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How to approach reading and note-taking

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Research Guides: Interrogating Texts: Reading Strategies

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Six Reading Habits to Develop in Your First Year at Harvard

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Concise overview of essay process with examples

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All referencing systems and examples of how to cite + bibliography

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NHS England | Workforce, training and education | Knowledge and Library Services

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What is critical appraisal, why is it important and some useful resources.

Critical appraisal is an essential part of evidence-based healthcare.

Evidence cycle

The evidence cycle makes it clear that evidence should not just be found and then used, it also needs to be critically appraised. Numerous Randomised Controlled Trials (RCTs) are published every day, let alone other study types, and not all are of consistent quality.

Critical appraisal is important so that the good studies can be found amongst the many. These can then be used to confirm or change treatments and advice given to patients.

Critical appraisal generally seeks to answer two broad questions.

Is this study likely to be accurate (validity)?

Can we use its findings (relevance)?

Methodology

To answer these questions, we pose further questions. We start by looking at what the purpose of the article was, and then whether the chosen study methodology was appropriate for answering this question.

Following that the described methods need to be considered for anything that is unclear, anything that seems confused, potential for bias, or confounders that have not been mitigated against.

There will very rarely be a perfect paper where everything that could be explained has been clearly done so, but just because a paper is imperfect, it does not mean it should be ignored.

The point is to look for potential flaws in the research that mean either its validity cannot be trusted, or it is no longer relevant in our setting or situation.

Results and conclusions

Finally, the results and conclusions should be looked at to see what the results were, how precise they were and whether they were statistically significant.

Critical appraisal does not mean simply summarising a paper descriptively. It is about forming a judgement upon it. The discipline of critical appraisal is critical in sense of questioning the research, its results, and conclusions, not in the sense of having to be critical of a paper.

It is alright to agree with all the conclusions of the authors, and it is fine to disagree with them all, or to agree with some and disagree with others, however it is not OK to be led to their conclusions by them. The reader should form their own conclusions.

No particular expertise is required to critically appraise an article, though more subject specific knowledge is an advantage for more technical papers.

The more experience and confidence an appraiser has the quicker they should be able to form their own opinions on the study.

Example from practice by Stuart Glover

University Hospitals of Leicester NHS Libraries provide their critical appraisal training, called 'Critical Reading Made Easy', in two parts. In the morning session they cover the introduction to, and principles of, critical appraisal.

This covers, what it is, why it is important, an overview of the main study methodologies and some of the main statistical terms that papers use.

Throughout, the session is interspersed with games and activities which help to make a dry subject a little more fun and re-enforce the main learning points. These include activities to design your own clinical study, a quiz on which methodology best addresses different issues, and which treatment would you recommend based upon various statistics. Examples used are never too technical and tend to be quite light-hearted.

The other part of the training is the afternoon practical session in which papers are given out to be read by participants and then discussed as a group. This session only take place if there is a group of at least 3 as the group discussion element is vital.

Again, papers chosen reflect the fact that the groups are mixed abilities and include people from different specialties and job roles. They also tend to be more light-hearted papers

Every time the session is run different papers are chosen, which keeps the sessions interesting for the tutors and it means that everyone can get more practice as participants can come back multiple times.

Aims of the session are to raise the confidence of participants and the course is therefore evaluated against that aim. Feedback collected since 2016 from over 200 attendees show that on average this course increases confidence by just over 95%. The course has also been described as 'the most fun that critical appraisal can be'.

Resources

Books
Bootland, D. (2014) Critical Appraisal for FCEM, CRC Press
Clearly written jargon free book aimed at those seeking Fellowship of the College of Emergency Medicine but very useful of learning and improving critical appraisal skills. [Last checked: 01/09/21]
Gosall, N. (2015) The Doctor's Guide to Critical Appraisal (4th ed), PasTest
A comprehensive guide to understanding strengths and weaknesses of research design and interpreting results. [Last checked: 01/09/21]
Greenhalgh, T. (2019) How to Read a Paper (6th ed), Wiley-Blackwell
How to Read a Paper demystifies evidence-based medicine and explains how to critically appraise published research and also put the findings into practice [Last checked: 01/09/21]
Holloway, I., Kalvin, K. (2016) Qualitative Research in Nursing and Healthcare (4th ed), Wiley-Blackwell
This book provides a good explanation of qualitative research enabling the reader to build critical appraisal skills for this area of research. [Last checked: 01/09/21]
Perea, R. (2008) Statistics Toolkit. BMJ Books
Guides the reader through statistical concepts using flowcharts, diagrams and real life examples to reflect concepts in a simple and practical manner [Last checked: 01/09/21]
Petrie, A. and Sabin, C. (2019) Medical Statistics at a Glance (4th ed), Wiley-Blackwell
A concise and accessible introduction to this complex subject. It provides clear instruction on how to apply commonly used statistical procedures in an easy-to-read, comprehensive and relevant volume. [Last checked: 01/09/21]
Salkind, N. (2019) Statistics for People Who Think They Hate Statistics (7th ed), Sage
Textbook with self test questions and answers [Last checked: 01/09/21]

Courses
Critically Appraising the Evidence Base
Designed by Subject Matter Experts and HEE's Technology Enhanced Learning Team, this series of online Critical Appraisal modules has been created specifically for healthcare colleagues [Last checked: 11/01/2023]
Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP)
CASP is part of Better Value Healthcare, a training organisation led by Professor Muir Gray, based in Oxford. Provides workshops, checklists and e-modules. [Last checked: 01/09/21]
Open University: Medical Statistics
Free online course on Medical Statistics. [Last checked: 11/01/2023]

