# data[].attributes.body
Writing can be defined as the ability to compose text in an effective manner for various purposes and communication. It can be considered a tool for both communication and literacy as it allows us to document, collect, and articulate information. It is also a way for an individual to express oneself.

Writing can reinforce or be reinforced by literacy skills, as improving writing skills can improve a student’s ability and capacity to learn (National Institute for Literacy, 2007).

National Institute for Literacy. (2007). Adapted from What Content-Area Teachers Should Know About Adolescent Literacy. National Institute for Literacy. https://lincs.ed.gov/publications/pdf/adolescent_literacy07.pdf

# data[].attributes.body
Vocabulary in the terms of literacy can be defined as knowledge of words, their meaning, and the links to other words. In basic terms, to understand what someone is reading, we need to know the words that are in the text. When students know more words, they have a better understanding of a text – therefore vocabulary is vital for literacy (Elish-Piper,2010).

There are four different types of vocabulary: reading, writing, listening, and speaking (Wollacott, 2022). There are also two ways to learn vocabulary: explicit (direct) and implicit (indirect) (Nezhad et al., 2015).

Elish-Piper L. (2010). Information and Ideas for parents about fluency and vocabulary. Illinois Reading Council Journal, 38(2), 50-51.

Nezhad, A.N., Moghali, M., & Soori, A. (2015). Explicit and implicit learning in vocabulary acquisition. Asian Journal of Education and e-Learning, 3(1), 18-25.

Wollacott, M. (2002, June 5). What are the different types of vocabulary? Language Humanities. https://www.languagehumanities.org/what-are-the-different-types-of-vocabulary.htm#:~:text=There%20are%20four%20main%20types,develops%20with%20age%20and%20learning.

# data[].attributes.body
Comprehension in terms of reading is defined as the ability to actively construct and extract meaning through the engagement and interaction of a text (Snow, 2010). In simple terms, it is what the reader is understanding from the text that they are reading.

It should be noted that comprehension is different from memorization (Snow, 2002). Memorization is the passive way of remembering or defining things. Comprehension is the active creation and understanding of the given text.

Snow, C.E. (2002). Reading for understanding: Toward an R&D program in reading comprehension. RAND Corporation.

Snow, C.E. (2010). Reading comprehension: Reading for learning. International Encyclopedia of Education, 3. 413-418.

# data[].attributes.body
In the most basic form of the definition fluency is the ease ability of being able to read a text or passage. The measurement of fluency can be found in four different areas: (1) accuracy, (2) speed, (3) expression, and (4) comprehension. Those who are considered a fluent reader can coordinate and blend each of these aspects while reading said text (Elish-Piper 2010).

Elish-Piper, L. (2010). Information and ideas for parents about fluency and vocabulary. Illinois Reading Council Journal. 38(2). 48-49.

# data[].attributes.body
Phonics can be defined as the system of an individual learning how to write and write by helping to hear, identify, and use different sounds “that distinguish one word from another in the English language” (National Literacy Trust 2022). It one of the integral methods of teaching that falls under the umbrella of oral language where phonics brings together the sounds made with the visual connection to written letters/combinations of letters.

National Literacy Trust (2022, June 1). What is phonics? National Literacy Trust. https://literacytrust.org.uk/information/what-is-literacy/what-phonics/

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Phonics is a way of teaching children how to read and write. It helps children hear, identify and use different sounds that distinguish one word from another in the English language.Written language can be compared to a code, so knowing the sounds of individual letters and how those letters sound when they're combined will help children decode words as they read.

Understanding phonics will also help children know which letters to use when they are writing words.

Phonics involves matching the sounds of spoken English with individual letters or groups of letters. For example, the sound k can be spelled as c, k, ck or ch.

Teaching children to blend the sounds of letters together helps them decode unfamiliar or unknown words by sounding them out. For example, when a child is taught the sounds for the letters t, p, a and s, they can start to build up the words: "tap", "taps", "pat", "pats" and "sat".

How is phonics taught?

Introducing young children to the joy and wonder of books requires a systematic teaching of phonics.

Synthetic phonics

The most widely used approach associated with the teaching of reading in which phonemes (sounds) associated with particular graphemes (letters) are pronounced in isolation and blended together (synthesised). For example, children are taught to take a single-syllable word such as cat apart into its three letters, pronounce a phoneme for each letter in turn /k, æ, t/, and blend the phonemes together to form a word.

Analytical phonics

A popular approach in Scotland, this method is associated with the teaching of reading in which the phonemes associated with particular graphemes are not pronounced in isolation. Children identify (analyse) the common phoneme in a set of words in which each word contains the phoneme under study. For example, teacher and pupils discuss how the following words are alike: pat, park, push and pen.

Analogy phonics

A type of analytic phonics in which children analyse phonic elements according to the phonograms in the word. A phonogram, known in linguistics as a rime, is composed of the vowel and all the sounds that follow it, such as -ake in the word cake. Children use these phonograms to learn about "word families" for example cake, make, bake, fake.

Embedded phonics

An approach to the teaching of reading in which phonics forms one part of a whole language programme. Embedded phonics differs from other methods in that the instruction is always in the context of literature rather than in separate lessons, and the skills to be taught are identified opportunistically rather than systematically.

Understanding phonics at home

If you are a parent and need support to understand more about phonics to help your child with their learning, you can find out more on our Words for Life website.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What is phonics? | National Literacy Trust

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
How phonics is taught including: synthetic phonics, analytical phonics, analogy phonics and embedded phonics

# data[].attributes.body
Phonological awareness can be defined as ability to focus on and utilize bits of spoken language. This can be found in the forms of words, syllables, onsets, rimes, and/or phonemes (Chin 2018).

Chin, K (2018). Validity of a Dynamic Spanish Assessment of Phonological Awareness in Emergent Bilingual Children [Unpublished doctoral dissertation/master’s thesis]. University of South Florida.

