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The religion of the Phoenicians was said to have originated in the ancient Semitic world, which influenced the Canaanites. The rites centered on paying taxes as religious sacrifices for the city-states.

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Between 1000 BCE and 600 BCE, the Phoenicians dominated the ancient world’s trading industry. Their abilities in shipbuilding and sailing were the most well-known, and they also improved their use of the North Star for navigation when sailing at night.

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Rashid, Noureldin, Yahya, Mohammad Youssef

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Rashid, Noureldin, Yahya, Mohammad Youssef

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Sultan, Chris, Noor, Mohammad Touk, Aya R.

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Sultan, Chris, Noor, Mohammad Touk, Aya R.

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Mohammad AlEida, Leen, Ali, Limar, Mohammad Thaher

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Mohammad AlEida, Leen, Ali, Limar, Mohammad Thaher

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Talia, Mohammad Al Misshal, Tuleen H., Omar

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Talia, Mohammad Al Misshal, Tuleen H., Omar

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Alreem, Yousuf D., Fayrouz, Yousef K, Mohammed S.

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Alreem, Yousuf D., Fayrouz, Yousef K, Mohammed S.

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Download FREE teacher-made resources covering 'the Phoenicians'

Phoenicia was an ancient civilisation located in the eastern Mediterranean region, though it was primarily situated where modern-day Lebanon and coastal Syria are. However, as with all ancient empires, the territory of the Phoenicians grew and shrank throughout the years. The Phoenicians were a Semitic-speaking people, a language common in the ancient Near East, such as Mesopotamia and the Levant.

Despite their influence and power, their origins are not well known. Even their name, "Phoenicia", is debated but most commonly attributed to the ancient Greek exonym that described a popular important: a dye, which was also known as "Tyrian purple." However, others even debate whether the Phoenicians were a distinct, independent culture of their own or were part of the Canaanite peoples. In fact, some historians believe the terms "Canaanites" and "Phoenicians" refer to the same people.

The Phoenicians gained power and influence circa the mid-12 th century BC, just as other major cultures were declining in a period referred to as the Late Bronze Age collapse. Their society consisted of skilled traders and mariners, even going so far as to develop an extensive maritime trade network that operated for more than a millennium. This network played a vital role in the exchanging of cultures and the development of relationships between cultures such as Greece, Egypt, and Mesopotamia, which we now credit as important cradles of civilisation.

Origins

Unfortunately, most of ancient Phoenicia's literature and records have not withstood the test of time, and consequently, what is known of the origins and birth of this society is through accounts of other civilisations. It's believed that the Phoenician society developed through a long chain of influence. The Canaanites that gave rise to the Phoenicians were also birthed from the prior Ghassulian culture, which in turn had developed from the Circum-Arabian Nomadic Pastoral Complex, which was created from an earlier combination of ancient cultures. The Phoenicians were a product of history, of fusions and separations.

There were many theories of the origins of Phoenicia, such as that of the ancient Greek historian Herodotus, who claimed they had migrated from the Erythraean Sea circa 2750 BC. However, most migration theories have been debunked by modern historians and archaeologists due to evidence detailing a long-standing population in the region.

The Late Bronze Age (1429-1200 BC)

The first known account of the Phoenicians is of Egyptian origin. In a telling of the conquests of Pharoah Thutmose III, the Egyptians set out to conquer coastal cities such as Byblos, Arwad, and Ullasa for their crucial geographic positioning. By conquering these cities, Egypt gained access to Mesopotamian trade and stocks that were not available in the Egyptian homeland.

The Phoenicians had considerable autonomy, and their city states were well developed and affluent. These cities were favourably viewed by the Egyptians, with Tyre, Sidon, Beirut, and Byblos being the most so. Out of these, Byblos was considered the most important, for it was a hub for bronze-making and a primary transport route for goods such as tin and lapis lazuli.

The Egyptians eventually lost control of certain Phoenician areas, as detailed in the Amarna Letters, which state that from 1350 BC to 1300 BC, the Hittites and Amorites were conquering northern territories. Due to this, Egypt lost its grip on a number of coastal territories and, consequently, trade routes.

To learn more about the Bronze Age, be sure to check out ourBronze Age Teaching Wiki.

The Phoenician zenith (1200-800BC)

During the Late Bronze Age collapse, a period around 1200 to 1150 BC, many powerful empires and civilisations were weakened or destroyed, including the Egyptians and the Hittites. However, the Phoenicians were resilient during this period of turbulence, and they emerged as an impressive civilisation circa 1230 BC, so much so that historians often refer to this as a "Phoenician renaissance." Capitalising on the absence of a distinctive power during the Late Bronze Age, the Phoenician people rose in influence and became the sole mercantile and maritime power in the area.