Websites
AGREE (Appraisal of Guidelines for Research and Evaluation)
Provides a tool for evaluating the quality and reporting of practice guidelines. [Last checked: 01/09/21]
BMJ Endgames: Statistics
Dr Philip Sedgewick is the author of the BMJ Endgames statistcs series. These are short clinically relevant explainations of statistical concepts. Note: no new content since 2015. [Last checked: 01/09/21]
Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine (CEBM)
From the University of Oxford. Checklists, workshops, educational resources. [Last checked: 01/09/21]
Cochrane Handbook (2021)
Guidance to authors preparing Cochrane reviews. Provides comprehensive explanations of bias. [Last checked: 01/09/21]
CONSORT (Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials)
Evidence-based, minimum set of recommendations for reporting randomized trials. Provides a checklist for how RCTs are reported. This also helps to develop understanding of research design. [Last checked: 01/09/21]
Mathematics and Statistics for Dummies by Wiley
Short explanations of statistical concepts for beginners. [Last checked: 01/09/21]
PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analysis)
Evidence-based minimum set of items for reporting in systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Provides a checklist and flow diagram. This also helps to develop understanding of research design. [Last checked: 01/09/21]
STROBE (Strengthening the Reporting of Observational studies in Epidemiology)
STROBE is an international, collaborative initiative of epidemiologists, methodologists, statisticians, researchers and journal editors involved in the conduct and dissemination of observational studies, with the common aim of STrengthening the Reporting of OBservational studies in Epidemiology. Provides checklists and also helps to develop understanding of research design. [Last checked: 01/09/21]

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Critical appraisal | Workforce, training and education | NHS England

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What is critical appraisal, why is it important and some useful resources.

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Critical appraisal key terms and checklists

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Critical appraisal key terms and checklists

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CASP - Critical Appraisal Skills Programme

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Critical Appraisal is the process of carefully and systematically examining research to judge its trustworthiness, and its value and relevance in a particular context. It is an essential skill for evidence-based medicine because it allows people to find and use research evidence reliably and efficiently. All of us would like to enjoy the best possible health we can. To achieve this, we need reliable information about what might harm or help us when we make healthcare decisions.

Why is Critical Appraisal important?

Critical appraisal skills are important as they enable you to assess systematically the trustworthiness, relevance and results of published papers. Where an article is published, or who wrote it should not be an indication of its trustworthiness and relevance.

Critical appraisals can be applied to different study and research formats including:

Aren't we already doing it?

To some extent, the answer to this question is "yes". Evidence-based journals can give us reliable, relevant summaries of recent research; guidelines, protocols, and pathways can synthesise the best evidence and present it in the context of a clinical problem. However, we still need to be able to assess research quality to be able to adapt what we read to what we do.

There are still significant gaps in access to evidence.

The main issues we need to address are:

Health and Social Care provision must be based on sound decisions.

In order to make well-informed and sensible choices, we need evidence that is rigorous in methodology and robust in findings.

What types of questions does a critical appraisal encourage you to ask?

What is the main objective of the research?

Who conducted the research and are they reputable?

How was the research funded? Are there any potential conflicts of interest?

How was the study designed?

Was the sample size large enough to provide accurate results?

Were the participants or subjects selected appropriately?

What data collection methods were used and were they reliable and valid?

Was the data analysed accurately and rigorously?

Were the results and conclusions drawn directly from the data or were there assumptions made?

Can the findings be generalised to the broader population?

How does this research contribute to existing knowledge in this field?

Were ethical standards maintained throughout the study?

Were any potential biases accounted for in the design, data collection or data analysis?

Have the researchers made suggestions for future research based on their findings?

Are the findings of the research replicable?

Are there any implications for policy or practice based on the research findings?

Were all aspects of the research clearly explained and detailed?

These types of questions can help ensure the research is credible, reliable, and valid, contributing significantly to its respective field of study.

How do you critically appraise a paper?

Critically appraising a paper involves examining the quality, validity, and relevance of a published work to identify its strengths and weaknesses.

This allows the reader to judge its trustworthiness and applicability to their area of work or research. Below are general steps for critically appraising a paper:

Decide how trustworthy a piece of research is (Validity)

Determine what the research is telling us (Results)

Weigh up how useful the research will be in your context (Relevance)

You need to understand the research question, do a methodology evaluation, analyse the results, check the conclusion and review the implications and limitations.

That's just a quick summary but we provide a range of in-depth training courses, workshops and train-the-trainer sessions to help you improve your knowledge around how to successfully perform critical appraisals so book onto one today or contact us for more information.

Is Critical Appraisal In Research Different To Front-Line Usage In Nursing, Etc?

Critical appraisal in research is different from front-line usage in nursing.

Critical appraisal in research involves a careful analysis of a study's methodology, results, and conclusions to assess the quality and validity of the study. This helps researchers to determine if the study's findings are robust, reliable and applicable in their own research context. It requires a specific set of skills including understanding of research methodology, statistics, and evidence-based practices.

Front-line usage in nursing refers to the direct application of evidence-based practice and research findings in patient care settings. Nurses need to appraise the evidence critically too but their focus is on the direct implications of the research on patient care and health outcomes. The skills required here would be the ability to understand the clinical implications of research findings, communicate these effectively to patients, and incorporate these into their practice.