# data[].attributes.body
Oral language can be defined as the system or mechanic of individual's conversation in terms of knowledge, ideas, and feelings with the use of spoken words. This can also involve other forms that employ the voice such as poetry and music in terms of oral communication (National Geographic Society, 2022). Oral Language involves five components: phonological skills, pragmatics, syntax, morphological skills, and vocabulary (Moats, 2010).

Moats, L. (2020). Evidence challenges teaching words "by sight". Perspectives on Language and Literacy, 46(1), 27-30. http://ezproxy.lib.usf.edu/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/evidence-challenges-teaching-words-sight/docview/2413998929/se-2?accountid=14745

National Geographic Society (2022). Oral Language. National Geographic. https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/oral-language

# data[].attributes.body
Oral language is more than simply having a conversation with your students. Communication is dominant in the world so it would be difficult to express yourself without it. The foundation of oral language are the words that people speak (National Geographic Society 2022). At an early age, babies start to babble in an attempt to copy the words that they hear/witness from their parents. This then builds and continues to build throughout one’s life with the inclusion of more unknown vocabulary (Agustin 1995). Literacy is built upon oral language, and it is integral to humankind no matter the age of the learner.

Leito, S & Freemantle Language (2019). Oral Language [Photograph]. Freemantle Language Development Center.

Snow, C, Tabors, P, Nicholson, P, & Kurland, B (1995). Oral Language and Early Literacy Skills in Kindergarten and Frist-Grade Children. Journal of Research in Childhood Education 10(1). 37-48

# data[].attributes.body
Even though most people focus on the concept of increasing oral language as something a baby just does – this can also be applied to school-aged children, including those in middle school.

Some examples that science teachers in middle school can benefit from utilizing oral language skills:
* Encourage students to verbally participate in a discussion about a certain phenomenon based science topic on their thoughts/opinions on its meaning or answer.
* Incorporate a "science question of the day" where students get a chance to ask their own questions about a certain topic (Berninger & Wolf 2016).
*Set up a photo narrative where students can pick photos related to a concept, record themselves explaining the photo in their own view and then pasting a QR code on the photos for other students to scan and listen (Fisher & Fry 2018).

Berninger, V, & Wolf, B (2016). Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, OWL LD, Dyscalculia: Lessons from Science and Teaching, Second Edition. Brookes Publishing.

Fisher, D, & Frey, N (2018). Developing Oral Language Skills in Middle School Learners. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 34(1). 29-46

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
0:00 / 2:02•Watch full video

# data[].attributes.body
Phonological awareness is the building blocks to phonics and fluency. Within the umbrella of oral language, phonological awareness is where the person is aware of the certain aspects of the language such as a syllable or phoneme. The person does not have to comprehend those attributes at that moment, but at least aware of the distinction (Goldsworthy 2011).

Phonological awareness can be applied to middle school students in the context of utilizing an activity with phonological awareness to get used to root words of complex science terms.

Goldsworthy, C (2011). Sourcebook of Phonological Awareness Activities, Volume I: Children's Classic Literature 2nd Edition. Cengage Learning.

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. 2000. Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction: Reports of the Subgroups. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, NIH Pub. No 00-4754.

# data[].attributes.body
In order to master reading comprehension, you must understand the words you are reading. If you do not know what most of the words mean, then how exactly do you know what it is exactly you are reading (Reading Horizons, 2022)? Research has shown that comprehension is significantly lower for students that do not have instruction that deals with vocabulary in most disciplines (Alamri & Rogers, 2018).

As educators, it is important to understand the basic four types of vocabulary (Blachowicz et al., 2013):

Listening: the words that we hear

Speaking: the words that we use when speaking

Reading: the words we see in text

Writing: the words we use to write

We then utilize two different approaches in order to understand the words within the context of these four types of vocabulary:

1. Implicit (Indirect) Learning: The student learns a word through indirect means. The vocabulary word is unconsciously learned or not sought out and acquired independently of a direct fashion – such as looking up a word or the teacher giving them the meaning of the word (Khamesipour, 2015).

2. Explicit (Direct) Learning: The student learns through the teacher directly giving specific goals/outlines with clear explanations of the meanings of words. The student learns vocabulary by being directly given the meaning in some fashion (Al-Darayseh, 2014).

Utilizing a combination of approaches and the strategies that are within them is the key for students to understand the vocabulary and building up to being able to full comprehend the text that they are reading (Alamri & Rogers, 2018).

Alamri, K.  & Rogers, V. (2018). The effectiveness of different explicit vocabulary-teaching strategies on learners’ retention of technical and academic words, The Language Learning Journal, 46(5), 622-633

Al-Darayseh, A.A. (2014). The impact of using explicit/implicit vocabulary teaching strategies on improving students’ vocabulary and reading comprehension. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 4(6), 1109-1118.

Blachowicz, C., Fisher, P., Ogle, D., & Taffe, S.W. (2013). Teaching academic vocabulary K-8: Effective practices across the curriculum. The Guilford Press.

Khamesipour, M. (2015). The effects of explicit and implicit instruction of vocabulary through reading on EFL learners’ vocabulary development. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 5(8), 1620-1627

TedX Talks. (2012, November 13). Hacking Language Learning: Dr. Conor Quinn at TEDxDirigo [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6a6vVIdQBd0

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Hacking Language Learning: Dr. Conor Quinn at TEDxDirigo

# data[].attributes.body
Writing also requires direct instruction due to it being a complex process that also requires different aspects of skills just like literacy skills in general. Providing instruction to create effective writers of struggling readers should be beneficial to their literacy skills (Adlit, 2022). Expectations of good writers include:

Reading/Writing across multiple genres

Utilize different writing strategies that allow for self-direction, goal-orientation, and self-regulation.

The types of skills that students develop in terms of writing include:

Basic writing skills – These are the basic mechanics that form writing a text. A student must be able to: understand sentence structure, utilize proper grammar and spelling, and the mechanics of paragraph writing including punctuation and capitalization (Wingate, 2012). For example, a student needs to understand the importance of using a comma to correctly punctuation. You want to write, “Let’s eat, Grandma!” instead of “Let’s eat grandma!”.

