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The Boeing B-29 Superfortress is a four-engine propeller-driven heavy bomber designed by Boeing and flo…

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The wreck of a B-29 Superfortress now stands as a memorial left in the moors.

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Most recent update 28 September 2024 History (scroll down for notes on visiting the crash site and moving on to other crash sites on Bleaklow)
The Superfortress took off on the morning of 3 November 1948, at around 10.15 from Scampton, Lincolnshire for Burtonwood USAF base, near Warrington, England. It was a routine flight with 2 other aircraft, the RB29 carrying USAF wages among other things. The crew were due to return to the States a few days later.

When 'Over Exposed!' failed to arrive at Burtonwood, an air search was initiated and that afternoon the burning wreck was spotted high on the moors near Higher Shelf Stones. By chance members of the Harpur Hill RAF Mountain Rescue Unit were just finishing an exercise two and a half miles away, so they quickly made their way to the scene of the crash but there was clearly nothing that could have been done for any of the crew.

All 13 men on board were killed instantly when the aircraft flew into the moor. It is not known why Captain Tanner did not fly at a height sufficient to clear the high ground.

For more, please see the account of a member of the recovery party which arrived on site the day after (photo above, top left or link here).

'Over Exposed!' was a photo reconnaissance aircraft - hence the name - and had photographed some of the nuclear bomb tests at Bikini Atoll in the Pacific Ocean and had taken part in the Berlin airlift. I have been told the name was given to the aircraft after getting too close to the flash during nuclear bomb Test Able in July 1946.

CREW
Pilot, Captain Landon P. Tanner
Co-pilot, Captain Harry Stroud
Engineer, Technical Sergeant Ralph Fields
Navigator, Sergeant Charles Wilbanks
Radio Operator, Staff Sergeant Gene A. Gartner
Radar Operator, Staff Sergeant David D. Moore

CAMERA CREW
Technical Sergeant Saul R. Banks
Sergeant Donald R. Abrogast
Sergeant Robert I. Doyle
Private First Class William M. Burrows.
Corporal M. Franssen
Corporal George Ingram
Acting as photographic adviser was Captain Howard Keel of the 4201st Motion Picture Unit.

Photoset of RAF Harper Hill Mountain Rescue Team which includes photos taken during the recovery operation.
Visiting the crash site from the top of the Snake Pass (car parking)
Technically you shouldn't park there as there are double yellow lines (on the south side of the road and after the bus stop on the north side) but people park off the road to the left of the double yellow lines. I have never known anyone ever get a ticket and every day there are vehicles parked up. But the Peak District National Park Authority isn't keen and things can change. Approximate post code for the lay-by is S33 0AB.

There was a bus route over the Snake Pass with bus stops at the top of the pass but this service stopped in January 2022 after a couple of years. As of September 2024 the bus stops are still there but there is no service.
Most recent revision 28 September 2024
The crash site on Google Maps
maps.google.co.uk/maps?hl=en&ll=53.45054,-1.864591&am...

View on Bing maps using Ordnance Survey mapping. Can't be viewed on a phone, unfortunately.
Grid Reference Finder
My preference would be to visit the crash site from the trig point at Higher Shelf Stones but the directions provided below are for the quickest routes to the site. It is about 45 - 60 minutes walk to the crash site from the lay-by (car parking - see note above) at the summit of Snake Pass.
Warnings and disclaimer
If you are planning to visit the crash site the usual warnings about having the right kit and plenty of Kendal mint cake apply; map and compass and the ability to use them, waterproofs, good boots and so on. Low cloud makes for an atmospheric visit but it also increases the chances of getting lost. On Bleaklow that's at best an inconvenient and frustrating experience and at worst a call out for Mountain Rescue. At the risk of sounding paternalistic, I'd advise those dressed for the pub and without map and compass against it. It is nearly always wet and boggy. One of the biggest risks is in walking along the paved sections when they are iced up. The details below do not constitute professional guidance, so of course you use them at your own risk. You might not get a connection up there, so please copy these notes if you intend to use them. Please see the note below about the signposts along the route. The paths converging on the site from the east and south-east are now so well trodden, there will soon be a need for erosion control measures. After heavy rain, the eastern edge of the site is very muddy.
Directions and grid references
Walk north along the Pennine Way (PW) from the layby along the made path, the new path and paving further on is to minimise the erosion.

