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5 Keys to Rigorous Project-Based Learning

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Well-designed project-based learning (PBL) has been shown to result in deeper learning and engaged, self-directed learners. Learn more about the five core elements of successful PBL.

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Biomes are typically characterized by the resident biota within them. Currently, there is a disagreement in the scientific community about what exactly makes a biome.

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How Habitat Makes Us Happier, Healthier, and More Connected

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NOAA and partners do a lot of work to conserve, protect, and restore habitat. We are increasing places for fish and wildlife to live, which benefits economies and communities. But, were you aware that habitat also helps improve our personal well-being, too?

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An ecosystem consists of a community of organisms together with their physical environment.

Ecosystems can be of different sizes and can be marine, aquatic, or terrestrial. Broad categories of terrestrial ecosystems are called biomes.

In ecosystems, both matter and energy are conserved. Energy flows through the system-usually from light to heat-while matter is recycled.

Ecosystems with higher biodiversity tend to be more stable with greater resistance and resilience in the face of disturbances, or disruptive events.

Introduction

What do a tide pool on the California coast and the Amazon rainforest of South America have in common? Despite being many orders of magnitude different in size, both are examples of ecosystems -communities of organisms living together in combination with their physical environment.

As a reminder, a community consists of all the populations of all the species that live together in a particular area. The concepts of ecosystem and community are closely related-the difference is that an ecosystem includes the physical environment, while a community does not. In other words, a community is the biotic, or living, component of an ecosystem. In addition to this biotic component, the ecosystem also includes an abiotic component-the physical environment.

Ecosystems can be small, such as the tide pools found near the rocky shores of many oceans, or very large, such as the Amazon Rainforest in South America. It's basically up to the ecologist studying the ecosystem to define its boundaries in a way that makes sense for their questions of interest.

What are ecosystems like?

The short answer: incredibly diverse! Not only can ecosystems vary in size, but they can also differ in just about every imaginable biotic or abiotic feature.

Some ecosystems are marine, others freshwater, and others yet terrestrial-land based. Ocean ecosystems are most common on Earth, as oceans and the living organisms they contain cover 75% of the Earth's surface. Freshwater ecosystems are the rarest, covering only 1.8% of the Earth's surface. Terrestrial, land, ecosystems cover the remainder of Earth.

Terrestrial ecosystems can be further grouped into broad categories called biomes, based largely on climate. Examples of terrestrial biomes include tropical rain forests, savannas, deserts, coniferous forests, deciduous forests, and tundra. The map below shows the broad distribution of biomes on Earth.

Even within a biome, there can be great diversity. For example, both the Sonoran desert, on the left, and the interior of the island of Boa Vista, on the right, can be classified as deserts, but they have very different ecological communities. Many more species of plants and animals live in the Sonoran desert.

Energy and matter in ecosystems

Ecosystem ecologists are often most interested in tracing the movement of energy and matter through ecosystems.

We'll take a closer look at the movement of energy and matter when we consider food webs, networks of organisms that feed on one another, and biogeochemical cycles, the pathways taken by chemical elements as they move through the biosphere. The organisms found in an ecosystem tend to have adaptations, beneficial features arising by natural selection, that help them get energy and matter in the context of that particular ecosystem.

Before we get into details, though, let's look at the key features of how energy and matter travel through ecosystems. Both energy and matter are conserved, neither created nor destroyed, but take different routes through ecosystems:

Matter is recycled; the same atoms are reused over and over.

Energy flows through the ecosystem, usually entering as light and exiting as heat.

Matter is recycled.

Matter is recycled through Earth's ecosystems-though it may move from one ecosystem to another as it does when nutrients are washed away into a river. The same atoms are used over and over again, assembled into different chemical forms and incorporated into the bodies of different organisms.

As an example, let's see how chemical nutrients move through a terrestrial ecosystem. A land plant takes in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and other nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorous, from the soil to build the molecules that make up its cells. When an animal eats the plant, it uses the plant's molecules for energy and as building material for its own cells, often rearranging atoms and molecules into new forms.

When plants and animals carry out cellular respiration-break down molecules as fuel-carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere. Similarly, when they excrete waste or die, their chemical compounds are used for energy and building material by bacteria and fungi. These decomposers release simple molecules back into the soil and atmosphere, where they can be taken up anew in the next round of the cycle.

Thanks to this recycling, the atoms that make up your body right now have long, unique histories. They've most likely been part of plants, animals, other people, and even dinosaurs!

Energy flow is unidirectional, or one-way.

Energy, unlike matter, cannot be recycled in ecosystems. Instead, energy flow through an ecosystem is a one-way street-generally, from light to heat.

Energy usually enters ecosystems as sunlight and is captured in chemical form by photosynthesizers like plants and algae. The energy is then passed through the ecosystem, changing forms as organisms metabolize, produce waste, eat one another, and eventually, die and decompose.

Each time energy changes forms, some of it is converted to heat. Heat still counts as energy-and thus no energy has been destroyed-but it generally can't be used as an energy source by living organisms. Ultimately, energy that entered the ecosystem as sunlight is dissipated as heat and radiated back into space.

This one-way flow of energy through ecosystems means that every ecosystem needs a constant supply of energy, usually from the sun, in order to function. Energy can be passed between organisms, but it cannot be recycled because some of it is lost as heat in each transfer.

Stability and dynamics of ecosystems

Ecosystems are dynamic systems, and a static ecosystem would be a dead ecosystem-just as a static cell would be a dead cell. As we discussed above, energy is constantly flowing through an ecosystem and chemical nutrients are continually being recycled. At higher levels of organization, organisms are dying and being born, populations are fluctuating in their numbers, and climate patterns are varying seasonally and in less predictable ways.

Equilibrium and disturbance

Equilibrium is the steady state of an ecosystem, in which its composition and identity remain generally constant despite fluctuations in physical conditions and the makeup of the biotic community. Ecosystems may be knocked out of equilibrium by disturbances, disruptive events that affect their composition.