Both require critical appraisal but the purpose, context, and skills involved are different. Critical appraisal in research is more about evaluating research for validity and reliability whereas front-line usage in nursing is about effectively applying valid and reliable research findings to improve patient care.

How do you know if you're performing critical appraisals correctly?

Performing critical appraisals of research is not an exact science, and it often involves a high level of subjective judgment. However, there are some ways to determine whether or not you're doing it correctly.

Finally, getting feedback from colleagues or mentors on your critical appraisals can also provide a good check on how well you're doing. They can provide an additional perspective and catch anything you might have missed. If possible, we would always recommend doing appraisals in small groups or pairs, working together is always helpful for another perspective, or if you can - join and take part in a journal club.

Ready to Learn more?

At CASP we offer a range of training courses and workshops which are perfect to help you learn more about critical appraisal, when and how to perform one, and the different approaches and methodologies.

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What is critical appraisal? - CASP - Critical Appraisal Skills Programme

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Discover what critical appraisal is, why we need it, and why CASP is so important for research & healthcare.

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How to approach an essay and edit: an overview

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How to approach an essay and edit: an overview

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Useful lists on linking adverbials, grammar, punctuation, and practical steps to approaching an edit

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Useful phrases, sentence starters, etc

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The Academic Phrasebank is a general resource for academic writers. It aims to provide you with examples of some of the phraseological 'nuts and bolts' of writing organised according to the main sections of a research paper or dissertation (see the top menu ). Other phrases are listed under the more general communicative functions of academic writing (see the menu on the left). The resource should be particularly useful for writers who need to report their research work. The phrases, and the headings under which they are listed, can be used simply to assist you in thinking about the content and organisation of your own writing, or the phrases can be incorporated into your writing where this is appropriate. In most cases, a certain amount of creativity and adaptation will be necessary when a phrase is used. The items in the Academic Phrasebank are mostly content neutral and generic in nature; in using them, therefore, you are not stealing other people's ideas and this does not constitute plagiarism. For some of the entries, specific content words have been included for illustrative purposes, and these should be substituted when the phrases are used. The resource was designed primarily for academic and scientific writers who are non-native speakers of English. However, native speaker writers may still find much of the material helpful. In fact, recent data suggest that the majority of users are native speakers of English. More about Academic Phrasebank.

This site was created by John Morley.

Academic Phrasebank is the Intellectual Property of the University of Manchester.

Copyright © 2023 The University of Manchester

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The Academic Phrasebank is a general resource for academic writers. It aims to provide you with examples of some of the phraseological 'nuts and bolts' of writing organised according to the main sections of a research paper or dissertation (see the top menu ).

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Critical vs descriptive writing with examples and tasks

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Critical vs descriptive writing with examples and tasks

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Clear guide on how to use PEEL and elevate it to university level, with walkthrough of the Critical Analysis Toolkit

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Just need to create a quick bibliography?

Zotero is a free, easy-to-use tool to help you collect, organize, annotate, cite, and share research.
Download
Available for Mac, Windows, Linux, and iOS

Just need to create a quick bibliography? Try ZoteroBib.

Collect with a click.

Zotero automatically senses research as you browse the web. Need an article from JSTOR or a preprint from arXiv.org? A news story from the New York Times or a book from a library? Zotero has you covered, everywhere.

Organize your way.

Zotero helps you organize your research any way you want. You can sort items into collections and tag them with keywords. Or create saved searches that automatically fill with relevant materials as you work.

Cite in style.

Zotero instantly creates references and bibliographies for any text editor, and directly inside Word, LibreOffice, and Google Docs. With support for over 10,000 citation styles, you can format your work to match any style guide or publication.

Stay in sync.

Zotero can optionally synchronize your data across devices, keeping your files, notes, and bibliographic records seamlessly up to date. If you decide to sync, you can also always access your research from any web browser.

Collaborate freely.

Zotero lets you co-write a paper with a colleague, distribute course materials to students, or build a collaborative bibliography. You can share a Zotero library with as many people you like, at no cost.

Rest easy.

Zotero is open source and developed by an independent, nonprofit organization that has no financial interest in your private information. With Zotero, you always stay in control of your own data.

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Zotero | Your personal research assistant

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Zotero is a free, easy-to-use tool to help you collect, organize, cite, and share research.

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Quoting

A quotation is where you use the exact words of the original author. Try not to over rely on quotations, as this may show a lack of understanding of the subject area being studied.

The use of quotations varies considerably from discipline to discipline. If in doubt, check with your tutor or in your course handbook for further guidance.

Short Quotations

Short quotations of up to 40 words in length or two lines of verse should be included in the body of the text enclosed in single quotation marks, e.g.

Barton states that the play As You Like It is 'the fullest and most stable realization of Shakespearean comic form.' ¹ This can be considered as...

General Rules for Short Quotations

If the quotation is at the end of a sentence, the full stop should fall outside the quotation mark. This applies if the quote is integrated within the sentence and is not preceded by any punctuation, e.g.
Barton states that the play As You Like It is 'the fullest and most stable realization of Shakespearean comic form'. ¹ This can be considered as...

If the quotation is preceded by punctuation and forms a full sentence the full stop should be included before the quotation mark. Note the comma before the quote below, this means that the full stop will fall within the quotation mark, e.g.
There is still a labelling issue when it comes to flavourings in food, 'flavours such as vanillin, which occur naturally in food are called "nature identical", the label does not have to state where it comes from.' ²

You should use double quotation marks to identify a quotation that falls within a quotation, e.g. 'Original quote "Quote within quote" original quote'.