The PW crosses the old Roman road at Doctor's Gate and soon the first of the paved sections starts.

At the end of this short paved section there are some steps down to cross a little stream at SK 09210 93611. After this point the made path becomes a good stony path and it is about 10 minutes' walk to the point where another path leaves the PW for the crash site.

At SK 09848 94244 the paving stones reappear, climbing slightly just ahead of you. Here, i.e. just before the paving stones start again, an intermittent path leaves the PW on the left and goes directly to the crash site. A slab of stone flat on the ground on your left marks the spot where you leave the PW.

It is usually very wet underfoot. This path follows a dike across Alport Low, the dike being marked on OS 1:50000 maps but not on 1:25000 maps. The dike is not that obvious on the ground but can clearly be seen from the southern end of the crash site for the return journey.

The path crosses Crooked Clough at SK 09443 94495 and continues gaining height before turning north to get to the crash site.

If you want to visit via the trig point at Higher Shelf Stones, you will need to keep heading north west across rough moor until you come to the edge of the moor and the drop to White Clough, then turn right. It is easy walking up to the trig point.

The path from the PW is fairly clear in good visibility. In low cloud, you might be better off taking the slightly longer route via Hern Clough. In this case, or if you miss the path turning, stick to the intermittently paved sections of the PW, walk past a PW marker stone and as the path emerges from the deep grough you have been in, you will arrive at a cairn where the path appears to fork. It is about half an hour from the lay-by to this point.

Photo above showing the route going to the left of the cairn near Hern Clough. Note the new marker post (see notes below on the sign posts) has gone. However there is a post like this further on at Hern Clough where the route leaves the PW.

Keep left, the path doesn't actually fork, and another paved section is joined. Higher Shelf Stones is ahead and to the left. The path turns right (north east) briefly but then switches back.

The PW here drops slightly down to the edge of Hern Clough. Keep the stream on your right following the PW as it turns west (left). In a couple of minutes you will arrive at the point where you leave the PW at SK 09708 94773. Here the PW heads north.

A marker post with a disc showing a white arrow points the way (see note below).

Cross the ford and you have three choices, see photo below.

I would suggest path B which has the signpost mentioned above. You follow another path which immediately turns right (north) and follows another stream, running parallel to the PW for a few minutes in a north westerly direction. At SK 09468 94926 this path leaves the stream and heads west and out across the moor, going directly to the southern end of the crash site.

The photo above was taken from near this marker stone above Hern Clough. It had been toppled but in 2022 has been put back.
At the crash site
The crash site memorial stone at the north western edge of the site is at SK 09040 94896 which is about 200m to the north east of the trig point on Higher Shelf Stones.

Note the debris is not visible from the trig point, the wreckage being hidden from view by the peat groughs and hags. However, if you need to get your bearings when you are at the site, the trig point is visible from the memorial stone.

The return journey is probably a bit easier - head south east and turn right when you reach the Pennine Way. Going too far to the south will put you in Crooked Clough which will of course mean a climb back out again.

From the southern end of the crash site you can pick up the intermittent path which leads back to the Pennine Way. In clear weather you will see the dike crossing the moor; this is the route back to the PW and the quickest way back to the Snake Pass.

There is also a lovely path which takes you along the south-eastern edge of Crooked Clough and then turns left to briefly follow Doctor's Gate.

Photo above: if you want to return to the Pennine Way via Hern Clough, the path leaves the crash site near the remains of the tail turret section.
Removing the remains from this air crash site.
There are lots of reasons why people should not remove artefacts from air crash sites, ethical and legal, plus the landowner forbids it too. I often see bits of debris which people have carried and then dumped, presumably because it was too heavy to carry. It also would look a bit obvious, lifting a big piece of debris - clearly stolen from this site - into the boot of a car or back of a van with other people milling about.
A note about the signposting for visitors
The crash site has changed a bit since my first visit in 2008, though because I visit at least once a year (usually two or three times a year) I only notice the changes when I look at my older photos of the site. Some debris has been stolen by ghoulish souvenir hunters, while other parts have corroded over the passing years or have crumpled under the boots of visitors. Especially since the Covid pandemic, the crash site of 'Over Exposed!' has become a regular tourist attraction. Guide books and tourist websites mention it, it's on Tripadvisor and it's a place many people want to visit, which is a good thing in my view. It is probably easier to visit now as what were intermittent paths underfoot are now quite clear and easy to follow.