Some disturbances are a result of natural processes. For example, fire is a disturbance that can be caused by lightning in a prairie or forest ecosystem. Other disturbances are the result of human activities. Examples include acid rainfall, deforestation, algal blooms, and the introduction of invasive species.

Different ecosystems may respond differently to the same disturbance; one may recover rapidly, and another may recover more slowly-or not at all.

Resistance and resilience

Ecologists sometimes use two parameters to describe how an ecosystem responds to disturbance. These parameters are resistance and resilience. The ability of an ecosystem to remain at equilibrium in spite of disturbances is called resistance. How readily an ecosystem returns to equilibrium after being disturbed is called resilience. Some ecologists consider resistance to be an element of resilience-one that acts on a short timescale.

Many ecologists think that the biodiversity of an ecosystem plays a key role in stability. For example, if there were just one plant species with a particular role in an ecosystem, a disturbance that harms that one species-say, a drought for a drought-sensitive species-might have a severe impact on the ecosystem as a whole. In contrast, if there were several plant species with similar functional roles, there would be a better chance of one of them being drought-tolerant and helping the ecosystem as a whole survive the drought period.

Ecosystem resistance and resilience are important when we consider the effects of disturbances caused by human activity. If a disturbance is severe enough, it may change an ecosystem beyond the point of recovery-push the ecosystem into a zone where it is no longer resilient. A disturbance of this sort could lead to permanent alteration or loss of the ecosystem.

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What is an ecosystem? (article) | Ecology | Khan Academy

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Learn for free about math, art, computer programming, economics, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, finance, history, and more. Khan Academy is a nonprofit with the mission of providing a free, world-class education for anyone, anywhere.

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Why you SHOULD major in Environmental Engineering?

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Getting a PhD in Environmental Engineering

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Getting a PhD in Environmental Engineering

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Getting a PhD in Environmental Engineering

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Georgia Science Teachers Association - GSE Phenomena

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communications@georgiascienceteacher.org if you have any questions about this resource.

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A volcano is a geological structure that results from the rise of magma and then from the eruption of materials (gas and lava) from this magma, on the surface of the earth's crust (or another planet). It can be aerial or underwater. Because it is linked with a rise of magma most of them are directly linked with tectonic plates and this explain the localisation of volcanoes on the world map.

Geological interactive world map

Discover and interact with all the volcanoes, tectonic plates and their boundaries with our interactive world map or explore our guide for the map explorer.

Table of contents

Structure of volcanoes

A volcano is made up of different structures that are generally found in each of them:

Magma chamber: filled by magma coming from the mantle and playing the role of reservoir and the place of differentiation of the magma. When it empties following an eruption, the volcano can collapse and give birth to a caldera. The magma chambers are between 10 and 50 km deep in the lithosphere.

Vent: pipe that conduct magma from the chamber to the surface.

Crater (or a Caldera): place of the opening of the vent on the surface.

Secondary volcanic vents: starting from the magmatic chamber or the main vent and generally leading to the sides of the volcano, sometimes at its base. Further, they can give rise to small parasitic cones.

Type of volcanoes

1. Fissure volcano: formed by a linear opening in the continental or oceanic crust through which escapes fluid lava. We have, for example the oceanic ridge for this type of volcanoes.

2. Shield volcano: the diameter is much greater than its height due to the fluidity of the lavas which can travel for kilometers before stopping. For example, the Mauna Loa in Hawaii is a shield volcano.

3. Dome volcano: large volcanic dome formed by the accumulation of slow eruptions of highly viscous lava. The Puy de Dôme is an example of this kind of volcano.

4. Volcanic cones (or cinder cones): it results from eruptions of mostly small pieces of scoria and pyroclastics (both resemble cinders, hence the name of this volcano type) that build up around the vent.

5. Stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes): the diameter is more balanced compared to its height due to the greater viscosity of the lavas; these are volcanoes with explosive eruptions. The conical mountain is composed of lava flows and other ejecta in alternate layers. For instance, the Mount Fuji in Japan is an example of this type of volcano.

6. Caldera volcano: large depression due to the collapse of rocks above a magma chamber. The Yellowstone caldera is an example of the caldera.

7. Maar: low-relief volcanic crater caused by a phreatomagmatic eruption ( explosion that occurs when groundwater comes into contact with hot lava or magma). A maar characteristically fills with water to form a relatively shallow crater lake which may also be called a maar.

Tectonic plates and volcanoes world map

If you look to the volcanoes world map, you can see that most of them are linked to tectonic plates boundaries. Firstly, we will present the 2 types of volcanoes linked to the tectonic plates. Then we will see the last type of volcanoes which are not linked to the plate tectonics.

Divergent plate boundaries

At the ridge, the separation of two tectonic plates thins the lithosphere, causing a rise in mantle rocks. These, already very hot, start to melt partially due to decompression. This gives magma which infiltrates through normal faults. Between the two edges of the rift, traces of volcanic activity such as pillow lava (formed by the emission of fluid lava in cold water). Thus, these volcanic rocks constitute a part of the oceanic crust.

In the continental rifts, the same process occurs, except that the lava does not flow underwater and does not give pillow lava.

Convergent plate boundaries

When two tectonic plates overlap, the oceanic lithosphere, sliding under the other oceanic or continental lithosphere, plunges into the mantle and undergoes mineralogical transformations. The water contained in the plunging lithosphere then escapes and hydrates the mantle, causing its partial melting by lowering its melting point. So, this magma rises and crosses the overlapping lithosphere, creating volcanoes.

If the overlapping lithosphere is oceanic, an island volcanic arc will form, the volcanoes giving rise to islands. This is the case for the Aleutians and Japan.