This position continued for a number of centuries and into the Iron Age. During the Iron Age, the Phoenicians set up ports, warehouses, markets, and settlements across the Mediterranean and up to the Black Sea. They established colonies, and their influence continued to grow. By the tenth century BC, the Phoenician city-state of Tyre had garnered a vast amount of wealth and power, most notably during the reign of Hiram I. Under the rule of the priest Ithobaal, Phoenicia extended its land as far as Beirut and into Cyprus. Upon their victory, Ithobaal declared himself "King of the Sidonians," and this title was passed down to his successors.

Assyrian rule (858-538 BC)

Phoenicia was a civilisation known for its power and wealth through trade, but due to its positioning along a narrow coastal strip of land, it lacked population and, consequently, military power. Due to this, as other empires began to rise in power, the Phoenicians fell under the sway and influence of foreign rulers.

It was the Assyrians who first conquered Phoenicia under the rule of King Shalmaneser III. He began to garner and concentrate power around 858 BC and then enacted a series of campaigns against neighbouring states. Phoenician city-states fell under his authority and were debilitated both in military power and wealth as they were expected to pay heavy tributes in money, goods, and resources. However, they weren't completely annexed straight away. They were under the political power of Assyria but were allowed a degree of autonomy. In 744 BC, as Tiglath-Pileser III ascended to power, this changed, and by 738 BC, most of the Eastern Mediterranean region of Western Asia was annexed. The only city-states that remained outside of direct Assyrian control were Tyre and Byblos, and that is only because of their power.

Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos continued to rebel against Assyrian rulership, but in 721, the Assyrian king, Sargon II, besieged Tyre and stopped the rebellion. Sidon also attempted to rebel against Assyrian rule during the seventh century BC, but the rebellion was crushed by the Assyrian king, Esarhaddon, and the city destroyed. The people of Sidon were enslaved, and a new city was built upon the ruins.

Over the course of the century, the Assyrian empire was weakened by constant revolts, and eventually the Median Empire fell. However, the Babylonians, who were formerly under the rule of Assyria, claimed power during the Assyrian Empire's collapse and rebelled. During this rebellion, the Neo-Babylonian Empire rose to power. The Phoenicians revolted consistently throughout the Babylonian rulership, culminating in the 13-year-long rebellion of Tyre as the Neo-Babylonian Empire attempted to besiege them. They eventually capitulated under "favourable terms."

The Persian period (539-332 BC)

In 539 BC, the king and founder of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, Cyrus the Great, conquered Babylon. This was not his only conquest, and as he began to consolidate territories, the Phoenicians instead yielded. The Phoenician area was then divided into four kingdoms under the rule of the Persian Achaemenid Empire. These were: Sidon, Tyre, Arwad, and Byblos, and were allowed a decent level of autonomy in comparison to their previous rulers, such as local Phoenician kings being allowed to retain their power and position.

The Phoenicians were an essential asset to the Achaemenid Empire. Not only did they have extensive maritime technology, but they also played an integral role in the Persian fleet during the Greco-Persian Wars. They even constructed the Xerxes Canal and the pontoon bridges that allowed Xerxes I to cross into Greece.

However, during the fourth century BC, King Tennes of Sidon, with the help of the Egyptians, attempted to rebel against the Achaemenid Empire. His subsequent failure led to the destruction of Sidon. Tyre gained power in the absence of Sidon and held the position of the dominant Phoenician city for two decades until Alexander the Great.

Learn all about ancient Persian religion with ourPersian Religion Teaching Wiki!

The Hellenistic period (332-152 BC)

Upon the arrival of Alexander the Great, Phoenicia was promptly conquered. Alexander was aiming to conquer Tyre, the most prominent of Phoenicia's city-states. This led to a seven-month siege, during which Tyre was eventually conquered, and the rest of Phoenicia soon fell under his rule.

Phoenicia did not suffer a great deal of Hellenization and managed to mostly maintain their language, and their links with the west. However, it's also thought the Phoenician adaptation to Macedonian rule was aided by Phoenicia's historical ties to Greece, as they even shared some of the same myths and figures.