Presumably to cope with the increasing pressure on the land and in response to an increase in call-outs for Mountain Rescue (especially during Lockdown when people had little else to do but go for long walks) new signs and posts appeared along the path from the lay-by in 2021. The signs referred to a "waymarked route" to the crash site and had a white arrow on a black background. Note, there isn't a waymarked route to the crash site, never has been. Aside from a couple of arrow pointers, these have all gone now. There's one helpfully positioned at the ford at Hern Clough where the route to the air crash site leaves the Pennine Way.

However, at the gate near to the layby on Snake Pass is this new sign. Unlike the now removed grey and white signs, this one does advise a degree of caution. For most walkers, it's a 45 mins - 1 hour walk to the site, but it's better to err on the side of those who might not be so brisk in their pace.

Nonetheless my suggestion for anyone intending to visit the aircrash site is to use map and compass / GPS or go with an experienced guide. The notes provided above are an addition to - not instead of - using map and compass and GPS if you have one. And it would, IMO, be very unwise to go armed with just the advice "Please keep to the main stone path for 1.5 miles, then at a large stream turn off left (uphill)"

But I understand the need for something and at least they'd be on the right path; earlier this year (2024) as I was walking back to the Snake Pass layby from Kinder Scout, I met a young man in jeans, trainers and a sweater and holding a plastic carrier bag. He was heading south for Featherbed Moss and asked me if he was on the right path to visit the crash site...
Visiting other crash sites on Bleaklow
There are at least 8 crash sites on Bleaklow, depending on how you define its boundaries. I have listed them here. It would make a tough challenge walk to visit them all in one day. If I was going to do it, I'd probably park by Torside reservoir and visit the site of de Havilland Beaver 52-6145 at Bramah Edge first, get the steepest climb out of the way. Then Blenheim L1476, on to 'Over-Exposed!' and so on. It would require a climb back from the bottom of Ashton Clough if you want to see the wreckage in the clough, then follow the Pennine Way, via Doctor's Gate, over Bleaklow to the other three sites, then back down to Longdendale. But of course, you can pick and choose which to visit and hopefully these grid references (via Pat Cunningham) will help. All of these air crash sites are detailed on this website.

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Crashed 10 December 1941. Pilot (only crew member) killed.
Substantial pile of debris remaining.

RAF Blackburn Botha W5103

Crashed 10 December 1941. Pilot (only crew member) killed.
Substantial pile of debris remaining.

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Superfortress RB-29A 44-61999 'Over-Exposed!' (the 'Bleaklow Bomber')

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The photographs Most recent update 28 September 2024 History (scroll down for notes on visiting the crash site and moving on to other crash sites on Bleaklow) The Superfortress took off on the morn...

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Bleaklow is a high, largely peat-covered, gritstone moorland in the Derbyshire High Peak near the town of Glossop. It is north of Kinder Scout, across the Snake Pass (A57), and south of the A628 Woodhead Pass. Much of it is nearly 2,000 feet (610 m) above sea level and the shallow bowl of Swains Greave on its eastern side is the source of the River Derwent.

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Due to the exposed nature of the crash site location and distance from parking areas, please be aware that weather conditions can change dramatically, even in summer. Read more below to keep your visit safe.
About the Bleaklow Bomber crash site

The B29 'Bleaklow Bomber' crash site features the remains of a U.S. air force Superfortress aircraft, which crashed in November 1948 during a routine domestic flight between bases within the UK. It is at a remote location on the moorland plateau of the Snake Summit and is a sensitive environmental site, which requires responsible visiting. Sections of the route are unsurfaced and may be wet or boggy following periods of rain.

Found at least 2 miles (3.2 kilometres) or approximately an hour's walk from the nearest parking opportunities, trips to the crash site should only be attempted if you are fully prepared, have planned your route and understand the fitness levels required to walk to the site and back again. Due to the nature of the area, there is limited signage and waymarking. Access should not be attempted outside of daylight hours.

The site remains at risk from damage and degradation due to high numbers of visitors so please consider this ahead of your trip.

The route to the crash site is not suitable for young children and there are no facilities at all at the location or along the route.

The aircraft ruins themselves include an engine turbine and a portion of the body of the plane. This remains a place of memorial where several airmen lost their lives and under no circumstances should any items be displaced or and taken away from the crash site.