Long Quotations

Long quotations are classed as a quote that is over 40 words or two lines of verse. This should be presented on a separate paragraph, which is indented from the body of the text, and is not enclosed in quotation marks

Phillips and Havely argue that:

Chaucer's own judiciousness about when and where and how densely to place words of French and Latin origins - many of which still had a more learned or exotic air than modern readers immediately realize - amid familiar words is unrivalled among English poets. He can create a courtly French or Ovidian Latin manner in English without simply piling up French or Latin words.³

This can be taken to mean...

General Rules for Long Quotations

Long quotations should end with a full stop even if the original does not. However, if there is a question mark or an exclamation mark then this should be used instead.

Quoting literature

When quoting from literature such as a play or poem, the original spelling and punctuation should be preserved wherever possible. Quotations and lines of verse should, in a short quote, be separated by a spaced upright stroke, e.g.

Tennyson wrote: '"The fault was mine, the fault was mine" | Why am I sitting here so stunned and still.' ⁴

In a long quotation, which is indented in a separate paragraph and not enclosed in quotation marks, the lines of a verse should be reproduced with exact lineage of the original, e.g.

In his poem Maud, Tennyson wrote the following passage:

'The fault was mine' -
Why am I sitting here so stunned and still,
Plucking the harmless wild-flower on the hill? -
It is this guilty hand? -
And there rises ever a passionate cry
From underneath in the darkening land -
What it is, that has been done.
(Maud, II, 1-7)

Prose quotations from plays should follow the name of the speaker, which should be in small capitals. Stage directions should be italicised and separated from speech by a space. When stage direction occurs within speech, they should be enclosed in parentheses, e.g.

Beckett makes good use of stage direction, as exemplified by the following passage:

She raises her head, gazes front. Long pause. She straightens up, lays her hands flat on the ground, throws her head back and gazes at zenith. Long pause

WINNIE ( gazing at zenith) Another heavenly day. ( Pause. Head back level, eyes front, pause...) ⁵

Verse quotations from plays are normally centred with the speakers name aligned on the left of the page, e.g.

Patience, good lady; wizards know their times.
Deep night, dark night, the silent of the night,
The time of night when Troy was set on fire,
The time when screech-owls cry, and badogs howl,
And spirits walk, and ghosts break up their graves;
That time best fits the work we have in hand.
Madam, sit you, and fear not. ⁶

Quoting in other languages

Quotations in languages which are not English should be quoted in the same way as a quote in English, this means using standard quotation marks for MHRA footnote style, e.g. 'Quote' rather than "Quote" or „Quote"

When quoting a piece of text over 40 words it is advisable to use a long dash, known as an em dash (-), to introduce the quote in, for example, French or Russian.

Quoting historical works

Quotations should always be the same as the piece of information you are referring to. However, when referring to early historical works there are some exceptions.

The forms of the letters i and j, u and v, the long s (ſ), the ampersand (&), the Tironian sign (⁊), the tilde, the superior (superscript) letters in contractions, and other abbreviations are normalised into modern use unless there is a specific reason to keep them, e.g. in full bibliographic descriptions

For more information, see section 2.4 in The MHRA Style Guide.

Omissions

If part of the quotation is omitted then this should be indicated using an ellipsis, e.g. [...]

It is not necessary to use an ellipsis at the beginning or end of a quotation as almost all quotes are taken from a larger context, and this fact will be presumed

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MHRA Footnotes referencing style is designed by the Modern Humanities Research Association. Some elements of the standard offer a choice of approaches and/or for some sources, the standard does not provide official guidance. The examples given in this tutorial are based on the University Library’s interpretation of the MHRA Style Guide: Third edition 2013. Reprinted with minor corrections 2015.

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Embedding and blending quotations for flow of reading

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Embedding and blending quotations for flow of reading

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How to embed quotes in your essay like a boss

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Quotations, better known though their abbreviation as 'quotes', are a form of evidence used in VCE essays.

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Simple overview of how to construct an argument

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Simple overview of how to construct an argument

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Creates a schedule and graphs to represent deadlines and progress

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Creates a schedule and graphs to represent deadlines and progress

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A Simple Word Count Planner for Authors, Writers, Students and Nanowrimo Participants

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Uses humorous examples

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The Word Factory - Get Your Words' Worth

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Writing Guide: Active v. passive voice - The Word Factory

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The Word Factory contributor and writing coach Peter Andersen explains the difference between passive and active voice in this fun guest post.

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How to avoid too many embedded clauses and dangling modifiers (wiht examples)

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Examples of dangling modifiers and confusing sentence phrasing

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Accidental comedy in grammar—dangling and misplaced modifiers - PenUltimate Editorial Services

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The inspiration for this blog post came a from a juice box. I was standing at the fridge one morning a few weeks ago, getting a drink of Sun-Rype juice—a well-known brand where I live—when I read the following on the side of the box: “Nestled in the heart of…

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Sentence frames for signposting throughout an essay

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Includes breakdown of each point including:

Introduction

Literature Review

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Reflection| Effective Learning Services | Queen Margaret University, Edinburgh

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Reflection| Effective Learning Services | Queen Margaret University, Edinburgh

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Overview, language, and structure of reflective writing

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Overview, language, and structure of reflective writing

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Academic reflections: tips, language and structure

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Reflecting privately is different to providing academic reflections. This section provides guidance and tips on how to approach formal reflections, and the language and structure to use.

