in the works of literature we have read over the course of this semester is women's role in society.

Many of the female characters in the literature we have read, have been perceived as weak and incompetent. Writer's, such as Chaucer, allude us to the thought of women's purpose and place in society. In his sub story of "The Canterbury Tales", "The Wife of Bath's Tale" Chaucer makes multiple references to the traditional ideas of women culture, and what women want. The old woman in "The Wife of Bath's Tale" symbolizes much of "The Whore" trope. In the context of the tale, the old woman, the wife, presents herself as an authority figure on marriage. However her behavior throughout much of the prologue gives us the inclination that she is fulfilling the role of "The Whore" trope of Medieval women in literature. Specifically the lines from the prologue of "The Wife of Bath's Tale" below serve as a great example of Chaucer's allusion to Medieval Prostitution and how the old woman is displaying some of "The Whore" characteristics.

"They hadde me yiven hir land and hir tresor/Me needed nat do lenger diligence/To wine hir love or doon hem reverence" (Lines 210-213)
These lines from the tale strongly illuminate the traditional idea of the woman prostitute only caring about their man's money or riches. From an analytical point of view, Chaucer seems to use these lines in this particular story of the Canterbury Tales to reinforce the idea that this old woman is saying that she doesn't even care that these men she sleeps with are able to do whatever they want to her, and cheat on her, because they already gave her their riches and land. This idea can be compared to the traditional behaviors of Medieval prostitutes back in this time period. The old woman in this tale is initially perceived as a deception like trickster, as she manipulates her first three husbands, but her character also display's characteristics of the medieval literature trope, "The Whore". The old woman in this tale is only after the riches and wealthy land properties of her husbands and agrees to sleep with them to obtain their wealth. Although the thought of women only engaging into sexual activities with men to obtain their money does not apply to all women, this behavior was traditionally known to lie with many prostitutes back in the Middle Ages, and is still the widely considered a big characteristic of modern day prostitutes. Similarly Chaucer provides more evidence to

"Hath me biraft my beautee and my pith/Lat go, farewell, the devel go therwith!/The flour is goon, ther is namore to telle:/The bren as I best can now moste I selle;" (Lines 481-484)
These lines from The Wife of Bath's tale of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales demonstrate Chaucer's allusion to "The Whore" trope of women in Medieval literature. Through the language used in this line, Chaucer provides us with the knowledge of the old woman getting her pay back against society by making her fourth husband think that she is sleeping around too. Many women in the early centuries of Europe, particularly England, were discriminated by much of society and were always labeled as a "whore" for sleeping around with other men. Sleeping around in the Medieval society, for women, was looked upon as a huge sin and a crime in many parts of Europe during the Middle ages. With this being said and considered, Chaucer seems to be conveying his allusion to women both fighting against and conforming to traditional views upon Medieval prostitutes by mentioning these lines in the "Wife of Bath's Tale". Chaucer seems to use the old woman in this tale as a symbol of women's strive to fight against the traditional values and purpose that Medieval Society told them they hold and serve. The woman's character in "The Wife of Bath's Tale" ultimately displays early medieval contradiction on to the given idea that women weren't suppose to have more than one husband in a lifetime. Interestingly enough, Chaucer also uses her character to deliver his message of what "all" women must want, which is riches and wealth.

