# data[].attributes.headline
1965, Elementary and Secondary Education Act

# data[].attributes.subject
1965, Elementary and Secondary Education Act

# data[].attributes.body
The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA), signed by Lyndon B. Johnson, brought education to the forefront and was a critical piece of Johnson’s “War on Poverty”.  ESEA funds primary and secondary schools in the areas of professional development and the purchasing of instructional resources and materials.  ESEA also promoted parental involvement within the school systems. A key provision of ESEA was the creation of Title I.  Title I is a program that distributes funding to districts, or specific schools within a district, with a high percentage of low income families.  Title I accounts for 5/6ths of the funds distributed by ESEA, and was established to attempt to close the education gap, specifically in reading, writing and mathematics. At the time, the biggest disparities in education were due to the separate but equal ideas established prior to 1954's Brown v Board of Education, for this reason many associate ESEA with the civil rights movement, as it directly helped to desegregate the south, along with the recently passed Civil Rights Act of 1964. Shortly after the roll out of Title I, Title II which focused on the funding of preschool programs, libraries, and purchasing books for schools, and Title III, which focused more on adult education.

Paul, C. A. (2016). Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965. Social Welfare History Project. Retrieved from https://socialwelfare.library.vcu.edu/programs/education/elementary-and-secondary-education-act-of-1965/

Aaliyah Dunson

# data[].attributes.body
During the 1960s there were protests and uprisings regarding many things, and  on November 6, 1968, students, led by the Black Students Union and the Third World Liberation Front at San Francisco College, went on strike. The two main things that they were protesting was the cost of admission that made it impossible for students of color to attend and curriculum that was irrelevant to students of all races.  Students, staff, and community members protested and chanted on campus, classes were canceled, and as the protests escalated, hundreds were injured and/or arrested. This strike lasted five long months which is still regarded as the longest student-led strike in history.

Thanks to the strike, the university became committed to social justice and equity among all students and faculty.  In 1969,  Kenneth P. Monteiro, the new dean of the College of Ethnic Studies, was quoted in saying “A lot of universities pay lip service to it, but it’s very unusual for a university to put out a (strategic plan) stating that its number one goal is equity and social justice.” No more is tuition unattainable and curriculum invaluable to those of color.  Classes in a variety of cultural and gay and lesbian studies can now be found on their course list.  There are courses that appeal and apply to any individual that is interested.

Not only have these changes been seen at the San Francisco College, but they have led the way for all institutions to make the changes necessary to provide equity and social justice for all.

Remembering the Strike | SF State Magazine. (n.d.). https://magazine.sfsu.edu/archive/archive/fall_08/strike.html

Melissa Hutson

# data[].attributes.body
In 1980, Stuart Hall, a prominent cultural theorist, published his essay "Encoding/Decoding" which became a foundational text in the field of cultural studies, including Critical Cultural Studies in Education (Hall, 1980). In this essay, Hall introduced the concept of encoding and decoding in media communication. He argued that media messages are encoded with dominant ideologies by producers but are decoded by audiences in various ways, sometimes challenging or subverting these dominant ideologies. This concept was significant for Critical Cultural Studies in Education as it emphasized the importance of understanding how cultural texts, including educational materials, can be interpreted differently based on the social, cultural, and historical contexts of the audience. Hall's work highlighted the role of education in critically engaging with media messages and decoding them to uncover underlying power structures and ideologies. His ideas have influenced critical pedagogy and media literacy education, encouraging educators to teach students to critically analyze and decode media messages to develop a more nuanced understanding of society and culture.

Reference:

Hall, S. (1980). Encoding/Decoding. In S. Hall, D. Hobson, A. Lowe, & P. Willis (Eds.), Culture, Media, Language: Working Papers in Cultural Studies, 1972-79 (pp. 128-138). Hutchinson.