If the overlapping lithosphere is continental, the volcanoes will be located on the continent, generally in a cordillera. This is the case of the Andean volcanoes or the Cascade range. These volcanoes are generally gray, explosive and dangerous volcanoes. This is due to their viscous lava because it is rich in silica, which has difficulty flowing; moreover, the magmas which rise are rich in dissolved gases (water and carbon dioxide), the sudden release of which can form fiery clouds. The "Pacific Ring of Fire" is made up almost entirely of this type of volcano.

Hot spot

It sometimes happens that volcanoes are located far from any lithospheric plate boundary. They are generally interpreted as hot spot volcanoes. The hot spots are plumes of magma coming from the depths of the mantle and piercing the lithospheric plates.

The hot spots being fixed, while the lithospheric plate moves on the mantle, volcanoes are created successively and align then, the most recent being the most active because at the base of the hot spot. When the hot spot emerges under an ocean, it will give birth to a series of aligned islands as is the case of the Hawaiian or Mascarene archipelago.

If the hot spot emerges under a continent, it will then give birth to a series of aligned volcanoes. This is the case of Mount Cameroon and its neighbors.

In exceptional cases, it happens that a hot spot opens out under a lithospheric plate boundary. In the case of Iceland, the effect of a hot spot combines with that of the mid-Atlantic ridge, thus giving rise to a huge stack of lava allowing the ridge to emerge. The Azores or Galápagos are other examples of hot spots opening out under a lithospheric plate boundary.

However, many intra-plate volcanoes do not occur on alignments to identify deep and permanent hot spots.

The Pacific Ring of Fire

The Pacific Ring of Fire (also known as the Rim of Fire or the Circum-Pacific belt) designates the alignment of volcanoes that border the Pacific Ocean over most of its periphery, approximately 40,000 km (25,000 mi) .

This alignment of volcanoes, all located exclusively on the coasts or islands, coincides with a set of limits of tectonic plates and faults. These limits are also marked by the main ocean trenches on the planet.

Top 10 biggest volcanoes in the world by height

1. Mauna Kea, Hawaii

This volcano is 4,207 m above sea level, but with its part under water, it is 10,203 m (33,474 ft). It makes this volcano in total height even higher than the Mount Everest. This volcano is a hot spot in the pacific plate.

2. Mauna Loa

Secondly, we find another volcano of Hawaii, which is made of 5 volcanoes. This volcano is 9,170 m (30,085 ft) from the bottom of the sea level.

3. Haleakalā or East Maui Volcano

On the 3 th place, we have another volcano of Hawaii. This volcano is 9,144 m (30,000 ft).

4. Teide

This volcano is located on the island of Tenerife. It has an altitude of 3,718 m (12,198 ft) above sea level. From the bottom of the sea level, it is 7,500 m (24,606 ft).

5. Piton des Neiges

It is the massive shield volcano on the Reunion. From the bottom of the ocean, it has a total elevation of 7,071 m (23,199 ft).

6. Ojos del Salado

This volcano is located in the Andes on the Argentina - Chile border. It is the highest active volcano in the world. It has an altitude of 6,893 m (22,615 ft).

7. Monte Pissis

This volcano is an extinct volcano located in Argentina and it has an elevation of 6,792 m (22,283 ft).

8. Nevado Tres Cruces

This volcano is also located in the Andes on the Argentina - Chile border. It has an elevation of 6,748 m (22,139 ft).

9. Llullaillaco

This volcano is also located on the border between Argentina and Chile. It has an elevation of 6,739 m (22,110 ft).

10. Tipas

Finally the last volcano of our list is also located in the Andes on the border between Argentina and Chile. It has an elevation of 6,670 m (21,880ft)

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Want to know where are volcanoes located on the world map? And Why? Take a look at our map and read our explanation to know everything about volcanoes.

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The Science Underneath Earthquakes and Volcanoes | STEM in 30 | PBS LearningMedia

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What causes a volcanic eruption? Is there always lava? How are volcanoes and earthquakes related? Travel with the STEM in 30 team to the Pacific Northwest, home to some of the most seismically active areas in the U.S. Learn from experts about tectonic activity and find out if they know when the big one will hit.

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Interactive Map of Active Volcanoes and recent Earthquakes world-wide

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In 2005, the American Society of Civil Engineers issued a report card, grading various categories of U.S. infrastructure. The average grade was D (Updated to D+ in 2013).

What is infrastructure?

Infrastructure is the combination of fundamental systems that support a community, region, or country. It includes everything from water and sewer systems to road and rail networks to the national power and natural gas grids. Perhaps there will be a hydrogen grid in the future as well.

What is the current state of our infrastructure?

It is no secret that America's infrastructure, along with those of many other countries, is aging and failing, and that funding has been insufficient to repair and replace it. Engineers of the 21st century face the formidable challenge of modernizing the fundamental structures that support civilization.

The problem is particularly acute in urban areas, where growing populations stress society's support systems, and natural disasters, accidents, and terrorist attacks threaten infrastructure safety and security. And urban infrastructure is not just a U.S. issue; special challenges are posed by the problems of megacities, with populations exceeding 10 million, which are found mostly in Asia. In many parts of the world, basic infrastructure needs are still problematic, and engineers will be challenged to economically provide such services more broadly.

Furthermore, solutions to these problems must be designed for sustainability, giving proper attention to environmental and energy-use considerations (though cities take up just a small percentage of the Earth's surface, they disproportionately exhaust resources and generate pollution), along with concern for the aesthetic elements that contribute to the quality of life.

What is involved in maintaining infrastructure?

Of course, maintaining infrastructure is not a new problem. For thousands of years, engineers have had to design systems for providing clean water and disposing of sewage. In recent centuries, systems for transmitting information and providing energy have expanded and complicated the infrastructure network, beginning with telegraph and telephone lines and now encompassing all sorts of telecommunications systems. Cable TV, cell phones, and Internet access all depend on elaborate infrastructure installations. Development of remote wind and solar energy resources will add more.