Many kingdoms contested for rulership of Phoenicia after Alexander's death, such as the Seleucids and the Ptolemaic Kingdom, with rulership changing hands many times. This eventually culminated in the siege of Phoenicia and the rest of the Seleucid Kingdom by Tigranes the Great of Armenia in 82, thus ending the Hellenistic influence on the region.

However, upon the Roman invasion in 62 BC, whatever power and autonomy the Phoenicians had left were dissolved, and the region was Romanised.

To learn more about the Hellenistic era, be sure to check out ourAncient Greece Teaching Wiki.

Trade

The Phoenician people acted as a bridge between a number of civilisations, allowing for the passage of goods, culture, religion, and knowledge. The Phoenician impact on trade and communication is credited with the building of a culturally cohesive Mediterranean. Phoenicia had ties with the Greeks, dating back as early as the Minoan civilisation. With Egypt, the Phoenicians sold goods such as cedar logs and wine and bought Nubian gold from them.

Industry

Due to its location, Phoenicia lacked a number of natural resources. Their main resource was cedar wood, and this was their earliest and most profitable source of income, as neither Egypt nor Mesopotamia had access to decent wood. However, the lumber industry could not be their only source of wealth, so they developed industries such as glass-making, metalwork, ivory carving, and woodworking.

They eventually became the leading source of glassware, having set up a mass production system where items were made in bulk. Also, having access to a wide variety of different cultures enabled them to make specific items for different locations, thus expanding and refining their clientele.

Tyrian purple

Out of all the Phoenician goods, Tyrian purple was the most prized. These were fabrics dyed with Tyrian purple, which was sourced from the Murex marine snail that was abundant along the coast of the eastern Mediterranean Sea. The overexploitation of these creatures led to their extinction.

The Phoenicians' dominance over the production and trade of dye made the substance expensive as they had no competitors in the market. This was also a result of the labour-intensive means of making it. Due to the expensive pricing of this dye, it became associated with the upper class and eventually became a symbol of status and wealth in many cultures, such as the Romans.

Mining

The Phoenicians didn't have access to a large amount of natural resources, and consequently, their reserves of profitable ores to mine were limited. The only metal of any value was iron. After Phoenicia conquered Cyprus, they began to mine for copper, and it's thought that Sardinia was colonised for the mineral resources. During the Phoenician and Carthaginian occupation of the Iberian Peninsula, there was a great output of metals such as gold, silver, copper, tin, iron, and lead.

Viticulture

The Phoenicians traded wine across the Mediterranean, which was exported to Egypt as early as the Old Kingdom period. Wine, for the Phoenicians, played an integral role in religious rituals and ceremonies as it was used during offerings and sacrifices. During an excavation in a Phoenician town located to the south of Sidon, a wine factory was uncovered. The Phoenicians built vineyards and wineries in a number of their colonies and were thought to have taught winemaking to their partners.

Shipbuilding

Due to their positions as merchants, the Phoenicians were experts at shipbuilding and are credited with developing many maritime inventions such as the keel, the bireme, and the trireme. The trireme, in particular, was regarded as the most advanced sailing vessel in the ancient Mediterranean world, so much so that it was later used by the Greeks.

Resources to learn more about the Phoenicians

When exploring the past, you want to ensure that the resources you use in your lessons are factually verified and contain sound information. At Twinkl, all our resources are made in accordance with the National Curriculum and are crafted by teachers for teachers. For some handy teaching materials, be sure to check out some of the following resources:

The Phoenicians were known for their maritime inventions, so be sure to immerse your students with our fun Phoenician Sailing Ship Colouring Sheet.

Take a trip back in time and discover the numerous empires that have risen and fallen over the years with our fascinating Ancient Civilisations Timeline.

Immerse your students in the past by having them complete their work on this beautifully illustrated Ancient Civilisations Page Border Pack.

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Who were the Phoenicians? | Twinkl Teaching Wiki - Twinkl

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Download FREE teacher-made resources covering 'the Phoenicians' Phoenicia was an ancient civilisation located in the eastern Mediterranean region, though it was primarily situated where modern-day Lebanon and coastal Syria are. However, as with all ancient empires, the territory of the Phoenicians grew and shrank throughout the years.

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Back to History for Kids
Ancient Rome was a powerful and important civilization that ruled much of Europe for nearly 1000 years. The culture of Ancient Rome was spread throughout Europe during its rule. As a result, Rome's culture still has an impact in the Western world today. The basis for much of Western culture comes from Ancient Rome, especially in areas such as government, engineering, architecture, language, and literature.