Portrait of the Medieval Prostitute by Marten Van Cleve

"The Trickster"
As Lisa Perfetti states, "Tricksters and pranksters are among the most common characters of Medieval comic literature" (633). Within this literature, women commonly assume the trickster trope, which has its roots in The Old Testament of the Bible. The archetype formed in response to the actions of Eve, who committed the first sin in eating the fruit of knowledge, and "convinced" Adam to do the same. When confronted by God, Adam recalls, "The woman whom you gave to be with me, she gave me the fruit from the tree, and I ate" (qtd. in Perfetti 633). Eve is shown as the reason for humanity's downfall, deceptive and deceitful. Sarah S. Forth writes, "No one gets more bad press than the First Woman who is accused of getting herself and her partner kicked out of paradise and starting humankind on a downward spiral" (57). This portrayal deeply influences how Medieval society viewed the role of women as the Church was deeply embedded in their culture and guided their ways of life. It led to a cycle of distrust, preventing women from assuming powerful positions or gaining too much control over decisions for the family and community. People figured that women were ultimately going to make a choice that would contribute to the downfall of society, just as Eve committed the sin that "ruined" Paradise. This is explained in "Medieval Women," "Medieval society would have been very traditional. Women had little or no role to play within the country at large. Within towns, society would have effectively dictated what jobs a woman could do and her role in a medieval village would have been to support her husband.The freedom of women was greatly limited. They were not allowed to marry without their parents' consent, could own no business without special permission, and could not own property of any kind" (Trueman 1). If women had any of the above powers, it was determined that they would abuse them or make an unfavorable, uneducated decision. Since the church was the authority in society, men were expected to control all affairs in order to prevent women from committing any sins or leading to downfall and mayhem. People believed, "When women exercise power, they frequently are viewed as 'manipulative, deceptive, illegitimate or unimportant. This accounts for the prominence in the Bible of female trickster figures . . ." (Forth 217). They considered that it would be in God's favor to keep women out of all policies and powerful positions, as Eve was the one who originally disobeyed him. However, in Medieval literature, women were not always portrayed as being incompetent or ill-prepared. They were portrayed as tricksters who exhibited cunning qualities, but also, being true to the Eve role, tricked men and were extraordinarily deceptive.

Portrayal of Eve by Giuseppe Arcimboldo

There is a distinct purpose for the trickster archetype in Medieval Literature. It "served a conservative function in serving to reassert social norms . . . valued for innate wit, an asset for surviving in any society. They act as a creator and a destroyer, transgressing boundaries but also being defined by them" (Perfetti 633). This trope comes to life in the Wife of Bath's Tale with the character of the old hag. The old woman serves as an advisor to the knight in the tale, being the source, which reveals to him what women most desire. When he approaches her, she has the power in the relationship and questions what his purpose is wandering down the road she was on. He asks, "'My leve moder,' quod this knight, 'certain / I nam but deed but if that I can sayn / What thing it is that wommen most desire / Coude ye me wisse, I wold well quite you're hire" (1012-1014). The knight seems to know that this woman possesses a unique knowledge and wit, and the fact that he places his life in her hands shows that he knows she is skilled at surviving in society. She transgresses the boundaries that Medieval society holds her to, which are silence and powerlessness, and holds the knight to a deal, stating, "'Plight me thy trouthe here in myn hand,' quod she / The next thing that I requere thee / Thou shalt it do, if it lie in thy might / And I wol telle it you er it be night" (1015-1018). Holding the power in this situation, she binds the Knight to a deal, putting him in a subservient position at her will. His life lies in her hands rather than the other way around. This puts her in the optimal position to trick him as he is at her mercy. When they get to the Court, the woman requests that the Knight marry her, and even though he begs her to change her mind, since she is in the position of power, he cannot. As Jonathan Blake states in his article, "Tricksters upset normal hierarchies and rules of everyday or official behavior either through cleverness or foolishness." The old woman, using her dominant role, traps the Knight into a binding agreement. She then asks him to chose whether he would like her to be young and unfaithful or old and loyal. He replies, "My lady and my love / and wif so dere / I putte me in youre wise governaunce: / cheseth youreself which may be most pleasunce" (1236-1238). From her trickery and the position that she puts him in, the Knight submits to the old lady's will, and she gets what women most desire.

The significance of the trickster archetype in Medieval Literature is the fact that, "Cunning or foolish or both, Trickster's pranks and games serve the role of the equalizer, and in so doing, raise awareness" (Sutton 1). Medieval society is guided by the rule that women are to be subservient to men, not trusted with serious matters, and inadequate at decision making. Therefore, often times, women's voices are suppressed and ignored, so therefore, they become unhappy in marriages and unfulfilled. The old woman in The Wife of Bath's Tale gives a different picture, sharing with society that women are in fact so capable and cunning, that they can outsmart men and get their way. In fact, what they have to say is so important that it can cost a man's life if it is not said in front of a court. The archetype of the woman trickster allowed the conclusion to be made at the end of the tale that if a woman is treated with respect and her wishes are granted, the relationship will be mutually beneficial, "And she obeyed him in every thing / That might do him pleasance or liking / And thus they live unto hir lives ende / In parfit joy. . . And eek I praye Jesu shorte hir lives / That nought wol be governed by hir wives" (1261-1264, 1267-1268). This teaching, that husbands and wives should listen to each other and allow one another to have sovereignty is an important ideal. It would not have been communicated unless the woman trickster in the tale had the Knight's life at stake because of her knowledge.