Text Generation – This shows the ability for a writer to express their thoughts properly into writing. To be able to communicate these thoughts, writers need to be able to elaborate on their thoughts with clarity and exemplify an extensive vocabulary base (Adlit, 2022).

Writing Processes – Writing involves careful pre-writing planning, drafting, reflection, revision, and editing of their work (Reading Rockets, 2022). Planning should include strategies such as brainstorming or the use of outlines. It will assist in drafting the text. Upon completion of writing, a writer should reflect on their write and then revise/edit their text as needed.

Writing Knowledge – A writer needs to be able to understand the context in which they are writing (Arp et al., 2003). For example, is the writing informational? Is it a narrative? Is it supposed to be persuasive? Depending on the text genre, a writer needs to be able to understand and compose their writing according to the mechanics of the genre. For example, if you are attempting to write to teach others about the new Covid-19 vaccine, you wouldn’t want to write it is a narrative fiction story.

Adlit. (2022). Key literacy component: Writing. All About Adolescent Literacy. https://www.adlit.org/topics/writing/key-literacy-component-writing#:~:text=Writing%20is%20the%20ability%20to,expressing%20oneself%20and%20persuading%20others.

Adlit. (2022). Key literacy component: Vocabulary. All About Adolescent Literacy. https://www.adlit.org/topics/vocabulary/key-literacy-component-vocabulary

Arp, L., Woodard, B.S., & Norgaard, R. (2003). Writing information literacy: contributions to a concept. Reference & User Services Quarterly 43(2)

Reading Rockets. (2022). Writing. Reading Rockets. https://www.readingrockets.org/teaching/reading-basics/writing

The Writing Process [Photograph]. (2022). Southern Main Community College. https://smccme.libguides.com/writingcenter/writingprocess

Wingate, U. (2012). Using academic literacies and genre-based models for academic writing instruction: A ‘literacy’ journey. Journal of English for Academic Purposes 11. 26-37

# data[].attributes.body
Phonics matches the sounds of spoken English with letters, whether it is an individual letter (t) or groups of letters (tap). It allows learners to know what letters to use when writing down words. The most notable approach is systematic phonics (Bowers 2018). Systematic phonics is broken down into two parts, where the first is based on “phonology first” hypotheses where learners work on grapheme (letter/combination of letters)-phoneme (sounds) prior to the second stage. That stage emphasizes the meanings of written words in both text and isolation (Bowers 2010).

Most of the time, people assume that phonics is strictly reserved to teaching in elementary or to English language learners. However, there is evidence that phonics is still integral in the middle school classroom. Without proper phonics instruction, students can display struggles with decoding, morphology, etymology, and ultimately fluency (Altani et al. 2020). This can have a negative impact on academic achievement regardless of the content area (Uysal and Bilge 2018). Planning instruction to middle grades learners in regards to more advanced words by teachers will ultimately benefit the comprehension between the students and the content given.

One can consider this to be the second stage of the systematics phonics process where advanced phonics instruction is introduced (Bowers 2020). Four areas that middle school teachers can focus on in reads to phonics instruction to their students are:

·       Affixes

·       Greek and Latin Roots

·       Etymology

·       Syllabication Patterns

Altani, A., Protopapas, A., Katopodi, K., & Georgiou, G.K. (2020). From individual word recognition to word list and text reading fluency. Journal of Educational Psychology 112(1). 22-29.

Bowers, J. (2020). Reconsidering the evidence that systematic phonics Is more effective Than alternative methods of reading instruction. Educational Psychology Review. 32. 681–705

Bowers, J. S., & Bowers, P. N. (2018b). The importance of correctly characterizing the English spelling system when devising and evaluating methods of reading instruction: comment on Taylor, Davis, and Rastle (2017). Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. ₇₁. 1497–1500.

Bowers, P. N., & Kirby, J. R. (2010). Effects of morphological instruction on vocabulary acquisition. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal. 23. 515–537.

Uysal, P. K., and H. Bilge (2018). An investigation on the relationship between reading fluency and level of reading comprehension according to the type of text. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education. 111(2).161–72.

# data[].attributes.body
The application of fluency is really the mastery of the four components of fluency. This isn’t just something to apply to early childhood learners but can be applied to the middle school classroom as well.

(1)    Accuracy – Essentially a student needs to be able to read the words correctly. Stumbling over words and messing them up can disrupt fluency and the comprehension learning process. The best way to work through this with middle school learners is teaching them the ability to decode a word utilizing the text that is located next to it. (Jerry L. Johns Literacy Center).

(2)    Speed – Fluent readers have the ability to read the passage at a greater speed rather than those who are struggling readers. The easy of being able to read the text at a good pace can be dependent on multiple factors. One strategy to use with middle school readers can be the use of colorful overlays – plastic sheets with colors over specific parts of the text to reduce eye strain and confusion of lines/words to be able to read at a better pace (Wilkins 2003).

(3)    Expression – One way to help struggling learners is to teach them the expression of words, or how the words sound when spoken verbally. Fluent readers can read each word with some sort of expression in mind, for example – if you read this sentence as a fluent reader how would you express it – “Hey! Put down that remote control right now, or you will suffer the most severe consequences!”

(4)    Comprehension – The final part of being a fluent reader is being able to comprehend what you are reading. This is the bridge that some consider from learning to read to reading to learn. In the aspect of comprehension in the middle school classroom, literacy should be in all disciplines and articles can be found on almost any subject online to be used by instructors that might even include comprehension questions.

Jerry L. Johns Literacy Center (2022, June 1). What is Fluency? Northern Illinois University. https://www.cedu.niu.edu/literacy-clinic/resources/raising-readers/fluency.pdf

Wilkins, A. (2003). Reading Through Colour : How Coloured Filters Can Reduce Reading Difficulty, Eye Strain, and Headaches. John Wiley & Sons.