Visitors are also asked not to take additional structures or mementos to the site as these can degrade, be carried away during bad weather and create litter or a risk to livestock and wildlife.

Please be aware that if you get into difficulty at this location, an emergency response may require a number of different services, including Mountain Rescue volunteers, and will take much longer than normal. Remember this could impact not only you or your party, but also those involved in any required rescue or extraction from the site.

Facilities

parking icon Parking

Please do not park anywhere on double yellow lines along the A57 'Snake Pass' which is unlawful.

Designated parking with access to the Pennine Way is available at Crowden and Torside.

There are currently no facilities for EV vehicles. Please be aware that some sections of the route to the crash site may be unmarked and unsurfaced.

cafe icon toilet icon Café and toilets

There are no toilets or refreshment facilities at either the parking areas or the crash site itself.

picnic icon no bbq icons Picnics, no BBQs

You can enjoy a picnic in the open landscape or with your vehicle, but please take home what you bring. There are no public bins provided on the open plateau. BBQs or fires of any sort are not permitted anywhere in the parking area, along the route or at the crash site itself. If you believe you have seen a wild fire, please call 999 immediately and ask for the fire service.

Dog icon Visiting with your dog

It is a legal requirement for dogs to be on a short (2m, 6ft) lead from 1 March - 31 August each year on Open Access land, which applies to much of this area. This is for the protection of wildlife and farm animals, including their young. We recommend keeping your dog on a lead at all times of year for your safety, your pet's safety and that of other visitors.

Please take all dog mess home as bins are not available in the open countryside.

Bus services

Some seasonal bus services may be available along the A57 but should not be relied upon.

Directions

The Bleaklow Bomber crash site is in the Dark Peak area of the Peak District National Park along the A57 between Manchester and the village of Bamford near Ladybower reservoir.

Please do not rely on smartphone apps or mapping software requiring mobile device reception to plan your route.

Parking area for Pennine Way and access to the crash site
Torside
Please be aware, access from this location to the crash site is an exposed, strenuous and long walk. Embarking on the route in the afternoon onwards increases the risk of not returning within daylight hours, especially during autumn and winter.

From Torside to the crash site and back is a 10 mile steep and rough mountain walk with no sign posts. It is at least a 4 hour walk for experienced and well equipped hill walkers only.
Snake Summit
From here it is a 4 mile return walk on open moorland. The first section is on a good path (Pennine Way) but then it is rough and boggy. There are very few signposts.

Do not park adjacent to the yellow lines. You will be liable for a parking ticket.
Doctor's Gate Culvert
Additional parking for about 6 cars on the Ladybower side of Snake Summit. This is also a safer place to turn around than on the summit.

Starting from here as opposed to Snake Summit adds about 500m to the walk.

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Bleaklow - B29 bomber crash site: Peak District National Park

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Peak District National Park: The B29 'Bleaklow Bomber' crash site features the remains of a U.S. air force Superfortress aircraft, which crashed in November 1948 during a routine domestic flight between bases within the UK.

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Historic Aviation Military - Peak District Crash

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An RB-29A Superfortress 44-61999 crashed on 03/11/48 & it killed 13 people who where on the actual plane. They where en-route from Scamptom to Burtonwood.

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Haunting images of Derbyshire plane crash 70 years on

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Using 360 degree images, two filmmakers use a website to commemorate a crash which still shocks visitors.

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the cause of the crash was never discovered

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the cause of the crash was never discovered

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The weather forecast was for clear skies but you can never really predict how it will be on Bleaklow. A heavy bank of cloud covered the moor but as the sun rose at 5am, the low cloud lifted a little. In these conditions, the crash site is quite an ethereal and beautiful place.

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The weather forecast was for clear skies but you can never really predict how it will be on Bleaklow. A heavy bank of cloud covered the moor but as the sun rose at 5am, the low cloud lifted a little. In these conditions, the crash site is quite an ethereal and beautiful place.

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Map multiple locations, get transit/walking/driving directions, view live traffic conditions, plan trips, view satellite, aerial and street side imagery. Do more with Bing Maps.

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“Overexposed” – B-29 Crash 3 November 1948 – RAF Mountain Rescue Association

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Seventy years ago on the 3 November 1948 all 13 US airmen were killed when a B-29 crashed on Higher Shelf Stones.