Works Cited
Alchin, Linda. "Medieval Witchcraft." Medieval Witchcraft. Siteseen Ltd, 1 June 2014. Web. 3 Dec. 2015.

Arcimboldo, Giuseppe. Portrait of Eve. 1578. < http://www.wikiart.org/en/giuseppe-arcimboldo/portrait-of-eve-1578>.

Bovey, Alixe. "Women in Medieval Society." The British Library . Web. 10 Dec. 2015.

Chaucer, Geoffrey. "The Wife of Bath's Prologue and Tale." The Norton Anthology of English Literature: The Middle Ages. Ed. Stephen Greenblatt. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2012. 282-310. Print.

Fantaesque. "The Medieval Prostitute." History in the (Re) Making. January 6, 2015.

Forth, Sarah S. Eve's Bible: A Woman's Guide to the Old Testament. New York: St. Martin's Griffin, 2008. Web.

Kroch, Carl. "The Cornell University Witchcraft Collection." Molitor, Ulrich. De Lamiis et Phitonicis Mulieribus, 1493. < Cornell University Library Witchcraft Collection. Cornell University. Web. 9 Dec. 2015. http://ebooks.library.cornell.edu/w/witch/>.

O'Pry-Reynolds, Anita Kay. "Men and Women as Represented in Medieval Literature and Society." Web. 10 Dec. 2015.

Perfetti, Lisa. "Review of Allison Williams 'Tricksters and Pranksters: Roguery in French and German Literature of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance." Rev. of "Tricksters and Pranksters: Roguery in French and German Literature of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Speculum 2003: 633. Web.

"Sir Gawain and the Green Knight." The Norton Anthology of English Literature: The Middle Ages. E. Stephen Greenblatt. 9th ed. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2012. 162-213. Print.

Sommerville, Johann. "Holland Treatise." Holland Treatise. Wisconsin University. Web. 4 Dec. 2015.

Spencer, Edmund. "The Faerie Queene." The Norton Anthology of English Literature: The Middle Ages. E. Stephen Greenblatt. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2012. 282-310. Print.

Sutton, Brenda. "Trickster." Mythic Passages: The Magazine of Imagination. Mythic Passages, 2006. Web. 8 December 2015.

"The Second Shepherd's Play." The Norton Anthology of English Literature . Ed. Stephen Greenblatt. 9th ed. New York: W.W. Norton, 2012. 450-476. Print.

Trueman, C N. "Medieval Women." The History Learning Site. The History Learning Site, 5 March 2015. Web. 8 December 2015.

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Women in Medieval Literature and Society

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Character Tropes of Women in Medieval LiteratureThroughout the Medieval period, women were viewed as second class citizens, and their needs always were ...

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This article describes how blind family loyalty can actually lead to problems in the family because it occurs unconsciously. This relates to R+J and TFIOS because all 4 main characters of the book have blind family loyalty. Romeo and Juliet hate each others’ family just because their families tell them to hate them, which ends up causing problems later on in the play. Augustus and Hazel both are prioritizing their family and not themselves in order to not cause their parents trouble, and does this unconsciously, not knowing that it is actually harming themselves.

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Family loyalty refers to the feelings of mutually shared obligations, responsibilities, commitment, and closeness that exist among family members (e.g., parents and children, between siblings, grandparents and grandchildren, and other close family members). Not surprisingly, loyalty is not a character trait we value in just our family members; we also seek the same and or similar traits in others that are close to us, like our friends. Not only are we drawn to loyalty traits in others, but we often desire to be seen as possessing this very trait. For many of us having this trait visible to others conveys both trustworthiness but reliability as well.