# data[].attributes.body
Comprehension is not simply being able to regurgitate facts from memory. That just shows how well a student can memorize. Instead, comprehension is the active action of creating and constructing meaning from a text. For a student to comprehend a text, they need to be actively engaged with it. This means less memorizing and more strategies to give deeper meaning and understanding of text. Examples of gaging student comprehension achievement with a given text (Grant et al., 2012):

1) Activating background knowledge – According to the schema theory, students need to build knowledge before reading because what students know influences how they learn (Lupo et al., 2017). When students have more prior knowledge before, they read, their understanding is better because it activates pockets of information that is then keyed as important and creates a relationship between the two.

2) Questioning/Summarizing – The ability for students to be able to accurately summarize a text as well as answer open-ended type questions shows more comprehension for a text rather than attempting to just answer a multiple-choice question (Wexler et al., 2022). Questioning can be in the form of discussion, questioning by the teacher or peers, or through assessments. Summarizing can be completed in a variety of forms as well based on content area.

3) Self-Monitoring – Literature review shows that students who can self-monitor, reflect, and revise their learning, that there is a greater chance of comprehension. This can be done in the form of visuals such as a reading cues bookmark or self-correcting strategies (Pratt & Urbanowski, 2015). This must be modeled by the teacher first before students have the ability to monitor on their own.

4) Analyzing – Especially for middle grades learners, an aspect of comprehension is the ability to analyze a complex text through making inferences about what they are reading. This can be done in the form of writing, graphic organizers, and discussions (Guiterrez de Blume et al., 2021).

Grant, A., Gottardo, A., & Geva, E. (2012). Measures of reading comprehension: do they measure different skills for children learning English as a second language? Reading and Writing, 25, 1899-1928.

Gutierrez de Blume, A.P., Katz, A., & Bass, J. (2021) Impact of literacy across content on middle school students’ reading comprehension in rural context. Journal of Research in Reading, 44(2), 284-300.

Lupo, S.M., Strong, J.Z., Lewis, W., Walpole, S., & McKenna, M.C. (2017) Building background knowledge through reading: Rethinking text sets. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 61(4), 433-444.

Pratt, S. & Urbanowski, M. (2015). Teaching early readers to self-monitor and self-correct. The Reading Teacher, 69(5), 559-567.

Wexler, J., Kearns, D.M., Lemons, C.J., Shelton, A., Pollack, M.S., Stapleton, L.M., Clancy, E., Hogan, E., & Lyon, C. (2022). Improving literacy instruction in co-taught middle school classrooms to support reading comprehension.

# data[].attributes.body
Vocabulary is one of the most difficult aspects in the science classroom due to the numerous words that can be complex in both meaning and pronunciation.  For most science educators, it can be daunting to think about having to teach literacy on top of everything else in the classroom, but we are already doing that – and we can incorporate strategies within the science classroom in order for them to understand the vocabulary through both direct and indirect approaches (Croner, 2003). The following are some strategies/ideas that have been found to benefit the science classroom when it comes to vocabulary:

Embed Supports – include different types of sources aside from just the textbook, give students the ability to write their notes in their own words instead of just coping it down, and modeling a text by thinking aloud utilizing questions, making connections, and summarizing as you read (Kesty, 2018).

Utilizing pre-reading strategies – activate prior knowledge (anticipation guide), analyzing text features (textbook survey), and vocabulary development (graphic organizer) (Osborne, 2022).

During reading strategies – teach students how to engineer/annotate a text (text marking), interacting with the text utilizing technology, and listening triads (small group talk) (Kesty, 2018).

After reading strategies – return to pre-reading strategies for revision and reflection by citing evidence from the text (anticipation guide), use the 4x4 Frayer Model, and whole group-small group discussion (Dale & White, 2020).

California Academy of Sciences. (2022). After reading Frayer model evaporation [Photograph]. SERP Institute.

Croner, P.E. (2003). Strategies for teaching science content reading. The Science Education Review, 2(4), 104-119.

Dale, T.C. & White, M.S. (2020, May 17). Reading strategies in the science classroom. Middleweb. https://www.middleweb.com/42951/reading-strategies-in-the-science-classroom/

Kesty, S. (2018, November 21). Supporting literacy in the science classroom. Edutopia. https://www.edutopia.org/article/supporting-literacy-science-classroom

Osborne, J. (2022, June 17). Reading to learn in science: Strategies for the classroom. SERP. https://www.serpinstitute.org/reading-science/classroom-strategies

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
C. After Reading_Frayer Model Evaporation

# data[].attributes.body
Communication is one of the main mechanisms within the science classroom. As a science educator, it is imperative that students should be seen as mini-scientists and that includes providing direct instruction on writing skills to effectively write within the science classroom. It should be noted that within the confines of middle school, not all aspects of scientific writing should be taught, but more about introducing students to the disciplines of it (Heller, 2010). This is important not only for them to be able to communicate scientifically but also to allow for students to be able to critically examine science literacy and develop their own thoughts and opinions on it (National Research Council, 2012).

The foundational introduction of scientific writing includes:

Producing knowledge – This can be in the means of scientific research and experimentation (i.e. – Labs) (Nature, 1918)

Evaluating knowledge – Assessing what is learned from the classroom (i.e. – summative assessments)

Representing knowledge – Using reasoning to convey thoughts on the scientific topic (i.e. – discussions, argumentative activities, graphic organizers)

Challenging knowledge – Be able to have critical thinking skills to evaluate and challenge things with the science classroom in the context of current science practices (i.e. – repeating a student’s experiment to test for reliability and validity and then writing about it). (Kaptan & Timurlenk, 2012)

Allowing for more writing within the science classroom helps students to become strong writers as well giving more deeper meaning to scientific thinking and literacy (Nguyen, 2022). Good strategies to utilize for writing in the science classroom are:

Using scientific notebooks or journals

Providing low stakes writing prompts such as graphic organizers or the RAFT model (Faller, 2017)

Make writing in the classroom interactive and creative

Faller, E.S. (2012). Reading and writing as scientists? Text genres and literacy practices in girls’ middle-grade science. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 61(4), 381-390

Heller, R. (2010). In praise of amateurism: A friendly critique of Moje’s “call for change” in secondary literacy. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 54(4), 267-273.