Much of the existing infrastructure is buried, posing several problems for maintaining and upgrading it. For one thing, in many cases, records of the locations of all the underground pipes and cables are unavailable or incomplete. One major challenge will be to devise methods for mapping and labeling buried infrastructure, both to assist in improving it and to help avoid damaging it.

A project of this sort is now underway in the United Kingdom, with the aim of developing ways to locate buried pipes using electromagnetic signals from above the ground. The idea is to find metallic structures capable of reflecting electromagnetic waves through soil, much as a reflector makes a bicycle easier to see at night.

How can you improve transportation systems?

Other major infrastructure issues involve transportation. Streets and highways will remain critical transportation conduits, so their maintenance and improvement will remain an important challenge. But the greater challenge will be engineering integrated transportation systems, making individual vehicle travel, mass transit, bicycling, and walking all as easy and efficient as possible. An increasingly important question is the need to provide better access to transportation for the elderly and disabled.

Cities around the world have begun developing integrated approaches, by establishing transportation hubs, for instance, where various transportation elements - rail, bus, taxi, walking and bicycle paths, parking lots - all conveniently meet. In Hong Kong, several transportation services are linked in a system that allows a single smart card to be used to pay for all the services, including gas and parking.

A similar integrated approach combining energy, water, and wastes (liquid and solid) into "neighborhood" systems could be considered in certain urban areas. This approach would increase sustainability while relieving pressure to meet all citizens' needs through city-scaled infrastructures. It would be best to introduce such systems in new development areas (e.g. urban revitalization areas) and new cities, which will spring up over the next few decades in places like China and India.

While such services can help support growing urban populations, they must be accompanied by affordable and pleasant places for people to live. Engineers must be engaged in the architectural issues involved in providing environmentally friendly, energy-efficient buildings both for housing and for business.

How do you build better infrastructure?

Novel construction materials may help address some of these challenges. But dramatic progress may be possible only by developing entirely new construction methods. Most of the basic methods of manual construction have been around for centuries - even millennia. Advances in computer science and robotics should make more automation possible in construction, for instance, greatly speeding up construction times and lowering costs. Electricity networks linking large central-station and decentralized power sources will also benefit from greater embedded computation.

All of these endeavors must be undertaken with clear vision for the aesthetic values that go beyond mere function and contribute to the joy of living. Major bridges, for instance, have long been regarded almost as much works of art as aids to transport. Bridges, buildings, and even freeways contribute to the aesthetical appeal of a city, and care in their design can contribute to a more enjoyable urban environment.

In previous decades, much of the rest of urban infrastructure has been erected without as much concern for its impact on a city's appearance and cultural milieu. Recently, though, awareness of the aesthetics of engineering has begun to influence infrastructure design more generally. Integrating infrastructure needs with the desire for urban green spaces is one example.

Projects to deal with urban stormwater runoff have demonstrated opportunities to incorporate aesthetically pleasing projects. Using landscape design to help manage the flow of runoff water, sometimes referred to as "green infrastructure," can add to a city's appeal in addition to helping remove pollution. The vast paved area of a city needs to be rethought, perhaps by designing pavements that reduce overhead temperatures and that are permeable to allow rainwater to reach the ground table beneath. Proper engineering approaches can achieve multiple goals, such as better storm drainage and cleaner water, while also enhancing the appearance of the landscape, improving the habitat for wildlife, and offering recreational spaces for people.

Rebuilding and enhancing urban infrastructure faces problems beyond the search for engineering solutions. Various policies and political barriers must be addressed and overcome. Funding for infrastructure projects has been hopelessly inadequate in many areas, as the American Society of Civil Engineers' "report card" documented. And the practice of letting infrastructure wear out before replacing it, rather than incorporating technological improvements during its lifetime, only exacerbates the problems.

And so, a major grand challenge for infrastructure engineering will be not only to devise new approaches and methods, but to communicate their value and worthiness to society at large.
References
American Society of Civil Engineers. 2005. Report Card for America's Infrastructure. http://ascelibrary.org/doi/book/10.1061/9780784478851

American Society of Civil Engineers. 2013. Report Card for America's Infrastructure. http://www.infrastructurereportcard.org/

Bill Wenk. 2007. Green Infrastructure BMPs for Treating Urban Storm Runoff: Multiple-Benefit Approaches," Water World (July 2007). ww.pennnet.com/display_article/297781/ 41/ARTCL/none/none/Green-Infrastructure-BMPs-for-Treating-Urban-Storm-Runoff:-Multiple-Benefit-Approaches

Zielinski, S. 2006. New Mobility: The Next Generation of Sustainable Urban Transportation," The Bridge 36 (Winter 2006), pp. 33-38.

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Restore and Improve Urban Infrastructure

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In 2005, the American Society of Civil Engineers issued a report card, grading various categories of U.S. infrastructure. The average grade was D (Updated to D+ in 2013). Infrastructure is the combination of fundamental systems that support a community, region, or country.

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The growth in emissions of carbon dioxide, implicated as a prime contributor to global warming, is a problem that can no longer be swept under the rug. But perhaps it can be buried deep underground or beneath the ocean.

Why is carbon dioxide (CO₂) a problem?

In pre-industrial times, every million molecules of air contained about 280 molecules of carbon dioxide. Today that proportion exceeds 380 molecules per million, and it continues to climb. Evidence is mounting that carbon dioxide's heat-trapping power has already started to boost average global temperatures. If carbon dioxide levels continue upward, further warming could have dire consequences, resulting from rising sea levels, agriculture disruptions, and stronger storms (e.g. hurricanes) striking more often.

But choking off the stream of carbon dioxide entering the atmosphere does not have a simple solution. Fossil fuels, which provide about 85 percent of the world's energy, are made of hydrocarbons, and burning them releases huge quantities of carbon dioxide. Even as renewable energy sources emerge, fossil-fuel burning will remain substantial. And the fossil fuel in greatest supply - coal - is the worst carbon dioxide emitter per unit of energy produced. A grand challenge for the 21st century's engineers will be developing systems for capturing the carbon dioxide produced by burning fossil fuels and sequestering it safely away from the atmosphere.