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Nonetheless my suggestion for anyone intending to visit the aircrash site is to use map and compass / GPS or go with an experienced guide. The notes provided above are an addition to – not instead of – using map and compass and GPS if you have one. And it would, IMO, be very unwise to go armed with just the advice “Please keep to the main stone path for 1.5 miles, then at a large stream turn off left (uphill)”

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Nonetheless my suggestion for anyone intending to visit the aircrash site is to use map and compass / GPS or go with an experienced guide. The notes provided above are an addition to – not instead of – using map and compass and GPS if you have one. And it would, IMO, be very unwise to go armed with just the advice “Please keep to the main stone path for 1.5 miles, then at a large stream turn off left (uphill)”

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But I understand the need for something and at least they’d be on the right path; earlier this year (2024) as I was walking back to the Snake Pass layby from Kinder Scout, I met a young man in jeans, trainers and a sweater and holding a plastic carrier bag. He was heading south for Featherbed Moss and asked me if he was on the right path to visit the crash site…

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The crash site has changed a bit since my first visit in 2008, though because I visit at least once a year (usually two or three times a year) I only notice the changes when I look at my older photos of the site. Some debris has been stolen by ghoulish souvenir hunters, while other parts have corroded over the passing years or have crumpled under the boots of visitors. Especially since the Covid pandemic, the crash site of ‘Over Exposed!’ has become a regular tourist attraction. Guide books and tourist websites mention it, it’s on Tripadvisor and it’s a place many people want to visit, which is a good thing in my view. It is probably easier to visit now as what were intermittent paths underfoot are now quite clear and easy to follow.

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Removing the remains from this air crash site.

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Removing the remains from this air crash site.

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There are lots of reasons why people should not remove artefacts from air crash sites, ethical and legal, plus the landowner forbids it too. I often see bits of debris which people have carried and then dumped, presumably because it was too heavy to carry. It also would look a bit obvious, lifting a big piece of debris – clearly stolen from this site – into the boot of a car or back of a van with other people milling about.

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The plateau top experiences unpredictable and harsh weather conditions where cloud cover is frequent and sunshine amounts to no more than 1000 hours a year (these photos were taken on one of the rare sunny days!). The summit is often below the cloud base and it is very easy to get lost. Bring your compass or GPS.

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The plateau top experiences unpredictable and harsh weather conditions where cloud cover is frequent and sunshine amounts to no more than 1000 hours a year (these photos were taken on one of the rare sunny days!). The summit is often below the cloud base and it is very easy to get lost. Bring your compass or GPS.

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Over 150 mm of rain can fall over a matter of hours, completely saturating the peatlands. This high rainfall is necessary to maintain peat formation in the area (refer to the acrotelm/ catotelm page, or the peat themes page).

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A virtual tour through the Dark Peak area of the Peak District. Introduces geography fieldwork carried out in the Dark Peak at Manchester University. Covers the geographical themes of peat erosion and formation, geology of mudrocks, millstone & shale grits, vegetation of the Peak District, water quality and the Longdendale reservoirs and landslides of the Alport and Torside regions.

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Nuclear Testing, Bikini Island | Smithsonian Institution

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There are restrictions for re-using this media. For more information, visit the Smithsonian’s Terms of Use page.

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The Marshall Islands consist of two chains of 29 coral atolls, and are located north of the equator, between Hawaii and Australia. On each atoll there are a number of islands.

The Marshall Islands have been occupied by humans since the Micronesians arrived in the second millennium BCE. The Marshallese have lived there for thousands of years. In 1914, Japan captured the Marshall Islands and built military bases. In February 1944, U.S. Marine and Army forces defeated Japanese troops on both the Kwajalein and Enewetak atolls. Both atolls were then turned into U.S. military bases. Due to the remote location, sparse population, and other nearby U.S. military bases, the U.S. planned to test powerful nuclear weapons in the Marshall Islands. In 1947, the Marshall Islands became part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, created by the United Nations and then administered by the U.S. In 1946, the islands had a population of 52,000. Between 1946 and 1958, the United States conducted 67 nuclear tests in the Marshall Islands. The U.S. conducted 23 of these tests at Bikini Atoll, and 44 near Enewetak Atoll, but fallout spread throughout the Marshall Islands.