The city of Rome is the capital of Italy today
Map of Italy from the CIA World Factbook

The Roman Republic

Rome first grew into power as a Republic. This meant that Rome's leaders, such as senators, were elected officials that served for a limited amount of time, not kings who were born into leadership and ruled for life. They had a complex government with written laws, a constitution, and a balance of powers. These concepts became very important in forming future democratic governments, like the United States.

The Republic would rule Rome for hundreds of years from around 509 BC to 45 BC.

The Roman Empire

In 45 BC Julius Caesar took over the Roman Republic and made himself the supreme dictator. This was the end of the republic. A few years later, in 27 BC, Caesar Augustus became the first Roman Emperor and this was the start of the Roman Empire. Much of the lower level government stayed the same, but now the Emperor had supreme power.

The Roman Forum was the center of government
Photo by Adrian Pingstone

The Empire Splits

As the Roman Empire grew it became more and more difficult to manage from the city of Rome. Eventually the Roman leaders decided to split Rome into two empires. One was the Western Roman Empire and was ruled out of the city of Rome. The other was the Eastern Roman Empire and was ruled out of Constantinople (today's Istanbul in Turkey). The Eastern Roman Empire would become known as Byzantium or theByzantine Empire.

Fall of Rome

The fall of Rome generally refers to the fall of the Western Roman Empire. It fell in 476 AD. The Eastern Roman Empire, or the Byzantine Empire, would rule parts of Eastern Europe for another 1000 years.

Interesting Facts about Ancient Rome

The city of Rome is the capital of Italy today. It sits on the same site as the city of ancient Rome. If you were to visit Rome you could see many of the original ancient buildings such as the Colosseum and the Roman Forum.

The Circus Maximus, a huge stadium built for chariot races, could seat around 150,000 people.

The fall of Western Rome is considered the start of the "Dark Ages" in Europe.

The highest position in the Roman Republic was the consul. There were two consuls at the same time to make sure that one didn't become too powerful.

The native language of the Romans was Latin, but they often spoke Greek as well.

When Julius Caesar took power he named himself dictator for life. However, this didn't last long as he was assassinated a year later.

Recommended books and references:

Nature Company Discoveries library: Ancient Rome by Judith Simpson. 1997.

Exploring the culture, people & ideas of this powerful empire by Avery Hart & Sandra Gallagher ; illustrations by Michael Kline. 2002.

Eyewitness Books: Ancient Rome written by Simon James. 2004.

Activities

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Kids learn about the civilization and history of Ancient Rome including the Roman Republic, Empire, art, religion, army, daily life, people, Senate, and the fall of Rome. Educational articles for students, schools, and teachers.

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Download FREE teacher-made resources covering 'Ancient Egyptian Art'

What is Ancient Egyptian art?

Ancient Egyptian art was produced in a range of mediums, including wall drawings, wall paintings, sculptures, papyrus drawings, and jewellery. Many of the surviving pieces come from tombs and monuments, providing an insight into Egyptian beliefs and customs regarding the afterlife.

Ancient Egyptian civilization existed in the area around the River Nile for over three thousand years, from the 31st century BCE to the 4th century AD. For that reason, it spans the Early Dynastic Period right up until the Christianisation of Roman Egypt.

The Ancient Egyptians did not appear to have a word for 'art'. What we would term as artworks were created to give the subject, such as a pharaoh, permanence. What's more, there were no movements or trends in their production of art, like we have today.

For over three thousand years, Egyptian art did not dramatically change because it served a strict and wider purpose as part of their religious beliefs. That mean that new artists tended to mimic the styles of their predecessors.

Why teach children about Ancient Egyptian art?

Much of what we know about the Ancient Egyptians comes from surviving artefacts and artworks. These relics give historians clues about what the Ancient Egyptians looked like, their clothing, occupations, and what they valued as a culture.

In primary school, history topics offer lots of scope for cross-curricular learning. Choosing to do an in-depth study of Ancient Egypt, as part of your teaching on the achievements of the earliest civilizations, is a great way to bring this fascinating topic into other areas of the curriculum, including art and English lessons.

So as we explore different aspects of Ancient Egyptian art, you'll find handy links to easy Egyptian art ideas, and links to relevant resources on our site, like this bumper pack of display materials to support your teaching:

What kind of art did Ancient Egyptians have?

Due to the close connection between religion and what we call 'art', Ancient Egyptian artworks were commonly stored in the tombs of Pharaohs, the supreme leaders, who were like kings or emperors. These individuals served as both political and religious leaders, attaining god-like status.