Persons that are loyal to their family members typically honor familial traditions, obligations, and ascribe to a shared identity. A loyal family member is emotionally present with support and encouragement during both family success as well as family failures. These unwavering devotions are admirable and observable: just look at how a loyal family member helps another member during an illness, a financial crisis, the breakup of a marriage, death. Loyalty is essential for building and maintaining family solidarity; however, blind loyalty can lead to familial dysfunction.

A family member that possesses blind family loyalty does so without hesitation or questioning of why they are supporting the family even when there are things that are concerning, in direct contradiction to how they feel, what they believe in, etc. Unfortunately, blind family loyalties typically occur unconsciously, unbeknownst to the follower, and done in an effort to maintain peace and homeostasis within the family. Sometimes, the blindly loyal family member will ignore or reject concrete examples of a family's damaging behaviors and actions in a deliberate attempt to avoid causing tension within the family.

Blind family loyalty demands that family members overlook when one member is abusive to another, has a substance abuse problem that is creating problems within the family, has gambling issues, etc., in favor of accepting the familys accepted views and perceptions of the events in question. Loyalty usually begins in early childhood to win parental love, approval, and acceptance. We all want to believe we have a healthy, solid family so we ignore the imperfections and transform our family issues into virtues. Too often we do not recognize there are issues within our family until we have an opportunity to observe the family style and interactions of someone elses family. The reality comes later when we see other people's families or we marry someone whose family can disagree and challenge a members decision without compromising the integrity of the familial relationship.
Unhealthy Family Loyalties Include:

Accepting perceptions or views that are in stark contradiction to your own without questioning.

Going along with a familial decision or behavior in order to avoid family conflict

Ignoring, minimizing, or pretending family issues do not exist

Failure to identify or acknowledge familial imperfections

Consciously transforming family issues into family virtues

Rejection of concrete examples of damaging family behaviors

Distorting family experiences to eliminate events that are unflattering to members.

Blind family loyalties can be both a benefit and a hindrance as blind loyalties can both build resiliency as well as keep us stuck in an ongoing cycle of dysfunction. Notably, most of our loyalties develop at an age that we are not yet conscious of them, believe that these loyalties should be accepted without question, and have been taught to follow out of respect for he family. We may also have powerful blind loyalties to decisions we made at earlier, less mature stages of our life, decisions that no longer appear appropriate, right, or align with who we are today. Becoming aware of blind invisible loyalties is an important part of taking a healthy self-inventory.

In closing, we accept certain conditions out of fear of losing the love, support, attention, and respect of our family members. We all have an innate desire to feel connected with others, therefore, fear can lead us into going along with behaviors and decisions that contradict who we are personally. Ongoing contradiction to who we are or failing to be true to ourselves can lead to resentment, depression, animosity, and guilt.

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Family loyalty refers to the feelings of mutually shared obligations, responsibilities, commitment, and closeness that exist among family members (e.g., parents and children, between siblings, grandparents and grandchildren, and other close family members). Not surprisingly, loyalty is not a character trait we value in just our family members; we also seek the same and or similar traits in others that are close to us, like our friends.

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This article talks about how separating people based on gender have been normalized and are being done unconsciously. Women are generally treated as “weaker” since birth and are raised to be more kind and soft spoken. This can be shown by Juliet from Romeo and Juliet and Hazel from The Fault in Our Stars because both characters appear shy, smart, and a little insecure about themselves. Only after Romeo and Augustus start talking to them more, do they become more open and confident.

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Maja Đundić Gender Equality Portfolio Manager

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Gender Differences: How Society Shapes Our Gender Roles from the Earliest Age

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From the moment we are born, aside from biological differences based on sex, there are virtually no other disparities. However, from the earliest age, society begins to create differences between boys and girls and molds us into “suitable” roles, laying the foundations for our opportunities in adulthood.

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This article explains how adolescent brain development leads to more impulsivity and risk taking. In R&J, Juliet is very impulsive in both marrying and dying for Romeo, while Haze, from TFIOS is impulsive in giving up her feelings and needs for Augustus to protect him (as well as to keep her family happy).