-Carli Nordholz

# data[].attributes.body
In 1837, Horace Mann became a secretary for the first Massachusetts Board of Education. His job was to collect and distribute information about public schools. Mann wrote twelve famous reports on public education. The first one being in 1837 on his views and how he felt public education should be reformed. He was the one who came up with the idea of common schools. Common schools were Mann’s way of unifying education. He felt that every child should be able to get a free education no matter race or social status. Mann also brought forth that teachers were underpaid and in order for them to give adequate education, they needed to be adequately trained. In 1838, Mann’s goal was to reform education so that it protected the nation’s democracy. If teachers were not able to provide substantial education, then the children would not be educated enough in the nation and democracy would fail. Horace Mann felt that if equitable education was not reached there would be social and economic cliques which would cause conflicts among the groups.(Rodriguez, 2022) The reports that Horace Mann wrote and shared publicly about public education, was his way of helping reform public education. He wanted public education for everyone and therefore “Common Schools” were created.

Courtney Matlock

Rodriguez, E. (2022, November 26). Horace Mann: A Man Behind Public Education – StMU Research Scholars. StMU Research Scholars. Retrieved February 12, 2024, from https://stmuscholars.org/horace-mann-a-man-behind-public-education/

# data[].attributes.body
The Smith Hughes Vocational Act of 1917 was created to promote vocational education in the industrial trades, home economics (home making) and agricultural studies. Federal funding was provided with stipulations of how the funds should be used. This meant intentional isolation of these vocational areas from the rest of the curriculum. Federal Boards of Vocational Education were created to oversee the disbursement and operations at each state level. The act came about because in the late 19th century, at a time when several labor unions and business stakeholders lobbied for a solution to the skilled labor shortages that existed. The act was created through modifying and expanding the Smith- Lever Act of 1914. The hope was that, with more vocational training and courses, major gaps in finding skilled laborers would be lessened. The rapid industrialization of society at that time had employers battling with the labor unions over the training of industrial workers. The Smith Hughes Act succeeded in expanding vocational education throughout the country. Subsequent federal laws have been developed to further promote vocational education. The integration of Career and Technical Education (CTAE) courses we currently have in different schools across the country are as a result of gains made from the inception of the act.

Ridgway (2023) Impact of Career and Technical Education Among High School Students in Texas. https://athenaeum.uiw.edu/uiw_etds/414

Wirth, A. G. (1972). Charles A. Prosser and the Smith-Hughes Act. In The Educational Forum (Vol. 36, No. 3, pp. 365-371). https://doi.org/10.1080/00131727209338992

by: Alexia Nelson

# data[].attributes.body
Federal Indian Boarding School Initiative

"Secretary of the Interior, Deb Haaland, who is herself a member of the Laguna Pueblo tribe, created the Federal Indian Boarding School Initiative in June 2021 ... Secretary Haaland ordered an investigation into the history of the Indian boarding schools in the U.S., which culminated in the release of a report by the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs on May 11, 2022.32 The report documents that between 1819 and 1969, thousands of Indigenous children in the U.S. were forcibly removed from their families and sent to boarding schools" (Tsosie, 2023, p.5).

Although long overdue, this is definitely a significant event that impacts critical cultural studies in education as it documents the many atrocities committed against Native Americans in the name of "Education" in American Boarding Schools. It is only by acknowledging these atrocities that we can begin to attempt to right the wrongs of the past.

Tsosie, R. (2023). Accountability for the Harms of Indigenous Boarding Schools: The Challenge of “Healing the Persisting Wounds” of “Historic Injustice.” Southwestern Law Review, 52(1), 20–39.

Post By Amber Bentley

# data[].attributes.body
Ruth Batson served as the chairperson of the Education Committee for the NAACP. Batson was a prominent figure in the community and a champion of civil rights, advocating for improved educational opportunities and fighting against the systemic injustice faced by African American communities in Boston. On June 11, 1963, she delivered a speech before the Boston school board, leaving a lasting impact on the history of American education. She advocated for establishing connections between the school and college to discern the misconceptions surrounding the education of black pupils from the actual facts. Additionally, she urged for reducing classroom sizes and ensuring that literature provide an explicit portrayal of individuals from diverse racial backgrounds. Her most meaningful statement that day was, "Just as an effective teacher tailors their program to meet the needs of each child, the school administration must adapt their curriculum to suit the specific requirements of each district." Baton discusses the cultural aspects of residing in a ghetto and how this particular living environment gives rise to distinct requirements. During an era when the majority of American women were satisfied with their roles as wives, mothers, and homemakers, Batson defied this conventional female role by actively voicing her opinions and advocating for crucial reforms in Boston's public schools and civil rights, even before the emergence of a formal "movement" in the city.