During the post-World War II period the U.S. expanded their nuclear research and development programs. The U.S. government established the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) to monitor the peacetime development of atomic science and technology. Fear of the Soviet Union increasing their atomic weapons, and the belief that building up nuclear arms could help establish U.S. power, contributed to this rapid expansion.

Operation Crossroads

The first testing series in the Marshall Islands occurred under Operation Crossroads. The purpose of Operation Crossroads was to investigate the effect of nuclear weapons on naval warships. Testing in the islands began at Bikini Atoll with the Shot Able test, on July 1, 1946. After Shot Able, the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists confirmed the power of these weapons. They determined that soldiers on ships up to a mile away from this explosion would be instantly be killed. The U.S. then conducted the Shot Baker test on July 25.

These tests were the first time that the U.S. tested nuclear weapons since the Trinity Test in 1945. These were also the first U.S. nuclear detonations since the "Little Boy" and "Fat Man" bombs dropped over Japan. Operation Crossroads ended on August 10, 1946, due to concerns over radiation, especially to the soldiers involved. In 1969, the U.S. began a long term project to decontaminate Bikini Atoll.

Operations Greenhouse and Ivy

In January of 1950, President Truman made the decision to increase U.S. research into thermonuclear weapons, which would lead to further U.S. nuclear testing. Operation Greenhouse was a series of nuclear tests conducted at Enewetak Atoll in 1951. These were done to test design principles that would later become pivotal in the development of the hydrogen bomb. The tests aimed to reduce the overall size of nuclear weapons, including the necessary amount of fissile material, while increasing their destructive power.

The U.S. conducted its first series of thermonuclear tests, Operation Ivy, at Enewetak Atoll, in November of 1952. Shot Mike was the first successful hydrogen bomb test. Then, on November 16, the U.S. conducted the King Shot.

Castle Bravo Test

The U.S. conducted its largest nuclear detonation ever, Castle Bravo, at Bikini Atoll on March 1, 1954. This was part of Operation Castle, a series of thermonuclear tests. Bravo was over 1,000 more times powerful than "Little Boy." Bravo used a device called "Shrimp" which used lithium deuteride as its fuel. Bravo was the first test of a deliverable hydrogen bomb.

Despite potential risks, Major General Percy Clarkson and scientific director Dr. Alvin C. Graves ordered the test to continue as planned. Due to Castle Bravo radioactive debris was released into the atmosphere, and to surrounding atolls. The test was more powerful than scientists predicted. Ocean currents, weather conditions, and wind patterns contributed to this spread of fallout and debris. The fallout was composed of pulverized coral, water, and radioactive particles, and it fell into the atmosphere appearing as ashy snowflakes. This affected nearby atolls and U.S. servicemen. Traces of radioactive material were later found in parts of Japan, India, Australia, Europe, and the United States. This was the worst radiological disaster in U.S. history and caused worldwide backlash against atmospheric nuclear testing.

Relocation of the Marshallese

In 1946, Navy Commodore Ben Wyatt met with the 167 people living on Bikini Atoll. Wyatt asked the Marshallese to relocate, and for use of their atoll "for the good of mankind." He explained that they were a chosen people and that perfecting atomic weapons could prevent future wars. The residents were promised they could return one day, but realistically they had no choice in this matter. Immediately following this speech, the U.S military began preparations to relocate the residents to Rongerik Atoll, an uninhabited island with limited resources 125 miles away. Residents of Bikini Atoll resettled in 1969, but then evacuated in 1978, after radiation levels were determined to be excessive.

A month later, the Marshallese filed a complaint with the UN, but this did not prevent U.S. nuclear testing. In 1948, the U.S. government forced residents of Enewetak Atoll to evacuate due to expanded nuclear testing with Operation Sandstone.

A week after the Castle Bravo test, the U.S. launched a medical study on the effects of radiation on Marshallese, and provided medical care to the people who were exposed to high levels of radiation. Led by Eugene P. Cronkite, the effort was called Project 4.1. Today, scholars criticize Project 4.1 because researchers did not acquire informed consent from the Marshallese who participated. "The team conducting the study did not ask the Marshallese for their consent or even explain to them that a study was being conducted," historian April Brown wrote in a 2014 article for Arms Control Today.