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Adolescent Risk Taking, Impulsivity, and Brain Development: Implications for Prevention

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Individual differences in impulsivity underlie a good deal of the risk taking that is observed during adolescence, and some of the most hazardous forms of this behavior are linked to impulsivity traits that are evident early in development. However,…

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Both these articles show that women (teen girls to mothers) often carry the bigger mental load and sacrifice their own health for the family.

In R&J, we see Juliet only “dating” to marry and even accepting her father’s proposal to find her a man that would keep the family name. Lady Capulet and Nurse also wish to support the family name. In TFIOS, Hazel primarily lives her life to please her parents and help her family stay strong. Her mother is also the only one who understands Hazel’s conditions and gives up work and a social life to help her child.

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Teen girls have a much greater burden than their counterpart boys. They give birth to 750,000 to 800,000 babies each year in the U.S. Forty-five percent of the babies will be raised by a teen mom, often with help from her family. Teen moms are less likely to complete high school and college. They have limited career opportunities and an increased risk of living in poverty. A growing number of teen girls deliberately want to get pregnant because it would be fun to have a baby.

Serious diseases take a toll on teen girls and young women. Chlamydia is a sexually transmitted bacterial disease and, if left untreated, it can develop into pelvic inflammatory disease. Each year, up to 1 million women develop PID, and it's estimated that 100,000 women become infertile as a result. Genital warts, also known as HPV, can lead to cervical cancer (80 percent of the cancer is caused by HPV). Twenty-five percent of young women are infected.

Teen girls need to be empowered with good sense and strong, positive female role models. Girls with high self-esteem make better decisions for themselves and don't succumb to peer pressure. They need to be surrounded by mentors and people who believe in them, and have strong attachments to their parents.

Thanks to the readers of this column for sending in your favorite parenting tips.

Teens and beauty standards: Teens try to live up to the beauty standards set by the glamour and teen magazines and the rest of the media. Whenever my daughter fusses about her looks and compares herself to a media star, I ask her, "How many people do you know who look like that?"

"None," she always replies. Case closed! - N.S.G., New York City

Binkie fairy: When I noticed that my son wasn't using his pacifier as much as he used to, I suggested that we give it to the "Binkie Fairy." He jumped at the idea, especially after I told him that the fairy would leave a present for him in trade for the pacifier. He helped me wrap his pacifier, then dictated a note for me to write: "Dear Binkie Fairy: Please give this to a new baby. Thank you." He placed both at the bottom of his bed. After he fell asleep, I sprinkled a little fairy dust (glitter) next to the present I left. - R.C.T., Dallas

Lollipop with medicine: Every parent has experienced a battle to get their children to swallow a bad-tasting medicine. A good trick that has worked for my kids is to have them suck on a lollipop before they take their medicine (it coats their tongue with a good taste), then again immediately after they swallow the medicine. - J.K., Bend, Ore.

Easy French toast: My children love French toast for breakfast, but it takes a lot of effort to make on busy weekday mornings. So, every two weeks, I cook a large batch of French toast, using English muffins cut in half. I freeze the entire bunch, placing two or three pieces in each freezer bag. On busy mornings, my children can make their own breakfast by putting two pieces into the toaster set on medium. - Nancy Lee, Wilmette, Ill.

What time is convenient for you this weekend? Whenever I had a hard time getting my sons to clean their room or help with chores around the house, I would ask them what time would be convenient for them during this next weekend to clean or do their chores. This was a close-ended question, and they would say something like "Oh, 11 o'clock." I would then respond: "Oh, 11 o'clock on Saturday. OK, that sounds good." They felt they had a choice, and I knew that it was going to get done because they had made the agreement. It does work. - Maureen J., Madison, Conn.

E-mail Tom at tom@kidtips.com, or call 925.461.6080. Syndicated columnist Tom McMahon is a psychology professor at Ohlone College and author of parenting books. Visit his Web site at www.kidtips.com.

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Kid Tips: Teen girls have greater burden than boys

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Kid Tips: Teen girls have greater burden than boys

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As we head into 2022, Worklife is running our best, most insightful and most essential stories from 2021. When you're done with this article, check out our full list of the year's top stories.
Organising a playdate, or booking the kids' medical check-ups. Working out how to hide vegetables in their evening meals, or ensuring there's enough on the shopping list. Worrying about whether your son is on track at school, your daughter needs new shoes and when to replace your washing machine. On their own, these may all seem like small tasks - but they mount up. And if you ask heterosexual couples with children which partner is most likely to handle them, it is probable that most would offer up the same answer: the mother.