Fraser, J. W. (2019). The school in the United States a documentary history. Routledge.

-Nicole Wilkes

# data[].attributes.body
In 1964 Executive order 10925 was issued by President John F. Kennedy. The executive order "instructed those businesses that received government contracts to take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed, and that employees are treated during employment, without regard to race, creed, color, or national origin"(Eller. 2015. p.50). This order became known as Affirmative Action. According to Eller, "this philosophy of affirmative action was premised on the historical and informal disadvantages that prevented non-whites from achieving equality, even when the formal barriers had been removed"(Eller. 2015. p.50). Affirmative action affected the areas of jobs and education. Colleges adopted affirmative action policies for admission and one such policy was challenged in the 1978 Supreme Court Case Regents of the University of California v. Bakke. In it's ruling the Supreme Court stated that "it was indeed acceptable to use race as one factor in selecting candidates for admission"(Eller. 2015. p.51).

Affirmative Action being enacted was a big step towards equality in America. Many people of color, especially Blacks had been denied opportunities at a higher education in some schools simply because of their skin color. Affirmative Action opened the door for a more equal higher educated population. Affirmative Action is very controversial and some people feel that it is unnecessary or results in reverse discrimination. In 1996, California's Proposition 209 ended affirmative action practices in the state. Eller writes, "the effects of prohibiting affirmative action or race-based admissions in colleges have been mixed by race, state, and by institution. There was almost always a drop in minority enrollment immediately after such bans"(Eller. 2015. p.52). As accepting as society is, one would think that policies like affirmative action are no longer necessary. The reality is that discrimination is still practiced and measures should be in place to prevent it.

Eller, Jack D. Culture and Diversity in the United States. 2015. pp.36-51.

Benjamin Martin

# data[].attributes.body
The discipline of cultural studies came about in the 1960's with the help of several scholars. Richard Hoggart is credited as being one of the four main founders. He along with the three other founders, challenged that culture was more than a distinction and complicated concepts and that several elements within a society needed to be studied in order to fully comprehend its development.

He was a prominent and influential figure in reshaping the cultural landscape. This he achieved by being intensely involved in projects on working class education. By 'culture' Hoggart meant what was the thought process of working-class people, the way they speak, what language and commonalities they share, what social attitude influence their daily habits and what moral categories do they employ to make judgement about their own behavior.

Richard worked in the fields of Sociology, English Literature and Cultural Studies. He coined cultural studies and created the Birmingham Center for Contemporary Cultural Studies in 1964. His work in media, gave him a good grasp of culture and he served on numerous public bodies and committees including Arts Council of Great Britain (1976 - 1981).

Hoggart worked at Goldsmiths, University of London between 1976 - 1984. The main building there has been renamed "Richard Hoggart Building in honour of the contributions that he has made to the college.

He was written several books with emphasis on culture, communication and society. In one of the books "The Way We Live Now" (1995 )Hoggart stated that he regretted the decline in moral authority,

that religion once provided. He was born on September 24, 1918 and died on August 10, 2014 at the age of 95.

Ferguson, A., White, D., Levitas, J (2023) Cultural Studies | Definitions, Theories & History

https://study.com/learn/lesson/cultural-studies-overview-theory.html

http://pages.gseis.ulca.edu>CSSt99

http://www.birminham.ac.uk>richardhogggart

http://www.gold.ac.uk>honorands

By: Lelleith Nembhard

# data[].attributes.body
The Common School movement was America’s first view of today’s public education.  This movement offered federally funded free public education for all children.  A significant supporter of the creation of public schools during this time was Horace Mann.  Mann was known as the “Father of the Common School” and set out to create free, public education using tax dollars for the children in his state of Massachusetts.  He believed that youth in America should be invested in to help promote them into good citizens of the country.  This would be a way to strengthen the country as a whole.  The Common school would allow all children, no matter their race or religion, the opportunity to attend.

