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Heisenberg contributed to atomic theory by formulating quantum mechanics in terms of matrices and discovering the uncertainty principle, which states that a particle's position and momentum cannot both be known exactly. He drew the conclusion that absolute causal determinism was impossible since it required exact knowledge of both position and momentum as initial conditions.

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According to Bohr, a small positively charged nucleus is surrounded by revolving negatively charged electrons in fixed orbits. His model shows the atom as a small, positively charged nucleus surrounded by orbiting electrons. concluded that an electron will have more energy if it is located away from the nucleus whereas electrons will have less energy if it is located near the nucleus.

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In 1911, Rutherford depicted the atom as having a tiny, dense, and positively charged core called the nucleus. Rutherford said that the mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus. The light, negatively charged, electrons circulated around this nucleus, like planets revolving around the Sun. His experiments concluded that the atom is largely empty and has a heavy positive-charged body at the center called the nucleus.

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Dalton concurs that matter is composed of extremely small particles called atoms. He says that atoms are identical in size, mass, and other properties. Atoms of different elements differ in size, mass, and other properties. Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed.

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In 1897, British physicist J.J. Thomson discovered that atoms were made up of smaller components and all matter is made up of atoms that were invisible and indestructible. He realized that the model of an atom did not account for negatively or positively charged particles. This finding revolutionized the way scientists thought about the atom and had major ramifications for the field of physics.