Despite the fact that residents of Enwetak Atoll were relocated to Rongelap, Utirik, and Ailinginae Atolls, they were all exposed to nuclear fallout, primarily as a result of the Castle Bravo test. Rongelap Atoll is just one example of how nuclear fallout and relocation affected the Marshallese. In 1954, as a result of the Castle Bravo test, many residents here suffered from burns and radiation diseases. The military did not evacuate residents until two days after the test occurred. Then, in 1957, the people of Rongelap returned. However, officials and scientists working for the AEC concluded that radiation was still a risk.

After the release of previously classified documents, the public learned that some scientists and researchers within the AEC had goals of studying humans living in radiation contaminated environments. Based on these documents this may have influenced the decision to allow the Marshallese of Rongelap to return back to the Atoll in 1957. For instance, an AEC scientist at a meeting where the decision to allow Marshallese to return to Rongelap was made stated, "It would very interesting to go back and get good environmental data, when people live in a contaminated environment. Now, data of this type has never been available. While it is true that these people do not live, I would say, the way Westerners do, civilized people, it is nevertheless also true that they are more like us than the mice." By 1985 Marshallese fled Rongelap Atoll due to high levels of contamination. The U.S. in the 1990s began to clean up part of Rongelap Atoll, under a $45 million program, but many Marshallese do not wish to return.

Health Concerns

As the nuclear testing occurred, the Marshallese were not aware of the potential dangers. A Senator of the Marshall Islands Parliament, Jeton Anjain, explained the effects of Castle Bravo, "Five hours after detonation, it began to rain radioactive fallout at Rongelap. The atoll was covered with a fine, white, powder- like substance. No one knew it was radioactive fallout. The children played in the 'snow.' They ate it."

Since U.S. nuclear testing began, there has been concern over the health risks that occur as a result of fallout and radiation. Many Marshallese have suffered from forced relocation, burns, birth defects, and cancers. Researchers have conducted numerous studies on the health effects of nuclear tests conducted by the U.S. in the Marshall Islands. In 2005, the National Cancer Institute reported that that the risk of contracting cancer for those exposed to fallout was greater than one in three. Many adults developed cancerous thyroid nodules, two or three decades after the testing ended. In 2010, the National Cancer Institute reported, "As much as 1.6% of all cancers among those residents of the Marshall Islands alive between 1948 and 1970 might be attributable to radiation exposures resulting from nuclear testing fallout." They also suggested that up to 55% of all cancers in the northern atolls are a result of nuclear fallout. They concluded that this was a result of the Castle Bravo test.

Tony deBrum, a Castle Bravo test witness and former Foreign Minister of the Marshall Islands, argued that the U.S. nuclear testing caused numerous health and infrastructure issues for the Marshallese. He commented that nuclear test victims "have been taken from us before their time," so the U.S. could learn more about the "effects of such evil and unnecessary devices."

U.S. Government Reponses and Compensation

In the 1970s, the U.S. began cleaning up Enewetak Atoll to make it habitable again. Then, the majority of the Marshallese people voted to establish a new political relationship with the U.S. The Marshall Islands became the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) in 1979.

In 1986, the U.S. and the RMI signed the Compact of Free Association, which granted the RMI political independence and allows Marshallese citizens to work and go to school in the U.S. The U.S. also is responsible for the defense of the RMI, and is permitted to conduct military maneuvers and testing on Kwajalein Atoll. The Compact also ensures that the U.S. provides medical care for the remaining 176 Marshallese directly affected by the Castle Bravo test. The U.S. government defines the atolls affected by radiation as Bikini, Enewetak, Utirik, and Rongelap, and they have concluded that those affected were the residents present during the testing period. This definition does not take into account the long lasting effects of radiation, the frequent movement of the Marshallese between various atolls, or those who did not live on the Marshall Islands during the testing period, who were affected.

The Marshall Islands Nuclear Claims Tribunal was designed under the Compact to award compensation for cancers and other serious health effects, such as burns and birth defects, attributed to nuclear testing. The U.S. established a $150 million compensation trust fund for those affected. This included individual trust funds for Bikini, Enewetak, Rongelap, and Utirik. The trust funds help cover health and property damages. The U.S. Embassy website today explains that the U.S. government is "committed to a full and open collaboration with the Republic of the Marshall Islands in radiological monitoring, rehabilitation of affected atolls, and nuclear related health care assistance." The Embassy in Majuro states on its website: "The U.S. never intended for Marshallese to be hurt by the tests."