Derived from a word meaning 'great house', the royal palace in Ancient Egypt, a Pharaoh was a powerful ruler. A Pharaoh's wife, or Queen Of Egypt, was also thought of as powerful. Usually, the son of the Pharaoh would inherit his title, but there were some documented female Pharaohs, such as Sobekneferu, and Hatshepsut.

Historians break down the Ancient Egyptian era into different dynasties, or periods of time when a particular Pharaoh family ruled, and maintained power. The Pharaoh was seen as a link between the ordinary people and their many gods.

During their lifetimes, many Pharaohs built temples in honour of their gods, including statues, gardens, memorials, and places of worship.

Ancient Egyptians believed in life after death. People had a life force while they were alive, the 'ka' and a 'ba' - which is like their soul. If these elements were joined after death, the person would live on. This is why the Ancient Egyptians embalmed bodies through mummification.

For this reason, the tombs of Pharaohs were filled with drawings, paintings, and carvings. This is because they believed it would help the Pharaohs in the afterlife.

Ancient Egyptian Drawings

Archaeologists have discovered Ancient Egyptian drawings on papyrus. This type of writing material is made from the pith of the papyrus plant, which creates something resembling thick paper. Sheets of papyrus were also joined together to make scrolls - an early form of books.

Get some inspiration for easy Egyptian art with our complete lesson packs on Ancient Egypt art drawings and drawing masks:

Sketches on papyrus have been found showing animals taking part in human activities, such a driving a chariot or fighting. These often contain humour. However, humour was never used in Ancient Egyptian drawings of people.

Artists had a unique way of drawing or painting people. On one hand, the Ancient Egyptians drew heads, eyes, legs, and feet as if you were looking at them from the side. This is called the profile. On the other hand, they drew shoulders and chests as if you were looking at them from the front. This makes their drawings and painting very distinct. In addition, men were usually drawn with dark colours and women with light colours.

Although their civilization spanned over 3,000 years, Ancient Egyptian drawings, and art in general, did not tend to change much over that period of time. It was commonplace for artists to follow the conventions and traditions of those that came before them. This also meant that there were a number of popular themes and features. Some common themes and features included:

Ancient Egyptian Deities: Ancient Egyptian art and drawings frequently represents deities such as Osiris, Anubis, and Ra. They worshipped many gods and goddesses.

Ancient Egyptian Dancing: As both entertainment and celebration, dancing was an important part of Ancient Egyptian culture.

Ancient Egyptian Afterlife: Ancient Egypt drawings sometimes illustrate a person's passing, together with happy scenes from their life. This is because they believed in eternal life.

Ancient Egyptian Battles: Some Ancient Egyptian drawings celebrate King Ramesses' victory over the Nubians or the Egyptian king's raid against the Hittite forces of Muwatalli.

Book Of The Dead: This book contains different spells that are said to assist a deceased person's journey in the underworld. It also includes illustrations.

Mummification: Some drawings show the ancient art of preserving bodies to ensure their resurrection in the afterlife.

Funerary: Other drawing depict a funerary where deities would weigh-up whether the deceased would enter the after-life.

Ancient Egyptian Paintings

Another feature of the tombs was Ancient Egyptian painting. Again, these wall paintings were said to help the deceased in the afterlife. They usually depicted the person passing into the afterlife alongside happy scenes, including their family and interests. Reliefs, or sculptures that are part of a wall or structure, are also found in temples and tombs, and were also painted.

Ancient Egyptian paintings can also be found on the walls of palaces and temples. Not only that, these also painted objects made from wood or stone and even coffins. The pigment, or coloured material, used for painting was made from minerals found in the earth. These minerals were ground into powder and then bound together with a type of gum to create paint. Due to the kinds of minerals available, the colours red, yellow, green, white and black dominate the Ancient Egyptian painters' palette. Blue was also created by mixing different ingredients together. The Ancient Egyptians painted with brushes made from tightly bundled reeds or grasses bound together with string.

Ancient Egyptian Carvings

Many people are familiar with Ancient Egyptian carvings, through the legacy of their giant sculptures. This includes the Great Sphinx of Giza - a mythological creature with the body of a lion, and the head of a person. In this case, it is thought to be the head of Pharaoh Khafra. Sphinx statues, like this one, guard important religious sites like tombs, and temples.