Students were taught mostly by female teachers.  Mann’s daughter, Catherine Beecher, was an advocate for women and worked to recruit and train teachers for service. Students were taught the 3 R’s: reading, writing, and arithmetic as well as history, grammar, and geography.  Morals based on protestant views were included as Horace Mann felt that this was a good foundation for the country and “instill civic virtues” (Kober & Renter, 2020).

Mann’s efforts in education reform provided a model for public education and influenced other states to follow suit.  By 1870, all the states had some form of public education available to students.

Kober, N., & Renter, D. S. (2020). History and evolution of public education In the US. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED606970.pdf

By: Amy Hadden

# data[].attributes.body
In 2022, Georgia joined the ranks of states who passed laws banning “critical race theory” or “divisive concepts” from classrooms.  Georgia’s “Divisive Concepts” law (previously known as HB1084) prohibits the ideas of racism or systemic racism and any superiority or inferiority associated with race from curriculum, classroom instruction or training programs. Teachers cannot be required to attend training on addressing systemic racism (presumably because it does not exist and therefore does not need to be addressed). Teachers are also not allowed to teach any race related concept which might make a student feel “anguish, guilt, or any other psychological distress” (What is in Georgia's classroom censorship law 2022).  According to Governor Brian Kemp, the law “protects the fundamental rights of moms and dads across this state to direct the education of their child” (Bernstein, 2022).

Although the “Divisive Concepts” law specifically talks about race, it has been used to remove material from schools related to sexual orientation. For instance, as a result of banning eight titles which are largely LGBTQ or non-white themed from media center shelves, Forsyth County Schools was found to have a “hostile environment” by the US Department of  Education. Additionally, the same district requested that an author visiting elementary schools not mention that a person related to his narrative had a gay son  (Amy, 2023).

Georgia is one of many Republican or Republican leaning states which have passed laws restricting the teaching of and access to non-white and non-heterosexual ideas and materials. This directly targets students of minority groups, making them feel less welcome and less safe in their classrooms.

Citations

Amy, J. (2023, September 20). A Batman researcher said “gay” in a talk to schoolkids. when asked to censor himself, he quit. AP News. https://apnews.com/article/dont-say-gay-georgia-batman-187446af4b03ac9a4b8fc4757852b446

Bernstein, S. (2022, April 28). Georgia becomes latest U.S. state to ban “divisive” concepts in ... Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/us/georgia-becomes-latest-us-state-ban-divisive-concepts-teaching-about-race-2022-04-28/

Forsyth County book ban possible hostile environment - Dept of ... 11Alive. (2023, May 23). https://www.11alive.com/article/news/education/forsyth-county-school-library-book-removals-hostile-environment-department-of-education/85-01f45446-ddf5-472c-9b94-1a3afe135741

What is in Georgia’s classroom censorship law. IDRA. (2022, May 20). https://www.idra.org/resource-center/what-is-in-georgias-classroom-censorship-law/

MLiming

# data[].attributes.body
For my theorist I chose Edward Sapir because I found the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis very interesting. I specifically wanted to dig deeper into Edward Sapir, because he was the primary founded of the hypothesis, and how his work contributed to the educational field.

Edward Sapir was an influential linguist and anthropologist. He emphasized the importance of language and culture in shaping individual identities as well as social structures. His theories highlighted the interconnectedness of language, thought and culture. His ideals supported providing a foundation for understanding and embracing diversity as well as promoting cultural awareness and acceptance in education. Additionally, his ideals have influenced multiculturalism in education emphasizing the need for educators to recognize and respect diverse cultures within their classroom.