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The do's and don't's of reflective writing with video explanation

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The do's and don't's of reflective writing with video explanation

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You can use reflective writing in many aspects of your work, study and even everyday life. The activities below all contain some aspect of reflective writing and are common to many people:

1. Job applications

Both preparing for and writing job applications contain elements of reflective writing. You need to think about the experience that makes you suitable for a role and this means reflection on the skills you have developed and how they might relate to the specification. When writing your application you need to expand on what you have done and explain what you have learnt and why this matters - key elements of reflective writing.

2. Appraisals

In a similar way, undertaking an appraisal is a good time to reflect back on a certain period of time in post. You might be asked to record what went well and why as well as identifying areas for improvement.

3. Written feedback

If you have made a purchase recently you are likely to have received a request for feedback. When you leave a review of a product or service online then you need to think about the pros and cons. You may also have gone into detail about why the product was so good or the service was so bad so other people know how to judge it in the future.

Blogs are a place to offer your own opinion and can be a really good place to do some reflective writing. Blogger often take a view on something and use their site as a way to share it with the world. They will often talk about the reasons why they like/dislike something - classic reflective writing.

5. During the research process

When researchers are working on a project they will often think about they way they are working and how it could be improved as well as considering different approaches to achieve their research goal. They will often record this in some way such as in a lab book and this questioning approach is a form of reflective writing.

6. In academic writing

Many students will be asked to include some form of reflection in an academic assignment, for example when relating a topic to their real life circumstances. They are also often asked to think about their opinion on or reactions to texts and other research and write about this in their own work.

Think about ... When you reflect

Think about all of the activities you do on a daily basis. Do any of these contain elements of reflective writing? Make a list of all the times you have written something reflective over the last month - it will be longer than you think!

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LibGuides: Reflective Practice Toolkit: Reflective writing

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LibGuides: Reflective Practice Toolkit: Reflective writing

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Gibb's Model of Reflection with example 

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Gibb's Model of Reflection with example 

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How to write annotated bibliographies at university. Includes guidance on how to structure them, what language and style to use, and how they are assessed.

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A guide to knowledge management systems and references

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A guide to knowledge management systems and references

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A sociology essay broken down and labelled

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A sociology essay broken down and labelled

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A sociology essay broken down and labelled

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At this point I was cosmically lucky. I stumbled across the most amazing resource, which I am about to share with you - the vlogs of Professor Tara Brabazon, who is the Dean of Graduate Research at Flinders University (an Oz institution who have a branch here in the UK) and who has devoted what must be hundreds of hours to basically answering almost any question that has ever caused any Post-Grad Researcher to wake up in a cold sweat in the middle of the night. I've barely managed to dent Prof. Brabazon's back catalogue, but I already worship her like the academic Goddess on Earth that she is. Her videos are And this one in particular made a lightbulb go off over my confused and flailing little head:

So how does OneNote (or another digital journal software with equivalent functionality) help with feeling lost, confused, and as if you're flailing about in the dark? It helps because it's incredibly simple and straightforward to use. The set-up is basically idiot-proof, and I can say that because I'm the idiot who tested it. But it also gives you the ability to divide your notes by topic - as suggested by Prof. Brabazon - as well as alphabetizing everything by author, AND allowing you to move things around, insert new references/authors if you need to without having to disorganise the existing notes you have. I'm going to try and show you how, below, with the aid of a few screenshots.

Here you can see my K-W page in the 'Time' section, where the Morten, Kate references end and the Winterson, Jeanette references begin. Hopefully several more writers will eventually live between them, as my reading moves on:

I like to set my author names and titles in a larger font to make them easier to find when scrolling. I also think it's a really, really good idea to put any typed quotes in bold (or a different font, or colour, whatever you like) so that it's completely impossible to mix up a quote with any paraphrasing, thoughts, or reactions you're moved to add on the page.

At this point I was cosmically lucky. I stumbled across the most amazing resource, which I am about to share with you - the vlogs of Professor Tara Brabazon, who is the Dean of Graduate Research at Flinders University (an Oz institution who have a branch here in the UK) and who has devoted what must be hundreds of hours to basically answering almost any question that has ever caused any Post-Grad Researcher to wake up in a cold sweat in the middle of the night. I've barely managed to dent Prof. Brabazon's back catalogue, but I already worship her like the academic Goddess on Earth that she is. Her videos are And this one in particular made a lightbulb go off over my confused and flailing little head:

So how does OneNote (or another digital journal software with equivalent functionality) help with feeling lost, confused, and as if you're flailing about in the dark? It helps because it's incredibly simple and straightforward to use. The set-up is basically idiot-proof, and I can say that because I'm the idiot who tested it. But it also gives you the ability to divide your notes by topic - as suggested by Prof. Brabazon - as well as alphabetizing everything by author, AND allowing you to move things around, insert new references/authors if you need to without having to disorganise the existing notes you have. I'm going to try and show you how, below, with the aid of a few screenshots.

Here you can see my K-W page in the 'Time' section, where the Morten, Kate references end and the Winterson, Jeanette references begin. Hopefully several more writers will eventually live between them, as my reading moves on:

I like to set my author names and titles in a larger font to make them easier to find when scrolling. I also think it's a really, really good idea to put any typed quotes in bold (or a different font, or colour, whatever you like) so that it's completely impossible to mix up a quote with any paraphrasing, thoughts, or reactions you're moved to add on the page.

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Flailing in the Dark: Getting a Grip as an Early Stage PhD Student

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Welcome back to An Eddying Flight, Dear Readers (and apologies in advance, as always, for Wix's formatting insanity - I've done my best!).