In the 1990s, the Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments ( ACHRE), with the use of available government documents and witness interviews, concluded that there was no evidence "to support the claim that the exposures of the Marshallese, either initially or after resettlement, were motivated by research purposes."

RMI Today

The radiological legacy of U.S. nuclear weapons testing in the Marshall Islands still affects the Marshallese today. U.S. nuclear testing ended in the Marshall Islands in 1958, but a UN report in 2012 stated that the effects of this testing are long-lasting. The city of Majuro is now home to the majority of the Marshallese population. Today, radiation related cancers and birth defects are a major problem faced by the Marshallese. The RMI also struggles with high suicide rates and high alcoholism rates. Diabetes (due to large amounts of imported, processed food) and cancer are the top two causes of death. Environmental issues such as rising sea levels, and degradation attributed to the nuclear testing, are also problems and often force residents to move between atolls.

Remembrance Day, March 2, is now an official holiday in the RMI. This holiday honors the victims and survivors of the nuclear testing. There are many activists in the RMI who want to ensure the protection of future generations, and to ensure that the U.S. government pays the settlements. They work to raise awareness of current health and political issues the RMI faces, due to past nuclear testing. Lani Kramer, a Marshallese councilwoman, stated, "As a result of being displaced we've lost our cultural heritage- our traditional customs and skills, which for thousands of years were passed down from generation to generation." RMI president Christopher Loeak stated that U.S. compensation "does not provide a fair and just settlement" for the damage caused by nuclear testing.

In 2014, the RMI attempted to sue the U.S. and eight other nuclear armed nations. The RMI filed the "Nuclear Zero Lawsuit," claiming that the countries have failed to move towards nuclear disarmament. The RMI did not seek monetary compensation, or cleanup operations. Instead the RMI wanted the nations to comply with the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, meaning that nations should work to decrease their nuclear arms, and that nuclear power should only promoted for peaceful uses. In 2017, the U.S. Ninth Circuit Court dismissed the lawsuit.

According to a 2016 Columbia University study, radiation levels in some areas of the Marshall Islands are almost double of what is deemed safe for human habitation; but overall the islands are slowly becoming less radioactive. Very few Marshallese today live on Rongelap and Enewetak Atolls. Scientists visit Bikini Atoll, and a few caretakers live there. It is not clear when the Marshall Islands will be radiation free, or if people will return to Bikini Atoll. Radiation levels and climate change have led to overcrowding in the capital city of Majuro. Cleanup efforts continue throughout the islands and the Marshallese continue to advocate for compensation.

Timeline of Major Nuclear Tests Conducted at the Marshall Islands:

7/1/1946: Testing begins at the Marshall Islands, with Shot Able.

7/25/1946: Shot Baker is conducted, under Operation Crossroads.

4/30/1948: Shot Yoke, under Operation Sandstone, is conducted. This was the first fission weapon to use a levitated core design.

4/20/1951: Shot Easy nuclear test is conducted at Enewetak Atoll, under Operation Greenhouse. The Easy test was meant to test a new, lighter implosion bomb.

5/1951: Operation Greenhouse testing occurred at Enewetak Atoll.

11/1/1952: The Mike Shot is conducted at Enewetak, under Operation Ivy. This was the first U.S. thermonuclear test.

6/28/1958: The Oak test is conducted, at Enewetak Atoll, under the Operation Hardtack I series. This was the 6 th largest U.S. nuclear test. Hardtack I included 35 total tests. Hardtack I was the last testing series conducted on the Marshall Islands.

Further Reading:

Dan Zak, " A Ground Zero Forgotten: The Marshall Islands, Once a U.S. Nuclear Test Site, Face Oblivion Again." The Washington Post. November 27, 2015.
Bikini Islanders Still Deal with Fallout of US Nuclear Tests Life on the Marshall Islands March-1954: Castle Bravo Marshall Islands Profile and Timeline The Marshall Islands Are Disappearing No Promised Land: The Shared Legacy of the Castle Bravo Nuclear Test Radio Bikini Documentary Ralph Lapp Interview

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The Marshall Islands consist of two chains of 29 coral atolls, and are located north of the equator, between Hawaii and Australia. On each atoll there are a number of islands. The Marshall Islands have been occupied by humans since the Micronesians arrived in the second millennium BCE.