Victoria Brown

Source

Van Winkle, Barrik. “Edward Sapir: Linguist, Anthropologist, Humanist.” The American Indian Quarterly, vol. 16, no. 4, 1992

# data[].attributes.body
1975 Education for Handicapped Children Act (EHA, now IDEA)

The Education for all Handicapped children Act (EHA) was enacted in 1975.  It has since been renamed Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) in 1990 and has undergone several revisions.   Students with disabilities were not allowed to participate in public education, some states had laws that purposely excluded children with disabilities from going to school.  Children with disabilities were forced into institutions for the disabled or were educated at home. This philosophy is likely motivated by the early purpose of curriculum in schools; to educate students to contribute to society for economic sustainability (Null, 2017).  This focus and purpose of education would exclude children with disabilities from participating in public education.  As the landscape in America evolved people sought equal opportunities for the education of their children.  Children with disabilities should not be excluded from education but should be provided the opportunity to learn just as their peers.   The EHA/IDEA law enacted has produced change in teacher training programs to improve necessary teacher skills to facilitate practices that increase the learning opportunities for students with disabilities.  There has also been the development of programs to aid in teaching students with more severe disabilities skills that can be used in the workforce.  An article by Jericha Hobson suggests that we can increase our cultural competency for disabled students by similar means that we have increased cultural competency in areas of race and ethnicity (Hopson, 2019).

References

Hobson, J (2019). Disability as culture. Multicultural Education, 27(1), 22-24.

Null, W. (2017). Curriculum: From theory to practice. Rowman & Littlefield.

Melissa Green

# data[].attributes.body
In 1829, the Perkins School for the Blind opened. This was the first school in the United States that was created to serve those who are blind, visually impaired, and deafblind by providing an opportunity for education, literacy, and independence. The school was chartered by Dr. John Fisher after observing the educational practices for people who are blind in France. The school began in the home of the first director’s father. As enrollment grew, the school moved into a larger home. In less than ten years, there were over 65 students enrolled. Because of this, the school moved into a hotel building in South Boston. The school was named for Thomas Handasyd Perkins who sold his house and used the money to pay for the school. In 1837, Laura Bridgman became the first documented person who is deafblind to be educated. Another significant event was in 1887 Anne Sullivan graduated and began to teach Helen Keller. Prior to this amazing opportunity, people who were blind were viewed as less than and often ended up as homeless beggars on the streets. The school went on to collaborate with Harvard University to create a teacher preparation program to educate people who are blind. Still today this school is working to serve and educate people who are blind, visually impaired, and deafblind.

Lindsey Yelton

Our history. Perkins School for the Blind. (2023, January 26). https://www.perkins.org/our-history/#:~:text=Perkins%20School%20for%20the%20Blind%2C%20founded%20in%201829%2C%20was%20the,blind%2C%20visually%20impaired%20and%20deafblind

# data[].attributes.body
On May 17th this ruling stated that separate educational facilities are inherently unequal. 12 black families filed a lawsuit alleging that its segregation policy was unconstitutional. This lawsuit initiated the integration process in schools and shaped American education into what it is now. After this ruling, the civil rights movement in the United States was fueled. Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat a year after this ruling. Dr. Martin Luther King was marching through the United States, and the Jim Crow laws in the South were eventually toppled. This case caused more than ⅓ of all U.S schools to segregate by law, and more and more cases came after this ruling that shaped America. This ruling has affected today’s education. All students should have the same opportunities and resources as others do. I see it in the county I work in right now. If one school gets a new scoreboard, every school in the county gets the same thing. Every student that attends our school gets the same funding, resources, and availability to education as the other. It doesn’t matter if they are a special education student in a wheelchair or an ESOL student who just moved to our area. This ruling in 1954 still has an impact today.