Numerous studies show that women in heterosexual relationships still do the bulk of housework and childcare. Many couples aim to split their responsibilities 50:50, yet for various structural and socio-economic reasons, end up allocating tasks along typically gendered lines. Even in couples who think that they have achieved an equal division of labour, the more hidden forms of care generally end up falling to the woman.

In fact, an increasing body of research indicates that, for household responsibilities, women perform far more cognitive and emotional labour than men. Understanding why could help explain why gender equality has not only stalled, but is going backwards, despite being more discussed than ever. And a broader understanding of this behind-the-scenes labour could help couples redistribute the work more equally - something that, while initially difficult, could play a significant role in helping mothers lighten their load.
Invisible, unlimited work
Experts say that this hidden work comes in three overlapping categories. There's cognitive labour - which is thinking about all the practical elements of household responsibilities, including organising playdates, shopping and planning activities. Then there's emotional labour, which is maintaining the family's emotions; calming things down if the kids are acting up or worrying about how they are managing at school. Third, the mental load is the intersection of the two: preparing, organising and anticipating everything, emotional and practical, that needs to get done to make life flow.

Research shows much of a household's emotional labour, such as calming distressed children, is part of the load that generally falls on mothers (Credit: Getty Images)

This hidden work is hard to measure, because it's invisible and performed internally, making it difficult to know where it starts and ends. In 2019 Allison Daminger, a doctoral candidate in sociology and social policy at Harvard University, found that while most participants in her study on cognitive household labour realised that women were doing the lion's share, this wasn't yet a "normalised form of work". In the study of 35 couples, she found that men referred to their wives using terms such as "project manager", or said they were "keeping track of more".

In fact, Daminger identified four clear stages of mental work related to household responsibilities: anticipating needs, identifying options, deciding among the options and then monitoring the results. Mothers did more in all four stages, her research showed; while parents often made decisions together, mothers did more of the anticipation, planning and research. In other words, fathers were informed when it came to decisions, but mothers put in the legwork around them.

This hidden work has various impacts; we know, for instance, that women are more likely than men to worry about childcare even when they are not with their children. It also causes additional stress, because it is always present - even when you should be concentrating on other things.

"The mental load is that thread that brings the family into your work life," says Leah Ruppanner, an associate professor of sociology at the University of Melbourne and author of Motherlands. It's the constant low-level worry about whether we're doing enough and the impact our parenting will have on our child's future. "You're always trying to mitigate future risk."
'Maternal gatekeeping'
One thing that puzzled Daminger was that this uneven allocation of mental labour did not seem to create much conflict among her participants. To understand why, she conducted a follow-up study a year later that showed couples explained away some of these gendered behaviours. Both men and women suggested that the unequal division of mental labour was because one partner worked longer hours, or stated that women were "temperamentally interested in being organised" - that they were simply good at planning ahead.

This showed participants believed personality differences and work constraints were driving these inequalities. These were well-educated participants who agreed to take part, so they may not be fully representative, but it still gives an interesting insight into a misconception that other studies have debunked - women aren't naturally better at planning, organising or multitasking, they are just expected to do it more and so eventually become better at it.

Yet there are other structural reasons why women continue to take on more of the mental load. Women often find a way to work flexibly, whereas men's jobs are seen as more rigid, their careers more traditionally linear. This means women are more available for childcare, do more of it - and as a result have to think about it more. More powerfully, gendered expectations that start from birth can explain why ideas around who does the housework and childcare are so ingrained. Daughters are known to do more housework than sons, for instance.

Motherhood ideals also feed into this equation. For instance, the home is often seen as a woman's domain. We know that women are judged on neatness more harshly than men. One study showed that if an identical room for a prospective rental property was said to belong to Jennifer rather than John, Jennifer was rated less likeable, less competent and less hardworking than John. The conclusion? The state of a woman's home was literally linked to her worth.