What is carbon sequestration?

Carbon sequestration is capturing the carbon dioxide produced by burning fossil fuels and storing it safely away from the atmosphere.

How do you capture CO₂?

Methods already exist for key parts of the sequestration process. A chemical system for capturing carbon dioxide is already used at some facilities for commercial purposes, such as beverage carbonation and dry ice manufacture. The same approach could be adapted for coal-burning electric power plants, where smokestacks could be replaced with absorption towers. One tower would contain chemicals that isolate carbon dioxide from the other gases (nitrogen and water vapor) that escape into the air and absorb it. A second tower would separate the carbon dioxide from the absorbing chemicals, allowing them to be returned to the first tower for reuse.

A variation to this approach would alter the combustion process at the outset, burning coal in pure oxygen rather than ordinary air. That would make separating the carbon dioxide from the exhaust much easier, as it would be mixed only with water vapor, and not with nitrogen. It's relatively simple to condense the water vapor, leaving pure carbon dioxide gas that can be piped away for storage.

In this case, though, a different separation problem emerges - the initial need for pure oxygen, which is created by separating it from nitrogen and other trace gases in the air. If that process can be made economical, it would be feasible to retrofit existing power plants with a pure oxygen combustion system, simplifying and reducing the cost of carbon dioxide capture.

Advanced methods for generating power from coal might also provide opportunities for capturing carbon dioxide. In coal-gasification units, an emerging technology, coal is burned to produce a synthetic gas, typically containing hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Adding steam, along with a catalyst, to the synthetic gas converts the carbon monoxide into additional hydrogen and carbon dioxide that can be filtered out of the system. The hydrogen can be used in a gas turbine (similar to a jet engine) to produce electric power.

How do you store CO₂?

Several underground possibilities have been investigated. Logical places include old gas and oil fields. Storage in depleted oil fields, for example, offers an important economic advantage - the carbon dioxide interacts with the remaining oil to make it easier to remove. Some fields already make use of carbon dioxide to enhance the recovery of hard-to-get oil. Injecting carbon dioxide dislodges oil trapped in the pores of underground rock, and carbon dioxide's presence reduces the friction impeding the flow of oil through the rock to wells.

Depleted oil and gas fields do not, however, have the capacity to store the amounts of carbon dioxide that eventually will need to be sequestered. By some estimates, the world will need reservoirs capable of containing a trillion tons of carbon dioxide by the end of the century. That amount could possibly be accommodated by sedimentary rock formations with pores containing salty water (brine).

The best sedimentary brine formations would be those more than 800 meters deep - far below sources of drinking water, and at a depth where high pressure will maintain the carbon dioxide in a high-density state.

Sedimentary rocks that contain brine are abundantly available, but the concern remains whether they will be secure enough to store carbon dioxide for centuries or millennia. Faults or fissures in overlying rock might allow carbon dioxide to slowly escape, so it will be an engineering challenge to choose, design, and monitor such storage sites carefully.

Concerns about leaks suggest to some experts that the best strategy might be literally deep-sixing carbon dioxide, by injecting it into sediments beneath the ocean floor. High pressure from above would keep the carbon dioxide in the sediments and out of the ocean itself. It might cost more to implement than other methods, but it would be free from worries about leaks. And in the case of some coastal sites of carbon dioxide production, ocean sequestration might be a more attractive strategy than transporting it to far-off sedimentary basins.

It is also possible that engineers will be able to develop new techniques for sequestering carbon dioxide that are based upon natural processes. For example, when atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide increased in geologic times to a certain unknown threshold, it went into the ocean and combined with positively charged calcium ions to form calcium carbonate - limestone. Similarly, engineers might devise ways of pumping carbon dioxide into the ocean in ways that would lock it eternally into rock.

It may well be that multiple strategies and storage locations will be needed to solve this problem, but the prospect for success appears high. "Scientific and economic challenges still exist," writes Harvard geoscientist Daniel Schrag, "but none are serious enough to suggest that carbon capture and storage will not work at the scale required to offset trillions of tons of carbon dioxide emissions over the next century." [Schrag, p. 812]
References
Herzog, H., and D. Golomb. 2004. Carbon Capture and Storage from Fossil Fuel Use. Encyclopedia of Energy, ed. C.J. Cleveland. Vol. 1. Elsevier Science: .

Lal, R. 2004. Carbon Sequestration, Terrestrial. Encyclopedia of Energy, Vol. 1 (Elsevier Inc.).

Schrag, D.P., et al. 2007. Preparing to Capture Carbon," Science 315, p. 812. DOI: 10.1126/science.1137632.

Socolow, R.H. 2005. Can We Bury Global Warming? Scientific American (July 2005), pp. 49-55.

Zenz House, K. et al. 2006. Permanent carbon dioxide storage in deep-sea sediments," Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 103 (15 August 2006), pp. 12291-12295.

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The growth in emissions of carbon dioxide, implicated as a prime contributor to global warming, is a problem that can no longer be swept under the rug. But perhaps it can be buried deep underground or beneath the ocean. In pre-industrial times, every million molecules of air contained about 280 molecules of carbon dioxide.

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how to capture smoke as a 5th grade science project - Google Search

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Cool Smoke tricks compilation - Awesome Science Experiments for kids to do at home. Smoke Waterfall, How To Make Smoke Rings,…

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Quick Look

Grade Level: 3 (3-5)

Time Required: 45 minutes

Expendable Cost/Group: US $1.00

Group Size: 1

Activity Dependency: None

Subject Areas: Earth and Space

NGSS Performance Expectations:

Students make sense of the design challenges engineers face that arise from earthquake phenomena. Students work as engineering teams to explore concepts of how engineers design and construct buildings to withstand earthquake damage by applying elements of the engineering design process by building their own model structures using toothpicks and marshmallows. The groups design, build, and test their model buildings and then determine how earthquake-proof their designs are by testing them on an earthquake simulator pan of Jell-O®.
This engineering curriculum aligns to Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS).