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Suggested Resources
Style Guide Overview MLA Guide APA Guide Chicago Guide OWL Exercises

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Summary:
This handout provides information about annotated bibliographies in MLA, APA, and CMS.

Overview

Below you will find sample annotations from annotated bibliographies, each with a different research project. Remember that the annotations you include in your own bibliography should reflect your research project and/or the guidelines of your assignment.

As mentioned elsewhere in this resource, depending on the purpose of your bibliography, some annotations may summarize, some may assess or evaluate a source, and some may reflect on the source's possible uses for the project at hand. Some annotations may address all three of these steps. Consider the purpose of your annotated bibliography and/or your instructor's directions when deciding how much information to include in your annotations.

Please keep in mind that all your text, including the write-up beneath the citation, must be indented so that the author's last name is the only text that is flush left.

Sample MLA Annotation

Lamott, Anne. Bird by Bird: Some Instructions on Writing and Life. Anchor Books, 1995.

Lamott's book offers honest advice on the nature of a writing life, complete with its insecurities and failures. Taking a humorous approach to the realities of being a writer, the chapters in Lamott's book are wry and anecdotal and offer advice on everything from plot development to jealousy, from perfectionism to struggling with one's own internal critic.

In the process, Lamott includes writing exercises designed to be both productive and fun. Lamott offers sane advice for those struggling with the anxieties of writing, but her main project seems to be offering the reader a reality check regarding writing, publishing, and struggling with one's own imperfect humanity in the process. Rather than a practical handbook to producing and/or publishing, this text is indispensable because of its honest perspective, its down-to-earth humor, and its encouraging approach.

Chapters in this text could easily be included in the curriculum for a writing class. Several of the chapters in Part 1 address the writing process and would serve to generate discussion on students' own drafting and revising processes. Some of the writing exercises would also be appropriate for generating classroom writing exercises. Students should find Lamott's style both engaging and enjoyable.

In the sample annotation above, the writer includes three paragraphs: a summary, an evaluation of the text, and a reflection on its applicability to his/her own research, respectively.

For information on formatting MLA citations, see our MLA 9th Edition (2021) Formatting and Style Guide.

Sample APA Annotation

Ehrenreich, B. (2001). Nickel and dimed: On (not) getting by in America. Henry Holt and Company.

In this book of nonfiction based on the journalist's experiential research, Ehrenreich attempts to ascertain whether it is currently possible for an individual to live on a minimum-wage in America. Taking jobs as a waitress, a maid in a cleaning service, and a Walmart sales employee, the author summarizes and reflects on her work, her relationships with fellow workers, and her financial struggles in each situation.

An experienced journalist, Ehrenreich is aware of the limitations of her experiment and the ethical implications of her experiential research tactics and reflects on these issues in the text. The author is forthcoming about her methods and supplements her experiences with scholarly research on her places of employment, the economy, and the rising cost of living in America. Ehrenreich's project is timely, descriptive, and well-researched.

The annotation above both summarizes and assesses the book in the citation. The first paragraph provides a brief summary of the author's project in the book, covering the main points of the work. The second paragraph points out the project's strengths and evaluates its methods and presentation. This particular annotation does not reflect on the source's potential importance or usefulness for this person's own research.

For information on formatting APA citations, see our APA Formatting and Style Guide.

Sample Chicago Manual of Style Annotation

Davidson, Hilda Ellis. Roles of the Northern Goddess. London: Routledge, 1998.

Davidson's book provides a thorough examination of the major roles filled by the numerous pagan goddesses of Northern Europe in everyday life, including their roles in hunting, agriculture, domestic arts like weaving, the household, and death. The author discusses relevant archaeological evidence, patterns of symbol and ritual, and previous research. The book includes a number of black and white photographs of relevant artifacts.

This annotation includes only one paragraph, a summary of the book. It provides a concise description of the project and the book's project and its major features.

For information on formatting Chicago Style citations, see our Chicago Manual of Style resources.

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Summary:
This handout provides information about annotated bibliographies in MLA, APA, and CMS.

Overview

Below you will find sample annotations from annotated bibliographies, each with a different research project. Remember that the annotations you include in your own bibliography should reflect your research project and/or the guidelines of your assignment.

As mentioned elsewhere in this resource, depending on the purpose of your bibliography, some annotations may summarize, some may assess or evaluate a source, and some may reflect on the source's possible uses for the project at hand. Some annotations may address all three of these steps. Consider the purpose of your annotated bibliography and/or your instructor's directions when deciding how much information to include in your annotations.

Please keep in mind that all your text, including the write-up beneath the citation, must be indented so that the author's last name is the only text that is flush left.

Sample MLA Annotation

Lamott, Anne. Bird by Bird: Some Instructions on Writing and Life. Anchor Books, 1995.

Lamott's book offers honest advice on the nature of a writing life, complete with its insecurities and failures. Taking a humorous approach to the realities of being a writer, the chapters in Lamott's book are wry and anecdotal and offer advice on everything from plot development to jealousy, from perfectionism to struggling with one's own internal critic.

In the process, Lamott includes writing exercises designed to be both productive and fun. Lamott offers sane advice for those struggling with the anxieties of writing, but her main project seems to be offering the reader a reality check regarding writing, publishing, and struggling with one's own imperfect humanity in the process. Rather than a practical handbook to producing and/or publishing, this text is indispensable because of its honest perspective, its down-to-earth humor, and its encouraging approach.