Ancient Egyptian carvings also include smaller, more ornate objects. These could be formed from a variety of materials like wood, limestone, ivory, alabaster, semi-precious stones, glass, and sometimes solid gold! A common carved object was a 'funerary' or 'death' mask. This was created to help the soul recognize the body in the afterlife and return to it. It also protected the deceased from evil spirits. If you're interested in turning this idea into an art project, take a look at our lesson on making Egyptian masks from clay.

Easy Egyptian Art Ideas From Twinkl

Our website has a treasure trove of resources for teaching primary children about the Ancient Egyptians, including a fantastic range of easy Egyptian art ideas.

So if you're looking for creative and time-saving ways to combine history and art, look no further than these handy resources:

More Resources For Learning About The Ancient Egyptians

Our award-winning PlanIt scheme of work contains all the lesson plans and resources you need to teach whole units of lessons right across the curriculum. The scheme covers a range of subjects including art, history, and English:

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Ancient Egyptian Drawings | Ancient Egyptian Paintings | Wiki

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Download FREE teacher-made resources covering 'Ancient Egyptian Art' Ancient Egyptian art was produced in a range of mediums, including wall drawings, wall paintings, sculptures, papyrus drawings, and jewellery. Many of the surviving pieces come from tombs and monuments, providing an insight into Egyptian beliefs and customs regarding the afterlife.

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Learn about the incredible ancient Mesopotamian writing system of cuneiform, one of the earliest written scripts in the world!

Download FREE teacher-made resources covering 'Ancient Mesopotamian Writing'

What is Ancient Mesopotamian Writing?

Cuneiform is a method of Ancient Mesopotamian writing that was used to write different languages in the Ancient Near East.

was invented multiple times in different places in the world. One of the earliest written scripts is cuneiform, which first developed in ancient Mesopotamia between 3400 and 3100 BCE. This is a region of the world that roughly matches the modern country of Iraq.

It's important to remember that this cuneiform writing system wasn't a spoken language itself. Similarly to how different languages like French, English and German use the same alphabet and punctuation, cuneiform writing is a script which was used to write many different languages. These languages included and Akkadian.

Why is ancient Mesopotamian writing called "cuneiform"?

Cuneiform writing has its name because this writing system is based on signs that look like wedges. The scholars who recognised this gave it a name inspired by the Latin name for wedge, .

Today's cuneiform scholars look at these thousands-of-years-old tablets, smooth pebbles of baked clay the size of mobile phones, to translate these little wedge-shaped marks.

On some tablets you can see the marks of a fingernail, where somebody has pressed a kind of signature into the clay!

If you're lucky enough to get close to a cuneiform tablet, you may be able to run your fingers across the wedge marks to feel the physical record left by, say, a brewer from Mesopotamia some 5,000 years ago!

What is the history of ancient Mesopotamian writing?

Cuneiform script emerged with the development of cities in the south of what is now modern Iraq, in the late fourth millennium BCE.

At first, some accountants used word signs and signs to count up things like their land and their . They wrote these signs down on clay tablets. This writing wasn't really language-specific, because it represented simple objects and numbers. Still, this script was only understood by a very small handful of experts.

In the 3rd millennium BCE, scribes improved the script so that it could be used to record a whole range of tasks from daily life. Now cuneiform could be used to represent the sounds of words and not just the appearance of objects. By looking at the way the words sound in ancient Mesopotamian writing from this time, we can detect the Sumerian language, and later, the Akkadian language. With these innovations, those who understood cuneiform could record transactions, dedicatory inscriptions to gods, as well as and hymns.

Over the centuries, cuneiform remained in use pretty much entirely by expert scribes, and was also used by urban elites and merchants.

Early cuneiform writing was used to measure and control land, animals, labour and their produce. As alphabetic Aramic spread in the early first millennium BCE, cuneiform became more related to prestigious activities like communicating with the gods and writing certain legal documents.

How do you read cuneiform?

Unlike our alphabet, early cuneiform is what we call logographic. While an alphabet uses individual letters to directly represent sounds (these are called phonograms), early cuneiform uses single characters or letters that represent entire words (these are called logograms).

For example, Chinese characters are usually logograms, and so are many Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic characters. Many cuneiform characters were also logograms.

Ancient Mesopotamian writing uses hundreds of these signs in many different ways. Even trickier for people trying to read cuneiform, these signs changed a lot over the 3,000 years of its history.

In the ancient Mesopotamian writing system, some signs actually don't mean anything on their own, but just help the reader know how to understand the sign before it. These are called phonetic complements, because they only have a phonetic and not a semantic value.

In 'mature' cuneiform script, wedges can be made into soft clay in horizontal, vertical, and diagonal orientations, plus in a corner-wedge shape.