Kaptan, K. & Timurlenk, O. (2012). Challenges for science education. Procedia- Social and Behavioral Sciences, 51, 763-771.

National Research Council (2012). A framework for K-12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

Nguyen, H.P. (2022, February 11). Creating authentic writing opportunities in the science classroom. Edutopia. https://www.edutopia.org/article/creating-authentic-writing-opportunities-science-classroom

Tedx Talks. (2014, February 1). Communicating Science | Sheril Kirshenbaum | TEDxCongressAve [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rXqLHc5ZbbM

The production of scientific knowledge. (1918). Nature, 100, 355-358.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Communicating science | Sheril Kirshenbaum | TEDxCongressAve

# data[].attributes.body
Based on the four instructional areas listed above, I have included four different types of examples of advanced phonics instruction for the middle school science classroom.

1)      Affixes – On Teachers Pay Teachers, creator “Pope A Lope” has a free download of science affixes cards that students can use to help memorize and then play a memory matching game with them, challenging their peers on who can correctly match them all the fastest. URL: https://www.teacherspayteachers.com/Product/Prefix-Suffix-cards-for-Language-of-science-activity-2796247?st=f5aaafe92d2b93402ced80832f7ac551

2)      Greek and Latin Roots -Kaely James created a Youtube video on how you can utilize different colored Legos to match Greek and Latin roots to create words in science. URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gVDITVFzRyY

3)      Etymology – To learn the etymology as well as practice any spellings of words, one journal article suggests playing a game of Etymology Throw a Ball. A ball is thrown to a random student. The announcer will then read the word and share its origin by showing it on a card. The person with the ball attempts to spell the word based on patterns they learned based on that origin. After revision, that student can throw the ball to another randomly to keep all students engaged (Dilgard & Hodges 2022).

4)      Syllabication – Have the students practice more of the complicated science words by creating a syllables worksheet. The student will read the words and them categorize them by the number of syllables. An example can be found here: https://www.havefunteaching.com/resource/format/worksheets/science-syllables-worksheet/

Dilgard, C., & Hodges, T.S. (2022). Leveraging Literacy Centers for Phonics and Fluency Skill Building in Middle School. The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas. 95(1). 7-17

Have Fun Teaching (2022, June 1). Science Syllables Worksheet. HFT. https://www.havefunteaching.com/resource/format/worksheets/science-syllables-worksheet/

James, K. (2016, January 2). Greek and Latin Roots Intro [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gVDITVFzRyY

Pope A Lope (2022, June 1). Prefix suffix cards for language of science activity. Teachers Pay Teachers. https://www.teacherspayteachers.com/Product/Prefix-Suffix-cards-for-Language-of-science-activity-2796247?st=f5aaafe92d2b93402ced80832f7ac551

# data[].attributes.body
Science isn’t just about blowing things up in a lab. Science does include communication and language. Often, language in science can be very complicated with vocabulary that might be unknown to middle school learners. Without knowledge of these complicated words, a student cannot really be a fluent reader in the science classroom.

Even though we want our classrooms to have a student-centered approach, the main role of a teacher in regard to fluency is to incorporate what an article calls “teacher talk” (Oyoo 2015). This is where the instructor stops and carefully crafts how to define specific science vocabulary and their meanings within the context of a lesson. With getting used to these complicated words in science, then a student can be more fluent when reading a scientific text.

Oyoo, S.O. (2015, June 3). Helping learners become fluent in the language of science classrooms. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/helping-learners-become-fluent-in-the-language-of-science-classrooms-41540

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
This Scientific Method Science Literacy Article will help to support important science content and reading comprehension for every single one of your students. This resource is a "game-changer" for incorporating cross-curricular activities into your science classroom! This resource comes with 2 different versions of the article (regular and modified). The modified version is perfect for students with modifications or accommodations, ESL or ELL students, or lower-level readers. We have also included a "Question Companion" (question sheet and answer key) that is 100% fully editable. You are free to add or remove any of the questions to fit your needs.
PLEASE READ BEFORE PURCHASE! The regular version of the article is the same article used in our S.C.I.E.N.C.E. Station Labs. However, this resource includes a modified version of the article, student question sheet, and answer key as well. SAVE $$! This resource is also included in our Lab Safety and Scientific Method Science Literacy Bundle!
This download includes the following:

-2 Versions of Article (Regular and Modified)

-Student Question Companion Sheet (Editable and PDF)

-Digital Versions for PowerPoint or Google Slides

-Google Form of Question Companion

-Answer Key (Editable and PDF)

-Suggestions for Use

Science Literacy Article Suggestions for Use

1. Use to improve literacy and/or as a cross-curricular activity.

2. Use to reinforce key science concepts.

3. Use to teach/demonstrate important reading strategies.

4. Use as class notes and/or class reviews.

5. Use as an extra emergency substitute plan.

6. Use as a short quiz, assessment, or checkpoint.

7. Use in small groups, pullouts, or tutorials.

8. Use as a homework assignment.

This resource comes with a regular version and a modified version of the article. A fully editable companion question document and answer key are also included. You may choose to print the articles as class sets or allow your students to make notes, highlight, underline, and show various other strategies.
Other products you may like: Science Task Card Bundle - Includes Digital BOOM Cards™ Science Interactive Notebook Bundle Science Warm-Up and Homework Bundle Science Exit Ticket Bundle Terms of Use:
© Copyright The Science Duo. All rights reserved by author. This product is to be used by the original purchaser only. Copying for more than one teacher or classroom, or for an entire department, school, or school system is prohibited. This product may not be distributed or displayed digitally for public view, uploaded to school or district websites, distributed via email, or submitted to file sharing sites such as Amazon Inspire. Failure to comply is a copyright infringement and a violation of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA). Intended for single classroom and personal use only.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Scientific Method Science Literacy Article - Distance Learning Compatible

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This Scientific Method Science Literacy Article will help to support important science content and reading comprehension for every single one of your students. This resource is a "game-changer" for incorporating cross-curricular activities into your science classroom! This resource comes with 2 di...