Chapters in this text could easily be included in the curriculum for a writing class. Several of the chapters in Part 1 address the writing process and would serve to generate discussion on students' own drafting and revising processes. Some of the writing exercises would also be appropriate for generating classroom writing exercises. Students should find Lamott's style both engaging and enjoyable.

In the sample annotation above, the writer includes three paragraphs: a summary, an evaluation of the text, and a reflection on its applicability to his/her own research, respectively.

For information on formatting MLA citations, see our MLA 9th Edition (2021) Formatting and Style Guide.

Sample APA Annotation

Ehrenreich, B. (2001). Nickel and dimed: On (not) getting by in America. Henry Holt and Company.

In this book of nonfiction based on the journalist's experiential research, Ehrenreich attempts to ascertain whether it is currently possible for an individual to live on a minimum-wage in America. Taking jobs as a waitress, a maid in a cleaning service, and a Walmart sales employee, the author summarizes and reflects on her work, her relationships with fellow workers, and her financial struggles in each situation.

An experienced journalist, Ehrenreich is aware of the limitations of her experiment and the ethical implications of her experiential research tactics and reflects on these issues in the text. The author is forthcoming about her methods and supplements her experiences with scholarly research on her places of employment, the economy, and the rising cost of living in America. Ehrenreich's project is timely, descriptive, and well-researched.

The annotation above both summarizes and assesses the book in the citation. The first paragraph provides a brief summary of the author's project in the book, covering the main points of the work. The second paragraph points out the project's strengths and evaluates its methods and presentation. This particular annotation does not reflect on the source's potential importance or usefulness for this person's own research.

For information on formatting APA citations, see our APA Formatting and Style Guide.

Sample Chicago Manual of Style Annotation

Davidson, Hilda Ellis. Roles of the Northern Goddess. London: Routledge, 1998.

Davidson's book provides a thorough examination of the major roles filled by the numerous pagan goddesses of Northern Europe in everyday life, including their roles in hunting, agriculture, domestic arts like weaving, the household, and death. The author discusses relevant archaeological evidence, patterns of symbol and ritual, and previous research. The book includes a number of black and white photographs of relevant artifacts.

This annotation includes only one paragraph, a summary of the book. It provides a concise description of the project and the book's project and its major features.

For information on formatting Chicago Style citations, see our Chicago Manual of Style resources.

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Style Guide Overview MLA Guide APA Guide Chicago Guide OWL Exercises This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice. Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved.

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Also stating how it is different from a literature review

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Annotated bibliography - Oxford Brookes University

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An annotated bibliography is a list of academic sources (books, journal articles, etc.) with short comments underneath each source that summarise their content and evaluate their usefulness for a research purpose.

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Includes written and visual examples

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Whether you're taking notes from lectures or from your reading, there are a number of possible approaches to explore.

Choosing your tools

Once you've identified why you're taking notes and what you need to take notes of, think about what tool would best help you achieve your purpose. You might not use the same tool every time: some are better than others depending on the job you want them to do. As you experiment with different ones, think about their pros and cons: what are they really good for and what are they not so good for?

Paper versus digital

When it comes to tools, you have a decision between paper or digital. Think about your own personal preferences and needs here, as well as how you will store and use your notes. Whatever medium you choose, be wary of perfectionist tendencies. It can be counter-productive to spend ages painstakingingly producing a polished set of notes.

Paper may be better if:

You want to prompt your critical and creative thinking by capturing your initial thoughts about your reading either in very rough prose or by doodling or freewriting

Avoid the distractions of social media etc. when you are readingor listening to a lecture or video

You sometimes confuse your own notes with someone else's words or ideas when copying and pasting between the original and your own document

Consider what size paper would serve you best, lined or unlined, which orientation and whether bound in a note-book or looseleaf

Digital may be better if:

You feel you need to produce a very neat, ordered set of notes

You would like to take advantage of software to aid the notetaking process, like the speech to text function, more flexible organisation or searchability

You want to have easy access to all of your notes on a portable device wherever you choose to study

There are too many note-taking apps available for us to review and recommend them here, but do explore and ask your peers for suggestions.

It may be that you don't decide to use either one or the other but a blend of the two. For instance, you might find it useful to use digital tools and software to record, store and re-play key facts and possibly points of action. You may then use paper and pens to jot down your thinking about these initial notes and how you may use them in your assignments.

Organising your notes

Whether you prefer to use the format of paper and pencil or digital, or both, the strategies below can be adapted to suit your own style and preferences:

Colour: the use of colour might be helpful to not only categorise, but also draw your attention to different aspects of your notes if/when you revisit them at a later date.

Symbols and/or images: the use of symbols or images might be used to represent information, ideas, connections or questions in a different way. Highlighting aspects of your notes in different ways may provide an aid to more easily recalling or locating this information or may provide a way of creatively engaging with the literature you have read.

Space: leaving space in or around your notes might be useful if you revisit them so you amend information and/or thinking.

Choosing your strategy

The next step is to choose how you will take notes. There are several strategies to explore. As always, think about what would best help you achieve your purpose and what you will be using your notes for. Again, you may switch between different strategies depending on your purpose.

Standard Linear Notes

Linear notes are written in a list-like format down the page and organised according to numbered points or headings and subheadings.

Useful for:

Analytical tasks: arguments and processes can be broken down into subsections with further definitions and explanations.

Processing your learning: your memory finds it easier to recall structures, which can then act as a prompt to recall further detail (especially if you use punchy words for key headings or ideas).