What was ancient Mesopotamian writing about?

Mesopotamian literature is some of the oldest in the world, and we have loads of different that were written in the cuneiform script. So many, in fact, that much of it hasn't even been read !

It was originally used for basic accounting, but eventually cuneiform was used for dedicatory inscriptions. These usually contain dedications to various deities and were placed on objects, statues, and parts of those deities' temples. Kings had their own royal inscriptions written to emphasise their devotion to certain deities, to demonstrate their piety both to their gods and to their followers. These royal inscriptions were often buried in the foundations of temples.

Lots of the ancient from Mesopotamia are about the divine, because played a large role in Mesopotamian daily life. Religion was one of the key ways Mesopotamians expressed their thoughts about .

Mesopotamian religion featured lots of different gods. This means it was polytheistic, the word meaning "many", and meaning "god". The list of Mesopotamian gods is in the hundreds, if not the thousands! They varied in importance, and they also meant different things to people in different places.

The Epic of Gilgamesh

The gods punish Enkidu for trespassing and kill him. Gilgamesh is upset by the loss of his friend and goes on a search for eternal life.

Facts about ancient Mesopotamian writing

The earliest known recorded poet is Enheduanna. She was the High Priestess of the goddess Inanna and the moon god Nanna in the Sumerian city of Ur, over 4,000 years ago.

The Babylonian story of is a literary text that's also called Enuma Elish. It traces the journey of the city of Babylon's favoured god, Marduk, to the highest authority among the gods.

In ancient Mesopotamian writing, years were often named after certain events such as the refurbishment of a temple, or a religious event.

Ancient Mesopotamians sometimes made large standing stone monuments carved with inscriptions and images called stelae (singular: stele).

The world's largest collection of cuneiform tablets is at the British Museum, where over 130,000 examples of cuneiform writing are stored.

Timeline of Mesopotamian history

Late Uruk Period (3500-3200) - First city states and the invention of writing and 'proto-cuneiform'.

Early Dynastic Period (2900-2340) - Cities grow in power and fight against each other, while cuneiform is widely used, and used to write in Sumerian language.

Old Akkadian (2340-2200) - Sargon of Akkad creates a dynasty that rules the first world empire. He conquers Mesopotamia and the regions around it, and the language of Akkadian becomes important in some places.

Third Dynasty of Ur (2112-2004) - The Sumerian language becomes important again.

Old Babylonian Period (2004-1595) - In the later part of this period, the famous king Hammurabi builds an empire that makes the Akkadian language important again.

Middle Assyrian Dynasty (1350-1000) - The northern part of Mesopotamia called Assyria becomes a strong power.

Neo-Assyrian Period (900-612) - The Assyrians conquer Mesopotamia and Egypt. However the Babylonians and their allies destroy the Assyrian capital in 612 BCE.

Neo-Babylonian Dynasty (625-539) - Babylon becomes powerful. Its most famous king is Nebuchadnezzar II, who fights many wars and creates huge buildings.

Persian Empire (538-331) - The conquer Mesopotamia and make the Persian Empire the biggest to date. Texts continue to be written in Akkadian.

Macadonian (330-307) - Alexander the Great of Macedon defeats the Persians at the battle of Gaugamela.

Seleucid Empire (305-64) - Seleucus is a general of Alexander the Great who rules over the Near East after Alexander dies.

Parthian or Arsacid Empire (250 BCE - 224 CE) - The Parthians were based in Persia and continued to write in cuneiform. The last cuneiform document we know of is from around 70 AD.

More on Ancient Sumer

Take a look at our brilliant Ancient Mesopotamia Timeline , this Hammurabi's Code Writing Activity and this Advancements Made in Mesopotamia Activity to boost your children's knowledge of Mesopotamia.

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Phoenicia was an ancient civilization composed of independent city-states located along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, stretching through what is now Syria, Lebanon, and Northern Israel. They were famed as the 'traders in purple,' referring to their monopoly on the precious purple dye of the Murex snail, used for royal clothing. Phoenicians had a notable contribution to the world, which was the formulation of the phonetic alphabet.
See the fact file below for more information on the Phoenicia, or you can download our 25-page Phoenicia worksheet pack to utilize within the classroom or home environment.
Key Facts & Information

Between 1000 BCE and 600 BCE, the Phoenicians dominated the ancient world's trading industry. Their abilities in shipbuilding and sailing were the most well-known, and they also improved their use of the North Star for navigation when sailing at night.