# data[].attributes.body
When teaching in a middle school science classroom, comprehension of texts is as integral in order to achieve academic success as well having critical understanding of given science standards and topics. In the application section above, four types of ways to assess comprehension of students within a given text. These are examples that can be utilized in a middle grades science classroom:

1) Activating background knowledge – Facilitating a simulation or phenomenon to stimulate discussion amongst students to establish the foundation of the science concept as well as be a ‘hook’ for the topic ahead (Ferlazzo, 2020). For example, facilitating a discussion on the phenomenon question of how something can act like a mirror and a window at the same time to assess background knowledge of the concepts of reflection and refraction.

2) Questioning/Summarizing – Sometimes the simplest of strategies like summarizing can be difficult when it comes to content areas other than ELA. Teachers need to understand and be ale to teach a process for students to be able to understand the proper expectations of summarizing an article. For example, Kelly is a middle school teacher who writes a blog called “Super Sass and Science Class” who gives great strategies on how to teach your students how to properly summarize a text.

3) Self-Monitoring – Self-monitoring can be a simple and effective tool to help students reflect on their own progress. The trick is making it a routine that the students can stick too (Mezies et al., 2009). The following is a journal article that assists with coming up with self-monitoring procedures such as a common area for the self-monitoring sheet to be for consistency: https://tinyurl.com/yyb3hy9d

4) Analyzing – The best way to approach comprehension in the way of analyzing the text is to model this ability with students directly. This can be done through modes of inquiry as well as think alouds. Edutopia has a document that talks about strategies to model literacy analysis that can be found here: https://tinyurl.com/ykts4r3j

Ferlazzo, L. (2020, June 15). The whys & hows of activating students’ background knowledge. Education Week. https://www.edweek.org/teaching-learning/opinion-the-whys-hows-of-activating-students-background-knowledge/2020/06

Kelly (2022, January 24). Teach summarizing skills in science. Super Sass and Science Class. https://supersassandscienceclass.com/teach-summarizing-skills-in-science/

Menzies, H.M., Lane, K.L., & Lee, J.M. (2009). Self-monitoring strategies for use in the classroom: A promising practices to support productive behavior for students with emotional or behavioral disorders. 18

Tramantano, J. (2017, August 31). 4 Strategies to model literary analysis. Edutopia https://www.edutopia.org/article/4-strategies-model-literary-analysis

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
A s an Amazon Associate I earn from qualifying purchases.

"Summarize this passage. Just write it in your own words. No, you can't just change some of the words to make it yours. Is this copy and pasted?" I'm sure you've said those things. It's what teachers say when they want students to summarize a passage. I've realized by the time students get to middle school, they have heard all those common phrases I just shared, but rarely have we spent the time to actually teach summarizing skills.

So, how do content area teachers teach summarizing skills?

Summarizing is a critical thinking skill. There is not one single answer. It requires students to really think about what they're reading and understand it. Plus, summarizing is hard. There's no time in the day for a science teacher to add summarizing to their plate. Students should know how to do it, right?

Wrong. As a content area teacher, I knew it was my assumed responsibility to make sure my students were reading and writing. Summarizing creates an opportunity for students to do both, and trust me... your ELA teachers will love you for incorporating it.

This fool-proof method of teaching middle school students summarizing skills is easy. I was actually pretty impressed with what my students came up with. The key is breaking it down into bite-sized chunks and presenting it in a way that is not intimidating.

PREPPING TO TEACH SUMMARIZING

1. Find your text.

I really like using Newsea to find informational text. There are a lot of articles you can access for free when you make an account. Furthermore, each article has multiple versions including 3-4 different reading levels you can choose from. When you are just starting to teach summarizing, I'd suggest starting with a slightly lower reading level. You want students to be able to focus on the summarizing skill without being overwhelmed by the text itself.

2. Format your text.

Use Google Docs to clean up articles to make them easier for students to read. Remember, this step is for classroom use only!

Hear me out. This is not completely a requirement, but I do like doing it. When a paper looks organized and has few distractions, students feel comfortable with the simplicity. Here's how I do it.

First, copy and paste the text from the article into a Google Doc.

Second, clean it up. Delete any stray words and fix any funky paragraphs. Make sure there are actually paragraph breaks. Bold the article title. If you can bring the main photo onto the Google Doc, that is awesome. This will also help students feel less overwhelmed. Instead of looking at a huge page of words, they'll see a picture.

Next, space it out. Go to FORMAT > LINE & PARAGRAPH SPACING in your toolbar at the top of your Doc. Use the line spacing to make sure you're giving students more room than single space. I would suggest 1.2 line spacing and I'd check the option that says "Add Space After Paragraph." This makes your paragraph breaks a little more noticeable. I also like to make sure paragraphs aren't too long or too short. Too short and you can't summarize but too long and it's really overwhelming.

Finally, do some tweaking. Again, not completely necessary. If I'm running onto a third page, I like to adjust the margins or the font size to keep it on one page - front and back. If you're really tight on space, you can delete a paragraph or two. There is nothing wrong with that.

Need some help? Watch the video below!
3. Print

You've finished finding and formatting your article, now you should print it. I also use a template that helps students stay organized. You need one article and one template per student.

We've got everything ready, and now we need to actually teach summarizing skills.

Introducing summarizing to your students.

The reality is, students know how to summarize informally, so draw that out of them. Start by asking students to give you an overview of a popular movie. Or if you're feeling up to it, ask them to give you an overview of a movie featured in an Olaf Presents episode, and then show them that clip of Olaf summarizing the movie. This is such a fun way to engage them!

Up until this point, try to keep summarizing out of your vocabulary. Kids instantly check out because it's traditionally so hard. But, as you pass out the article and template, mention that summarizing is a skill they know how to do, but it's important to learn how to summarize text.

How to teach summarizing skills.

1. Read the whole article.

I'd suggest doing this out loud. Ask basic questions like what the article is about or some words they recognize. Maybe ask about something they thought was interesting. Just start talking about it.