Learning Objectives

After this activity, students should be able to:

Identify some of the factors that make buildings earthquake-proof, including cross bracing, large "footprints," and tapered geometry.

Model an earthquake-proof structure using simple materials.

Compare a model structure with what it represents.

Understand why engineers need to learn about earthquakes.

Learn what causes earthquakes and how engineers use this knowledge to design more 'earthquake-proof' structures.

Educational Standards
Suggest an alignment not listed above

Materials List

Each student needs:

For the entire class to share:

8 square baking dishes, 21.5 cm x 21.5 cm (8 ½ inch x 8 ½ inch) or 1 oblong baking dish, 21.5 cm x 28 cm (8 ½ in x 11 inch)

8 boxes Jell-O, prepared according to package directions

Worksheets and Attachments
Visit [www.teachengineering.org/activities/view/cub_natdis_lesson03_activity1] to print or download.

Introduction/Motivation

Show students parts of the following video of the ground moving during an earthquake (see minute 5:45): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZMXuFm1opJM.

Tell students to draw a T-Chart in their notebooks. Label the first column "What I Notice" and the second column "What I Wonder". Have students write down what they notice (observations) and wonder (questions) about the ground motion.

Ask students to share their observations and the questions they have.

Now show students the following video of various skyscrapers moving during an earthquake: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iGtRko8y4Fo.

Have students use their T-Charts to write down what they notice and wonder about the skyscrapers' motion. Ask students to make sense of the motion and if they can detect a pattern. Ask students, "Is the reason the ground moves (seen in the first video) the same reason that is making the buildings move in this video? What is causing this motion?" Allow students to share their ideas and compile a list of ideas and common themes.

Upside down damaged house among debris following a 9.0 magnitude earthquake in Ofunato, Japan.

Earthquakes are a natural hazard that results in the very sudden and forceful shaking of the Earth's crust. Earthquakes happen frequently at the convergence of tectonic plates. When these plates hit or slide past each other, they release built up stress. The surface where the tectonic plates slip is called a fault. The point where an earthquake occurs is called the focus of the earthquake, which can be close to or far below the Earth's surface.

The location on the Earth's surface that is directly above the focus is called the epicenter of the earthquake. The epicenter is where most damage occurs. The release of force at the earthquake's focus creates vibrations that travel in seismic waves away from the epicenter. Earthquakes can crack walls and move foundations and may cause entire buildings to crumble. Large earthquakes can even cause loss of life and millions of dollars' worth of damage. (Note: USGS's "Earthquakes for Kids" offers additional information)

To keep people inside and outside of building safe in areas of high earthquake risk, civil engineers strive to design buildings that are more resilient to the damaging forces of earthquakes.

Ask students, "How do you think engineers design earthquake-proof buildings?"

Ask a few students to share their ideas, and then briefly introduce the engineering design process.

Explain that engineers ask critical questions about what they want to create or what specific problem they are trying to solve. These questions include: What are the project requirements (criteria)? What are the limitations (constraints)? This also requires conducting research on the problem. For example, civil engineers work together with scientists, as well as engineers from different backgrounds, to better understand the problem of how to design earthquake-proof buildings.

The engineering team then imagines possible solutions to the problem. This takes a lot of creative brainstorming! After making a list of solutions and some sketches of their ideas, the team of engineers plan and select their best idea.

Once the team decides on the details of the final design, they create the prototype and test it out! Prototypes are smaller models that are used by engineers to test a design. In the testing phase, the team pays attention to what needs to be changed to the model to make the product work better. The last step of the engineering design process is to improve (iterate) their design.

The basic steps of the engineering design process.

Tell students, "To better how our buildings must be designed to withstand the strong vibrations that occur because of earthquakes, you will become engineers and use the engineering design process to imagine possible solutions/designs, plan, create your prototype, and test it by simulating an earthquake in your classroom/home!"

Procedure

Before the Activity

Prepare the Jell-O the night before the activity so that it is fully set when students begin the activity. Pour the Jell-O into eight 21.5 cm (8½-inch) square pans to be shared by four students, or in one large pan for the entire class to share.

Gather materials.

With the Students

1. Explain to students that they will play the role of civil engineers and take on an engineering design challenge. Their challenge is to design and build models of earthquake-proof buildings, and then test their models to assess how well their structures stand up to ground motion during a simulated earthquake.

2. Explain that engineers creatively work within constraints, such as limited resources, materials, time, or money. For this engineering design challenge, students are limited to using only mini marshmallows and toothpicks to build their model structures. In addition to the material constraints, students must also meet each of the following design constraints:

Buildings must be at least 2 toothpick levels high

Buildings must contain at least 1 triangle

Buildings must contain at least 1 square

1. Before starting to build their models, have students brainstorm and draw sketches of their building designs in their notebooks. For background knowledge, explain that cubes and triangles are like building blocks that may be stacked in different ways to make towers, and that buildings can have small or large "footprints" (bases). Have students draw and label the shapes in their designs (cube, triangle, etc.).

2. Once students have drawn and labelled their sketches, distribute 30 toothpicks and 30 marshmallows to each student or team, and have them build their first model prototype.

3. Before testing their models, show students the pan of Jell-O (without a structure on top) and tell them this represents the ground. Shake the pan back and forth in a shearing motion to simulate an earthquake. For fair testing, place two marks on the table indicating the distance the pans can be shaken with an even force and speed over a set a time for the duration of the "earthquake".

4. Next, have students test their structures one at a time on the Jell-O pan earthquake simulator. Shake the pan for the set time, force and distance.

5. After the earthquake is over, have students make a quick sketch of their model building before removing it from the pan of Jell-O.