Keeping track: this strategy can help you follow the order of the lecture or text you're reading so you can see how arguments are built and developed, or note the key points from each section of a paper. This may be useful if you are summarising a text or lecture.

Diagram / non-linear notes

These notes typically start from a main idea to which you can add related information or concepts, using lines to show relationships between them. Turning your page to landscape may help to maximise space although page orientation may depend on the style of notes and/or personal preferences.

There are several versions of these notetaking techniques:

Mind maps (also called spider diagrams) contain key words or phrases in bubbles at the end of lines or on a line itself which can then lead to further lines or sub-branches.

Pattern notes look like mind maps, but build in mnemonic (memory) triggers, such as doodles, cartoons and symbols, around key points.

Nuclear notes combine the structured aspect of linear notetaking with the visual representation of mind maps by connecting several lists to the central idea. Sketchnoting uses a much freer layout more like a graphic novel and greater use of doodles, graphics and hand drawn images and scenes to capture ideas and structures.

Concept maps appear like a hierarchical family tree, showing ideas branching down from a central idea at the top of the page. The lines between the ideas might have a phrase explaining the connection.

Useful for:

Getting analytical: this strategy can help you move beyond the original structure towards creating your own order and connections between ideas. Additionally, because of the way these notes are spatially organised, they can help you think through or explain the causal connections between ideas.

Processing your learning: good for getting an overview of lots of information and how it all links together. Visualising notes and how ideas are connected can act as an aide memoire for what you have learnt. The process of rearranging linear notes into non-linear helps commit the ideas you are dealing with into the long-term memory. Rather than passively rewriting notes, you are reformulating them meaning that you are actively engaging with the information.

SQ3R (or SQRRR)

SQ3R stands for: suvey, question, read, retrieve, review. It is a technique for note-making when reading, but could also work well for videoed lectures. It involves the following steps:

Survey: skim the text (or watch the video) to get an outline/overview and develop a sense of which parts or sections might be useful. Note any headings and subheadings, along with things like figures, tables and summaries.

Question: now that you have a sense of what content the text covers, what questions do you have to help lead you to do a deeper understanding? Your question could be "what does that particular term mean?" or "how might I use that information?"

Read: now you have specific questions in mind, you will be able to read (or watch the video) actively in order to find the answers.

Retrieve: begin processing and understanding the material by recalling the main points as if you were explaining them to someone else. You could do this verbally or in writing

Review: review the material by repeating the key points back to yourself in your own words.

Useful for:

Keeping on track: by prompting you to formulate specific questions you'd like your reading to address or to engage with in the lecture, this strategy encourages you to read strategically and actively, and can help you stay focused.

Processing your learning: putting what you've read into your own words is a good way of developing and checking your understanding. This can help you move away from mere recall towards a deeper conceptual understanding.

Cornell method / pplit page format

This method involves splitting the page into two columns, with the right column roughly twice the width of the left (this can also be done digitally). Detailed notes are written in the right column, and afterwards, key points, reflections, cues or questions can be noted in the left column. Space at the bottom of the page can be used to add a final summary.

Useful for:

Developing your own thinking:having a response column alongside a column for detail and quotes allows your thoughts and reflections to be clearly separated from the reading or lecture.

Processing your learning: using paper to cover the right (notetaking) column, you canuse the information in the left column as prompts to help you remember the detail or answers to the questions. Or cover both right and left column and use the summary as a prompt to jog your memory.

Critical notetaking: talking back to the text

Building an argument of your own means reading not just for information, but for your own response to that information. That means that successful notetaking has an element of critical thinking.

When you're making notes from reading, try to record not just what the text says, but your own reaction to it.

Is it relevant for your purpose? How and where might you use it in your own essay?

What do you think of it? Is the point convincingly argued and well evidenced?

Do you agree or disagree with it?

How does it relate to other things you've read? Does it support, add to, contradict or show a different perspective to other texts?

Is there anything you don't understand or need to know more about?

Critical note-making means talking back to the text, having a dialogue with it. You could annotate it with your own questions and comments in the margin or in your own notes as you go, to record your response to it.

Useful for:

Getting analytical: this method encourages you to think critically about a text, instead of merely mining it for information

Processing your learning: talking back to the text encourages you to read actively rather than passively, thus helping you process and apply your learning as well as develop your critical thinking skills.

Other strategies

You may also come across other strategies, which are useful for particular purposes rather than an overall approach:

Matrix Notes This is a tabular notetaking method where columns and rows are organised according to ideas or themes. Information is added in the cells where the rows and columns intersect. This is a handy method of recording different approaches to an issue and encouraging analysis of similarity and difference.

Herringbone Maps These notes are structured like a fish skeleton and are a useful way for noting two sides of an argument. The main idea can be written on the 'spine' with different points written on either side on the bones which connect to the spine.

Flowcharts and Timeline Notes These techniques are an effective way to indicate processes or sequence of events.

Reflecting on your chosen approach

Whichever tool or strategy you use, you could do a SWOT analysis of its "affordances" (what functions it has and what they enable you to do) to see how well it serves your needs:

Whatever format of making and taking notes you use, consider the reasons and purposes for your approach. Is your current approach enabling you to effectively record what you need to help you construct your assignment or revise for exams, for instance? Are there aspects of your current approach which you think could be further developed? Are there other approaches you might like to try?

Download this guide as a PDF

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Whether you're taking notes from lectures or from your reading, there are a number of possible approaches to explore. Once you've identified why you're taking notes and what you need to take notes of, think about what tool would best help you achieve your purpose.