2. Draw a physical line between the paragraphs and number each one.

The reasoning for this is two fold. First, it makes each paragraph much less intimidating because you're chunking the information for them. Second, the numbers correspond to a space on the template where they will actually write their summary.

3. Read the first paragraph and circle 5-7 key words.

These can be words that are repeated or words they find important . I like asking them to circle words they are unique to that paragraph. For example, moon might be used in every paragraph in an article about the moon phases. They don't need to circle it every time, although they can. However, if illuminated shows up for the first time in the third paragraph, that is a great word to circle.

4. Write down all the circled words on the template in the first section.

This should give them a good idea of what the main idea of the paragraph is about.

5. Read the paragraph one more time.

Next, Ask them to put the article away and look at the 5-7 words on their template.

6. Use those 5-7 key words to write one sentence.

Your students might use all of the words or they might not. But they'll have one full sentence that is actually written in their own words and is a summary of the first paragraph.

7. Repeat!

After each paragraph is summarized, students will move onto the next paragraph and repeat the steps. Read, circle, read, write.

You'll find after students have summarized each paragraph, they'll have a summary of the entire article when they combine all of their mini-summaries.

Tips for Classroom Management

Teaching students how to summarize is hard. I suggest a few things as you are actually teaching this skill.

First, do the first two or even three paragraphs with students. I love using a doc cam (This one is my favorite if you're looking for one!). Students should follow along with you, but you can gradually release control as you move from one paragraph to the next. When you move to the second or third paragraph, ask students to write their own sentence, give them a few minutes, and see if anyone wants to share.

Next, I'm all for working while students work. This is not one of those lessons. Plan to walk around and answer questions. I like to tell students, "raise your hand when you've completed a sentence and I'll check it." When I come across a good summary, I like to ask if I can read it out loud. Students benefit from hearing other student's summaries.

Finally, this is NOT something I'd ever give for homework, at least until they've become very familiar with it. If most students aren't done, plan to finish it the next day. The goal is to teach summarizing skills, not overwhelm students. It's hard enough as is. And trust me... I've overwhelmed a few too many students for my liking.

My promise to you is that teaching your students to summarize nonfiction text will no longer be like pulling teeth. With the right format, you can train your students how to summarize fluently and, hopefully, never hear, "Do we need to write this in our own words?" again!

Still have questions?! Keep reading!

Frequently Asked Questions

When should I teach summarizing to my students?

Start teaching them right away! The first time you teach them, it will probably take a whole class period - just to teach and model the process. After that, it will take less and less time. In addition, as students become more comfortable with this process, writing summaries for a would make a great (and easy) sub plan. But only when they know what they're doing.

What if my students say it's too hard?

First of all, yes. It is hard. Not much in life is easy! I didn't really learn how to take in a lot of information and summarize it until my first year teaching. It would have been a really great skill in college!

Second, I sometimes let students work in partners or groups to talk about how to form their summaries using the key words. Hearing other's conversations can help students who don't quite get it yet. It also gives them a safe place to work through their ideas and piggyback off of each other. If the whole class is struggling, try an article that has a lower lexile level. You can even start with something they're more familiar with, like Goldilocks and the Three Bears.

How can I make this more engaging?

Using high interest articles can definitely help to teach summarizing. One year, I used an article about whale poop! Kids loved it!

You can also set up rotating stations. I've placed students in groups and given all the groups 3-4 minutes to come up with a summary sentence for paragraph one. Then, two students from each group get up and move to the next group and I give them another 3-4 minutes to write a summary for paragraph two. With this set-up, students get to talk to a lot of different people and they get to take breaks and move around the classroom. Read about how I use grouping cards for this type of activity!

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A s an Amazon Associate I earn from qualifying purchases. "Summarize this passage. Just write it in your own words. No, you can't just change some of the words to make it yours. Is this copy and pasted?" I'm sure you've said those things. It's what teachers say when they want students to summarize a passage.

# data[].attributes.body
An example of equity in science education is the book called "Teaching Students with Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, OWL LD, and Dyscalculia Second Edition" by Beverly Wolf and Virginia Beringer.

This book gives strategies on how a science teacher can utilizing things such as using an activity to boost oral language can be a benefit to all students but also a benefit those with exceptionalities.

# data[].attributes.body
As a teacher, one needs to make sure that instruction reaches ALL levels including those with exceptionalities. Examples of these exceptionalities can include intellectual disability, complex communication needs, physical/sensory exceptionalities, and autism. These can lead to barriers in literacy where phonics is one of the integral moving parts to become a competent reader in all disciplines, including science.

Therefore, it is necessary to look at the research to see what other instructors or researchers have done with those who have exceptionalities in teaching phonics and then figure out how to include that into your instruction as a process for the universal design for learning and meeting those learners with equity. One example of this is utilizing a special curriculum called the ALL curriculum that increases letter-sound association and was studied among those with autism and intellectual disabilities (Ainsworth et al. 2016).

Ainsworth, M.K., Evmenova, A.S., Behrmann, M., & Jerome, M. (2016). Teaching phonics to groups of middle school students with autism, intellectual disabilities and complex communication needs. Research in Developmental Disabilities 56. 165-176.

# data[].attributes.body
Above pictured is a link to a recorded webinar on YouTube provided by the NWEA. It features Dr. Tim Rasinki, Dr. Lynne Klch, and Dr. Cindy Jiban. The webinar highlights strategies that assists helping all kids access grade level texts within the classroom in order to promote equity in the terms of fluency of reading within the classroom.

NWEAvideos (2021, January 25). Fluency and Equity | Dr. Tim Rasinski | Helping all kids access grade-level text [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FnskirgRFRU

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Fluency and Equity | Dr. Tim Rasinski | Helping all kids access grade-level text

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Augmented Reality Vocabulary with Picture Markers

# data[].attributes.body
Although this research study was conducted on college students, I believe the same can be applied for secondary education as well. Vocabulary can be a complex concept already, even more so with students that have exceptionalities. Students with intellectual exceptionalities and students with autism fall under this category. This study highlights a cutting-edge strategy of teaching vocabulary by utilizing augmented reality. The study showed that the students increased in definition and labeling knowledge for science vocabulary words (McMahon et al., 2016). This was done by giving students vocabulary words with specific markers that can then be utilized with augmented technology to interact with a video or mixed media to learn about the word.