6. As a class, have students compare and contrast their before-and-after sketches. Ask students to share and reflect on what worked and what did not work for their first model prototypes. Explain that engineers learn from "failure" and that this is essential information that helps them to design even better products and solutions. Ask students:

Did their model structure stay the same, break, or fall?

What ideas do students have to make their structure stronger?

Which variable(s) would students change in their building design?

Now that students have gone through their first design, build, and test cycle, show students the following photographs of different earthquake-proof buildings: https://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/272020/fbuil-03-00049-HTML/image_m/fbuil-03-00049-g005.jpg

Ask students:

What do you notice about the design of the structures?

What similarities do you see in building designs?

What features do you think help make the buildings earthquake-proof?

Have students share their observations. Help students notice that the structures have a large base (smaller at the top) and a cross-bracing design.

Follow-up with asking students:

What do you think the term "cross-bracing" means?

How do you think a cross-bracing design helps buildings withstand earthquake damage?

After students share their responses, tell students, "Earthquake-proof buildings typically have cross-bracing which are made by two diagonals supports placed in an X manner that forms triangles, which are the strongest geometric shape. This design geometry is often seen in bracing on bridges, and it helps keep the building steady by providing lateral stability. Cross-bracing supports and balances tension and compression forces to help prevent the structure from collapsing during an earthquake."

1. Now, based on the results of their first prototype and applying the above structural design tips, have students iterate (improve) on their original structure by redesigning and rebuilding a second prototype that is even more earthquake-proof. If needed, resupply students with replacement materials. For students that had a successful initial design, challenge them to add a third level to their model.

2. Once students have designed and built their second building prototype, repeat steps 6 and 7.

3. Have a class discussion on the results of their second prototypes. Which design elements were most effective at withstanding the earthquake forces and which parts failed. Reinforce that failing and learning from failure are keys to success in engineering, and that failure is not "bad" or "wrong" but valuable information. Ask students if they had more time and materials how would they improve their next model.

4. Have students reflect about the science phenomena they explored and the science and engineering skills they used today by completing the Making Sense Assessment.

Figure 1. A student's marshmallow-toothpick structure resting on a bed of Jell-O®.

Assessment

Pre-Activity Assessment

Discussion: Discuss with students how natural processes create earthquake hazards. Teachers can also use the Earthquakes Rock! lesson to demonstrate how earthquakes cause waves of movement in the ground.

T-Charts: Have students make T-charts as described in the Introduction/Motivation section.
Activity Embedded Assessment
Measurement: Have students measure the length, width, and height of their structures and calculate the volume using the equation V = L x W x H.

Before/After: Have students list types of changes they expect to see in their structures before they test them, then illustrate changes in their structures, after they complete the simulations. Ask students to identify one variable and discuss what happened when they changed the variable. They could reflect on these changes and their causes in a post-activity science journal entry.

As another option, show students before and after pictures of earthquake damage, comparing buildings which remained standing with the least damage to those which did not survive. Students could discuss possible reasons for the damage, observing structure (height, etc.) of the buildings.
Post-Activity Assessment
Drawing the Geometry: Have students make drawings and label the shapes in their designs (cube, pyramid, triangle, etc.).

Making Sense: Have students reflect about the science phenomena they explored and/or the science and engineering skills they used by completing the Making Sense Assessment.

Safety Issues

Inform students that in an experimental testing lab or during science experiments, nothing should ever be put into their mouths. The marshmallows and Jell-O ® are not for consumption. Instead, set some aside for a treat after the activity.

Troubleshooting Tips

The activity works best with fresh (soft) marshmallows. As the marshmallows sit out and dry out, they and the structures become stable and rigid.

Do not leave the Jell-O ® uncovered too long, as it dries out and becomes less fluid, which affects the activity results.

Activity Extensions

Have students make observations about buildings in the community or a nearby city. Ask students to observe the design of the buildings and whether they appear to be earthquake-proof.

Research how to obtain fault maps of the area. The U.S. Geological Survey ( https://www.usgs.gov) or the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( https://www.fema.gov) are good places to search. Is the area in a zone at risk for earthquakes? Do local building codes and architecture plan for this?

Activity Scaling

For higher grades, give students more requirements and constraints for their model buildings.

References

http://earthquake.usgs.gov/4kids/

Copyright © 2004 by Regents of the University of Colorado

Contributors Jessica Todd; Melissa Straten; Malinda Schaefer Zarske; Janet Yowell

Supporting Program Integrated Teaching and Learning Program, College of Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder

Acknowledgements

The contents of this digital library curriculum were developed under grants from the Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Education (FIPSE), U.S. Department of Education, and National Science Foundation (GK-12 grant no 0338326). However, these contents do not necessarily represent the policies of the Department of Education or National Science Foundation, and you should not assume endorsement by the federal government.

Last modified: September 24, 2021

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Testing Model Structures: Jell-O Earthquake in the Classroom - Activity

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Students make sense of the design challenges engineers face that arise from earthquake phenomena. Students work as engineering teams to explore concepts of how engineers design and construct buildings to withstand earthquake damage by applying elements of the engineering design process by building their own model structures using toothpicks and marshmallows.

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Seismology is the study of seismic waves, energy waves caused by rock suddenly breaking apart within the earth or the slipping of tectonic plates. We know these as events as earthquakes. They can also be caused by explosions from volcanic eruptions and testing of nuclear bombs. Seismology also studies seismic waves deliberately induced by controlled explosions, large trucks, and construction equipment, usually to search for underground sources of petroleum and natural gas.

Seismologists study earthquakes and their results, like tsunamis, and landslides. They may also monitor active volcanoes for tremors and signs of an impending eruption. They use seismographs and computer equipment to collect and analyze data on seismic events.

What Does a Seismologist Do?

Most seismologists work in petroleum exploration where they plan, generate, monitor, and analyze controlled seismic waves from explosions and vibrations from trucks. The information collected from the waves' movement and interactions with underground features help seismologists determine where oil and gas may be found.