Tracey, L. (2023, May 17). Brown v. Board of Education: Annotated. JSTOR Daily. https://daily.jstor.org/brown-v-board-of-education-annotated/

Daniel Carlisle

# data[].attributes.body
National Defense Education Act goal was to enable the country's educational system to meet the demands posed by national security needs (Hunt, 2023). This movement wanted to reform education with the U.S. federal government. They wanted to bring importance to math science, and foreign languages. These content areas were considered to be low-achieving for students. The government started to help in hopes to increase education beyond high school. Their way of helping included grants, scholarships, and more. The legitimacy of federal funding of higher education and made substantial funds available for low-cost student loans, boosting public/private colleges/universities (Hunt, 2023). This act was influenced by Sputnik (1957). Citizens feared the education in the Soviet Union was superior to that in the US. Congress reacted by adding the act to bring US schools up to speed. I never thought about the government in that aspect. There is a lot of government assistance, but in this Act it plays a huge role to increase specific areas of education. Today, the most important content areas are ELA and math. These act sheds light on different cultural groups.

Hunt, T. C. (2023, August 26). National Defense Education Act. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/National-Defense-Education-Act

By: Kayla Green

# data[].attributes.body
On May 17th, the U.S. Supreme Court announces its decision in the case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, ruling that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal," and therefore laws that impose them violate the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, therefore, overturning its previous ruling in the 1896 case of Plessey v. Ferguson. The case originated in 1951 when the public school system in Topeka, Kansas refused to enroll local black resident Oliver Brown's daughter at the school closest to their home, instead requiring her to ride a bus to a segregated black school farther away. The Browns and twelve other local black families in similar situations filed a class-action lawsuit in U.S. federal court against the Topeka Board of Education, alleging that its segregation policy was unconstitutional. They were represented by NAACP counsel, Thurgood Marshall. The unanimous decision initiated the process of integration in schools across the country.

This event plays a critical role in cultural studies because it remains one of the most impactful decisions in Supreme Court history and has shaped American education.

The Equity Collaborative. (2022, January 28). Educational Oppression Timeline | The Equity Collaborative. https://theequitycollaborative.com/resources/educational-oppression-timeline/

By: Ashley Upshaw

# data[].attributes.body
Wesleyan Female College, the first degree-granting women’s college in the world, was chartered in 1836 (Huff 2019). During the 1820s, female activists began campaigning against slavery, alcohol, and other issues. They also began calling for reform in the area of education for women. Some male activists joined in and called for the creation of colleges for women that offered the same courses as other colleges for men. In 1836, Wesleyan Female College was chartered and experienced its first graduating class in 1840. The school paved the way for women’s education during that time, extending courses to women that were previously only offered to men. The college experienced substantial growth and change during the early part of the twentieth century, and in 1917 “Female” was removed from the name. The school has since been known as Wesleyan College.

Reference:

Huff, Christopher. "Wesleyan College." New Georgia Encyclopedia, last modified Apr 30, 2019. https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/education/wesleyan-college/

By: Theresa Spence

# data[].attributes.body
The Federal Department of Education was created because it helped establish a national standard for education in which all students had an equal opportunity to an education. States were required to have the best practices to ensure that all citizens could receive a valued education. The primary purpose of the Department of Education was to collect information on schools and to provide the best teaching strategies among all school systems (U.S. Department of Education, 2021). Students needed to have access to the same information and teachings as those of the elites.

The “Official mission of the Department of Education was to ensure equal access to education and to promote educational excellence throughout the Nation (U.S. Department of Education, 2021).” Up to this point, the education system was disproportionate because of the social status gap between the rich and the poor. The children of the rich were taught, while the children of the poor were not given equal opportunities to improve their education.  Most of the teaching took place at home, and students were not provided with the same type of schooling provided to the elite class in Latin schools. The elite class could send their sons to learn more than the basics (Chen, 2012). This only gave the notion that the rich would continue to prosper while the poor students would remain in the same class. The opportunities provided to the poor were limited and unjust compared to the students who came from educated and wealthy households.

Chen, G. (2012, January 22). A Relevant History of Public Education in the United States | PublicSchoolReview.com. Public School Review. https://www.publicschoolreview.com/blog/a-relevant-history-of-public-education-in-the-united-states

U.S. Department of Education. (2021). Federal role in education. U.S. Department of Education. http://www.ed.gov/about/overview/fed/role.html

By: Yenice Solis

# data[].attributes.body
The introduction of mandatory schooling changed the way we view children, their needs, and their potential. In 1852, Massachusetts became the first state to make schooling mandatory for all children between the ages of eight and fourteen. While the required time in school was limited to twelve weeks per year, six of which had to be consecutive, the attempt to regulate education for all students is significant. According to Race Forward (2023), the purpose was to assimilate immigrants and turn them into good employees. While that may be true, the overall impact of the law was the improvement of educational opportunity for the children of Massachusetts and the rest of the country.