Mothers doing tasks like picking a child's outfits are examples of "maternal gatekeeping" - subtle tasks that fall to mums to take the lead on (Credit: Getty Images)

These ideals can be self-perpetuating. Because women are judged more on how a household runs, it's essential they display "maternal gatekeeping". This means taking on childcare tasks that could be shared like writing meal plans or picking outfits, subtly signalling that it's a mother's job. Think of the old joke, "Well, her father dressed her". It's funny when dads do it badly, but implies bad mothering if mothers do things wrong. Despite progress we've made in normalising men doing childcare, there's still "this sense that women are ultimately responsible for family outcomes", notes Daminger. "There are more costs to a woman if these things don't go well or don't happen."
Impacts, at home and at work
The fact that mothers end up assuming this mental load has consequences, however.

Mothers are more stressed, tired and less happy than fathers, who are happier during childcare, research shows, in part because they tend to do the fun, recreational activities more often. One Swedish study showed that when women thought the distribution of the more obvious housework was unfair and perceptions of each partner's contribution differed, it led to marriage problems and increased the likelihood of a split. The risk is also exhaustion for the mothers, who might initially ask for help, which can come across as nagging if it has to be repeated again and again. "And then that wears on relationships," says sociologist Daniel Carlson of the University of Utah, who found that unequal distribution of caring responsibilities in couples can also lead to less sex.

If women are over-stretched at home, moreover, that means many feel they cannot physically or mentally put in the extra hours demanded by many workplaces, so the gender pay gap continues to widen. Women make up the majority of part-time workers, for instance, and in turn are less likely to get pay rises or promotions after having children, making it even harder to pursue top jobs. Many leave the workforce altogether.
Talk more, do less
Since the pandemic hit, the link between gender equality at home and women's workforce participation has been more in the spotlight than ever. While there are many systemic issues at play, tackling hidden household labour within couples could help ease the burden that falls on women and deters them from other activities.

Men helping tackle hidden household labour that disproportionately falls on women could help lighten the load on mums, and create more equal households (Credit: Getty Images)

It's clear that most men want to get more involved in their children's lives, so to ease this on an individual level, couples could explicitly talk about who does what, end to end - it's no good taking the kids out on a playdate if someone else has already planned and organised the activity. To foster new habits to help share the load, we have to make the invisible more visible. An awareness of it is a good first step, agrees Daminger, and constantly being clear about who is managing which task, including the planning.

If we explicitly state how much planning is involved in every aspect of childcare and housework, it will become clearer just how much hidden work we do. Fortunately not all couples have unequal divisions of care: same-sex couples, for instance, have a much more equal distribution compared to heterosexual couples, as they are not beholden to expected gender roles. This shows that the load can clearly be shared when it is more openly talked about.

On a societal level we also therefore need to reframe some very deep-seated beliefs about what a man or a woman's role is. Carlson, who led research showing that egalitarian views on task-sharing contribute to sexual frequency, says that we also need to consider the "structural factors that are inhibiting a lack of workplace flexibility", like breadwinning norms for men and "an ideal worker culture that pushes men into the labour force and keeps them out of the home". Policy could help too - research shows that men who take paternity leave do more childcare later.

But in the absence of policy, perhaps the best way for women to reduce the mental load is to do less. Initially there may be pain to achieve any form of long-term gain, says Carlson. If the mother stops thinking about what needs to be done and the father does not anticipate these needs, it may initially cause stress or judgement - but that could allow learning for next time. "It's kind of classic operant conditioning. We're not putting men through mazes or shocking them for food pellets... but it's kind of like, 'Oh, I didn't remember to do this last time and there was a negative consequence'."

Over time, doing less could increase our partner's involvement and, in turn, free up more of our mental energy to focus on ourselves. At first, we might get judged for it, but it could lead to greater happiness later on. We all learn from doing, after all.
Melissa Hogenboom is the editor of BBC Reel. Her upcoming book, The Motherhood Complex, is out 27 May 2021 in the UK. She is @melissasuzanneh on Twitter.

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The hidden load: How 'thinking of everything' holds mums back

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As we head into 2022, Worklife is running our best, most insightful and most essential stories from 2021. When you're done with this article, check out our full list of the year's top stories. Organising a playdate, or booking the kids' medical check-ups.