Other seismologists study natural seismic waves related to hazards like earthquakes and volcanos, as well as their results, such as tsunamis and landslides. Some try to figure out why they last a certain amount of time, and how they stop. Some seismologists focus on geologic faults. They attempt to evaluate future risk and predict future destructive events. Their work helps protect the public through preparation, advisories, seismic zoning, and earthquake engineering. Maps of affected areas provided by seismologists can also help relief efforts after catastrophic events.

A few seismologists monitor for underground nuclear test explosions for intelligence agencies. Some use their knowledge to help unearth archaeological sites. Others conduct more theoretical research on the geological makeup and structures of the Earth.

Most seismologists plan and conduct field studies, where they collect samples and conduct site surveys. They then test the samples they collect in the lab. They also analyze air photos, well logs (geological notes made during drilling), rock samples, and other data to locate and assess underground oil and mineral resources. They make geologic maps, write reports, and present their findings to clients and colleagues.

Where Does a Seismologist Work?

Most seismologists, and 26% of geoscientists as a whole, are employed in oil and gas extraction. While the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) doesn't report on seismologists specifically, it reports that another 16% of geoscientists were employed in engineering services as of 2012. 12% of geoscientists provided management, scientific, and technical consulting services. 7% worked in state government, and another 7% were employed by the federal government.

Seismologists studying large earthquakes often work in observatories or analysis centers with hyper-computing capabilities. These are usually run or supported by national governments. Smaller earthquakes are analyzed at regional research centers tied to university or government laboratories.

Most seismologists work full time and maintain a standard work week. However, long or irregular hours may be required when doing fieldwork, or during public emergencies caused by seismic events. They may need to travel often to reach field work sites, which can be sometimes be rustic.

What Is the Average Seismologist Salary?

BLS reports the average annual wage for geoscientists as a whole as $90,890 in May 2012. Those employed in oil and gas extraction earned the highest salaries ($137,750). Those working for the federal government made $94,830, and those providing engineering services made $74,360. Geoscientists employed in management, scientific, and technical consulting services earned $74,020, and those in state government made $62,030.

Table data taken from BLS (http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes192042.htm)

Seismologist Jobs & Job Description

Seismologist careers match the study of the Earth with the study of physics to research and apply the creation and continuation of energy transferred through the Earth's materials. The overall aim is to interpret the composition and structures of the earth as well as evaluate potential dangers. While seismologist jobs do vary considerably, many of the below tasks are common to all jobs:

Analyze and interpret seismic data to categorize different sources - such as the difference between an earthquake and an explosion

Use data sets to evaluate hazards

Review research and literature relating to current discoveries in the field

Provide evaluative reports to governments, engineering companies or other external stakeholders

Use computers to model information, gain insight for possible hypotheses, and predict trends

Use modelling data to construct models of the Earth's subsurface

Use data to produce maps of seismic activity and intensity after an earthquake

Develop methodologies to improve upon conventional interpretation approaches, including writing new computer algorithms to manipulate data

Communicate with the media and public to educate people about earthquakes and earthquake preparedness

Inform critical infrastructure, emergency response groups and the media when large earthquakes have occurred

Write scientific reports and publish study findings

Incorporate site characteristics like soil effects into data collection

Apply knowledge of secondary perils such as tsunami, liquefaction and landslides

Understand vulnerability analysis and processing of large damage datasets to develop custom damage predictions

Perform detailed statistical and data analysis for risk analysis

Preparing documentation and reports showing the results of the analysis, to be included in the R&D presentations to clients

Familiarity with insurance regulations and decision-making models

Be able to deploy earthquake hazard catastrophe model development

Excellent understanding of the USGS earthquake hazard program.

Senior seismologists are often promoted to manage a team or teams in the field or in the lab. Such responsibilities often include:

Actively collaborate with software development teams for model development and implementation

Foster a positive and safe work environment for mentor relationships and colleagues

Develop and report on project scopes, schedules, and budgets

Prepare technical reports; liaise with site stakeholders

Supervise fieldwork (survey, site recording, testing, monitoring, and data integrity) of multiple field crews

Communicate with funding agencies through grant applications

Communicate with stakeholders through field status reports and presentation of team findings

Oversee equipment and instruments

Ensure data integrity, quality assurance, organization, and appropriate tracking

What Is the Job Demand for Seismologists?

Employment of geoscientists overall is projected to grow 16 percent from 2012 to 2022, faster than the average for all occupations. Exploration for oil and gas, new drilling techniques, hydraulic fracturing, and increased interest in the environment will partly drive this growth. Geoscientists with master's degrees will have the best opportunities.

How Do I Get a Seismologist Degree?

Seismology is a field of geophysics. Most students earn bachelor's degrees in geophysics, geology, physics, or math. Geology, physics, math, and computer science are all important areas of study for future seismologists.

Advanced degrees are important for research positions. Most require a Ph.D. There are few graduate programs in geophysics; master's students typically study geology or physics.

Other Degrees Related to Seismology

What Kind of Societies and Professional Organizations Do Seismologists Have?

The Seismological Society of America (SSA) is an international professional association founded in 1906. It organizes an annual meeting, publishes Seismological Research Letters and the Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, and funds awards.

The American Geophysical Union (AGU) is an important professional organization for geophysicists and seismologists. It publishes several peer-reviewed journals, organizes the AGU Digital Library, offers workshops and webinars, and hosts a career center.

At over 100 years old, the Geological Society of America (GSA) is the foremost professional association for geologists of all stripes. It has 18 divisions, including one for Environmental and Engineering Geology. It also organizes networking opportunities through geoscience travel and tours.

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Seismology is the study of seismic waves, energy waves caused by rock suddenly breaking apart within the earth or the slipping of tectonic plates. We know these as events as earthquakes. They can also be caused by explosions from volcanic eruptions and testing of nuclear bombs.

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