The original law required parents to pay up to a $20.00 fine if their child was truant, but it did allow for impoverished or disabled children to be exempt from the law of attendance. While these are not necessarily admirable exemptions today, particularly when we know that those living in poverty are most in need of community services, the fact that a law requiring education for children and a punishment if parents didn’t comply set the stage for modern educational expectations and opportunities and also helped put an end to unfair and unsafe child labor traditions. Significantly, over the next several decades, more states would follow suit and require children to attend school. The states that required education had literacy rates of over 90% by the 1870s. States that did not require schooling had literacy rates of roughly 55%, implying that requiring schooling would raise literacy rates, thus economic and educational opportunity, reducing poverty (Encylopedia.com, 2023). The introduction of compulsory education laws revolutionized education in the United States and provided opportunity for those whose families could not provide it to their children themselves.

References:

"An Act Concerning the Attendance of Children at School ." Social Policy: Essential Primary Sources. . Retrieved January 08, 2024 from Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/applied-and-social-sciences-magazines/act-concerning-attendance-children-school

Race Forward (2023). Historical timeline of public education in the US. Retrieved February 4, 2024, from https://www.raceforward.org/reports/education/historical-timeline-public-education-us

By Elizabeth Rousseau

# data[].attributes.body
Spelman College was founded in 1881 by two white women from New England, Sophia B. Packard and Harriet E. Giles, Spelman College is the oldest and most renowned black liberal arts college for women in the nation. Their choice of Georgia was influenced by its significant Black Baptist population and the limited educational opportunities for Black women and girls in the state. Originally from New England, the founders left their home to provide education and Christian training to this underserved community.

On April 11, 1881, they officially began the Atlanta Baptist Female Seminary in the basement of Friendship Baptist Church. According to Lefever (2005), the founders started with 11 students of varying ages and abilities, some of whom were illiterate. Packard and Giles explained that their school had two parts: one for basic learning (Normal Department) and another for more advanced subjects (Academic Department). They knew their students needed help with basic skills, so they planned to teach reading, spelling, math, geography, writing, grammar, and history. Despite these challenges, they envisioned the school evolving into a liberal arts institution with a commitment to providing comprehensive education for Black women and girls. In the late 1800s, John D. Rockefeller generously supported Spelman College. After meeting the school's founders, Sophia B. Packard and Harriet E. Giles, Rockefeller became a key supporter, giving substantial amounts to the college. Over time, both Rockefeller and the Rockefeller Foundation donated millions of dollars to Spelman College. On the third anniversary of its founding, the name was changed to Spelman Seminary. This change was to honor the Spelman family, including Laura Spelman Rockefeller (John D. Rockefeller's wife), her sister Lucy, and their parents, Harvey Buel Spelman and Lucy Henry Spelman.

Spelman College thought its graduates should lead good lives and assist others, but in its early years, it didn't actively tackle social issues or advocate for equal rights. There were also few black leaders initially. As time went on, later leaders carried on the college's traditions, emphasizing a well-rounded education and community service. Up until the 1960s, Spelman didn't actively question societal norms. When it finally did, it was often the students taking the lead.

I found it to be very interesting that according to the Spelman History Brochure, Dr. Johnnetta Betsch Cole was chosen as the first Black woman president of Spelman College in July 1987. After over 100 years, an African American woman was named president of Spelman College. Thinking critically, the creation of a college exclusively for Black women is noteworthy, especially considering the historical context of limited rights for women in general. This initiative stood out as an important step during a period when women faced restrictions on their rights, underscoring the significance of tailored educational opportunities.