McMahon, D.D., Cihak, D.F., Wright, R.E., & Bell S.M. (2016). Augmented reality for teaching science vocabulary to postsecondary education students with intellectual disabilities and autism. Journal of Research on Technology in Education 48(1), 38-56

# data[].attributes.body
Regardless of being within the science classroom or not, writing is still an important skill that all learners must be able to experience, instructed on, and supported for success in both academics as well as literacy. This includes ALL students, which includes those with learning and intellectual exceptionalities. Proficiency in writing can be more challenging for these students, however – research has shown that they have gained more skill through (Gadd et al., 2021):

Engaging activities and lessons

Recognizing the purpose of writing

Goal setting

Reflecting and celebrating completion of tasks

Although these skills are considered a differentiation of learning, the universal design for learning tells us that we need to apply supports to ALL students. For equity, these students will have more support but those in the general classroom could also benefit from these strategies as well.

Gaad, M., Berthen, D., & Lundgren, L. (2021). Helping students with intellectual disabilities become better writers: An inquiry into writing instruction. International Journal of Disability, Development, and Education, 68(3), 395-413.

Smart Goals [Photograph]. (2022). ABCTeach. https://www.abcteach.com/documents/smart-goals-goal-setting-school-subject-goals-writing-and-planning-goals-55636

# data[].attributes.body
Equity in the classroom means allowing for all students to gain comprehension of a given text. Not some students, but ALL students. This means teachers need to gain experience in how to approach teaching literacy and comprehension with subgroups of students that often get overlooked within the confines of education. I found two books that can be accessed online that talks about programs as well as different strategies to implement achievement of comprehension of complex texts with both struggling readers as well as students with learning difficulties.

The first, The Effects of the Language! Literacy Instruction on the Reading Comprehension and Motivation to Read of Struggling Middle School Readers, is a dissertation of utilization of a specific program compared to traditional literacy teaching. It gives the ability to obtain resources through its literature review to help with strategies as well as seeing first-hand how differentiation in the terms of curriculum effectively increased the potential of comprehension of struggling readers.

The second, Reading Comprehension: Assisting Children with Learning Difficulties, is a book that breaks down a model to classify strategies that focus on working memory and its function with comprehension that is effective especially with children with exceptionalities but can be applied to both struggling readers as well as the general education population.

Barrier-Ferreira, J. (2010). The effects of the Language! Literacy instruction on the reading comprehension and motivation to read of struggling middle school readers (Publication No. 10616809). [Doctoral dissertation, Western Connecticut State University]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.

Woolley, G. (2011). Reading comprehension: Assisting children with learning difficulties. Springer.

# data[].attributes.body
Oral Language Development Seminar PPT: https://buffettinstitute.nebraska.edu/-/media/beci/docs/oral-language-development-nancy-1-19-17.pdf

# data[].attributes.body
Science vocabulary is one of the most difficult aspect of learning science in middle school. By being aware of the meaning of the prefixes and suffixes by listening to them being spoken over and over again and associating them with new words will aid in the comprehension of those new words and the standard in total.

Fortenbaugh, P. (2020, August 31). Honors Biology Prefixes and Suffixes [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-wfr23Xm8nQ

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
0:00 / 15:11•Watch full video

# data[].attributes.body
Compass Classroom (2019, May 14). Water (Aqua & Hydra) | Word Up! The Vocab Show - Learn Greek and Latin Roots! [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eF2OwnnTvew

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
0:00 / 15:55•Watch full video

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Water (Aqua & Hydra) | Word Up! The Vocab Show - Learn Greek and Latin Roots!

# data[].attributes.body
TedXTalks (2021, May 5). A Race Against Time: The Key to Reading Fluency | Danielle Costa | TEDxRoseburg [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7SOptxUyjRA

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
A Race Against Time: The Key to Reading Fluency | Danielle Costa | TEDxRoseburg

# data[].attributes.body
Ted Talk: The Power and Importance of Reading - Luke Bakic

Additional book resources:

The Big Book of Literacy Tasks, Grades K-8 : 75 Balanced Literacy Activities Students Do (Not You!) by Nancy Akhavan

Literacy Matters : Strategies Every Teacher Can Use by Robin J. Fogarty

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The power and importance of reading | Luke Bakic | TEDxYouth@TBSWarsaw

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A nine-year-old shares his perspective on why reading is so important. Luke is passionate about reading and believes that lack of reading is causing many social ills. This talk was given at a TEDx event using the TED conference format but independently organized by a local community.

# data[].attributes.body
Teaching Idea - Science Vocabulary Parade

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Science Vocabulary Parade at Burks Elementary

# data[].attributes.body
Reading Rockets. (2019, January 31). Connecting Writing to Science [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gqHsXYRnbzE

# data[].attributes.body
There are several resources that educators can utilize to apply strategies that benefit those with exceptionalities and the general education population together without separating the two.

The one I found to be a benefit was an article on LD, Online where it talks about instructional guidelines about phonological awareness. I like it due to the fact that it includes research that pairs with those guidelines to give credit to the strategies that are being given.

Example: Create a rhyming game that has to include a couple of the vocabulary terms for that science topic. What do you think that rhymes with mitosis?

"I don't know, Sis."

Dickson, S, & Chard, D. (1999, May). Phonological Awareness: Instructional and Assessment Guidelines. LD Online. https://www.ldonline.org/ld-topics/teaching-instruction/phonological-awareness-instructional-and-assessment-guidelines

# data[].attributes.body
Summers 2nd Grade (2020, September 3). What is Science Flocabulary Video, Vocab game and quiz [Video] Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=64NPHsuZLP0

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
0:00 / 19:39•Watch full video

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What is Science Flocabulary Video, Vocab  game and quiz