Lefever, H. G. (2005). The Early Origins of Spelman College. The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, ₄₇, 60–63. https://doi.org/10.2307/25073174

Spelman history and traditions brochure 2023. Spelman College. (2023). https://www.spelman.edu/docs/alumnae-affairs/spelman-history-traditions-brochure.pdf?sfvrsn=eda80791_34

By: Kim I. Smith

# data[].attributes.body
For my event I chose the Massachusetts Reform School as an important part of Critical Cultural Studies in Education.  This event is impactful because this is the beginning  of “reform schools.”  This is the starting point for the juvenile justice system and education working together to reform children.  This is a common issued that has been researched to determine if we are providing proper supports for juvenile offenders.

Through research and information that has been presented we know that the justice system and rehabilitation of our students, especially those in the juvenile justice system, is a constant critical issue in education. Several argue from the research that we are failing our minority populations and not providing the support to children in the juvenile justice system.  We are not rehabilitating these children and it is leading to the increase of economically disadvantaged people living in poverty.  Many of these children end up in the juvenile system and remain in the system because of the lack of support provided.  In the article the Best Interest is the Child it talks about how we are feeding the prison pipeline and failing the juveniles. It argues that we need to take a step back and do what is best for the child to rehabilitate them.

Silva, L. R. (2014). The best interest is the child: A historical philosophy for modern issues, 28(2), 415-470. https://digitalcommons.law.byu.edu/jpl/vol28/iss2/5.

By: Samantha Day

# data[].attributes.body
New York Public School Society formed in 1805 in an effort to educate all poor children of the area. Within this model, there is one teacher to nearly one hundred children, with the idea that the older children will instruct the younger children on concepts misunderstood at their age. The goal was to emphasize discipline and obedience in order to better prepare these children for future factory jobs.

The significance to the concept of critical cultural studies in education was simply "education for all". As we know, education was not always free for all races or genders, and this was a first attempt to change this phenomenon.

Ironically, while this school was often deemed the "New York Free School Society", membership was $8 a year. Once a member, you could then send 1 child to school for $25, or 2 children for $40. While this seems like not a lot of money, remember that it was 1805, and the goal was to have education for all, including the poor.

Another fact that I found interesting was that the school was designed to be nonsectarian, not affiliated with religion, the primary object became "to inculcate the sublime truths of religion and morality contained in the Holy Scriptures" (Cohen, 1974). This makes me wonder how "free" this school actually was.

Cohen, S. (1974). New York Free School Society, 1805. Encyclopedia. New York Free School Society, 1805 | Encyclopedia.com.

By: Lindsey Heritage

# data[].attributes.body
Horace Mann becomes head of the newly formed Massachusetts State Board of Education. Edmund Dwight, a major industrialist, thinks a state board of education was so important to factory owners that he offered to supplement the state salary with extra money of his own (Historical Timeline of Public Education, n.d.).

I chose this topic because the Horace Mann brand is now established as an Educator Corporation providing benefits to educators or others who serve the community. I became a member of Horace Mann back in 2017 not knowing the significant role he played in shaping education with regards to Critical Culture. Horace promoted public education creating equal rights in American Education. He declared, "Without undervaluing any other human agency, it may be safely affirmed that the Common School...may become the most effective and benignant of all forces of civilization"(PBS, n.d.). With the belief that early intervention would lessen students' deficiencies, culturally parents should be involved regardless of what society thinks both in and outside the classroom to close societal and economic gaps (America's Education Timeline, n.d.). Mann observed that the Lord’s prayer wouldn’t say “thy Kingdom come … on earth as it is in heaven” unless it contained the promise that it could be established here on earth, and compulsory, universal education was the key to the kingdom (Polet, 2023). Culturally, all children deserve the right to a basic education funded by local taxes to create lifelong learners (America's Education Timeline, n.d.). To, he thought that teachers deserved better opportunities - hence Horace Mann's financial services for educators (America's Education Timeline, n.d.).

Sources: America's Education Timeline, Historical Timeline of Public Education, PBS, and Jeffrey Polet

By: Vanesha Gunn