To counter pirates who occasionally harassed their fleets, the Phoenicians built special warships that accompanied the trading ships.

Merchants acted as middlemen for their neighbors. They transported goods from Egypt, Cyprus, Mesopotamia, Arabia, and Africa to various locations throughout the Mediterranean.

The Phoenicians were also famous for producing purple dye from small shellfish. The dye was originally used on woolen garments and later became known as royal purple, which Roman emperors wore.

Production of glass and textiles, as well as pottery, woodwork, and metalwork, emerged. The ancient people desired such products, and King Solomon of Israel even consulted Phoenician artisans in the construction of the great Hebrew Temple to Yahweh.

Around 572 BCE, the Assyrians conquered the Phoenicians.

Persians, aided by Alexander the Great, destroyed Sidon and Tyre in the fourth century BCE. After losing the two most important Phoenician cities, the citizens began to leave the Mediterranean coast and eventually became part of other cultures.

The word Phoenicia is an ancient Greek term used to refer to cloth dyed Tyrian purple from the Murex mollusk, which was the region's primary export.

The name Phoenicians comes from the Greek "Phoínikes." The word phoînix has various meanings, including "Phoenician person," "Tyrian purple," or "date palm."

The Ghassulian Chalcolithic culture arose from a nomadic nation and gave rise to the Canaanite culture.

Canaanite culture existed during the Late Bronze Age, and they were the known origin of the Phoenicians.

There were other stories about their origins as well. According to Herodotus, they came from the Erythraean Sea and appeared there around 2750 BCE. Strabo, the geographer, claimed that the Phoenicians first existed in Tylos and Arad, now known as Bahrain and Muharraq.

Most scholars disagreed with the claim of the Phoenicians' migration, claiming that they were once Canaanites who settled in modern-day Lebanon.

The Late Bronze Age, which occurred between 1200 and 1150 BCE, harmed most civilizations. Some were weakened while others collapsed, such as the Egyptians and Hittites.

According to historical records, the Phoenicians were one of the discrete and structured civilizations that managed the crisis in 1230 BCE, and it became known as the Phoenician Renaissance. They became the region's exclusive mercantile and maritime power, a spot they held for centuries.

The Phoenicians were responsible for the Mediterranean region's economic recovery. Despite the long distance, they were able to begin trade between Egypt and Mesopotamia in the 10th century.

During the early Iron Age, ports, warehouses, and markets were built throughout the Mediterranean. Settlements were also established, and development reached as far south as the Black Sea.

Colonies of the civilization began to sprout in various locations such as Cyprus, Sardinia, Sicily, and Malta. They also established colonies on the Balearic Islands, North African coasts, and the Iberian Peninsula.

Tyre, which was ruled by Hiram I at the time, was named the wealthiest and most influential city-state in Phoenicia in the 10th century.

Tyre's next ruler, Priest Ithobaal, expanded the kingdom's borders to include parts of Beirut and Cyprus. He eventually had the largest territory among the Phoenicians. He declared himself Sidonian King.

Mercantile activity persisted in Phoenicia, but it was accompanied by shipping and other cultural activities during the Late Iron Age, which lasted from 750 to 650 BCE.

They were able to influence Greek culture and arts. Homer mentioned the clothing and metal goods made by Phoenicians in his poem "Iliad".

Because it was made up of independent city-states, Phoenicia was not considered a nation. However, their organization, as well as their shared language and culture, distinguishes them. Rivalries were expected, particularly among the leading city-states of Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos, but not to the extent of armed men attacking one another.

In addition to Tyre's colonies, other Phoenician cities included Amia, Ampi, Arqa, Baalbek, Beirut, Botrys, Sarepta, and Tripolis.

However, they primarily settled in the Balearic Islands, Cyprus, Malta, Northwest Africa, Sardinia, Sicily, and Southern Iberia.

They primarily used their colonies for commercial purposes. The majority of colonies had few inhabitants.

At the same time, the Greeks began to expand their territories across the Mediterranean, challenging the Phoenicians. Only the settlements in Crete and Sicily clashed as the two civilizations competed peacefully.

Phoenician colonies sent annual tributes to their mother city as a religious offering.

Carthage gained independence in the seventh century but continued to pay annual tribute to Tyre after it ruled over western colonies.

The Phoenicians spoke the Punic language and got it from their Canaanite ancestors.

They developed their writing system, which included 22 all-consonant letters, around 1050 BCE. The oldest writings in the Phoenician alphabet were said to be found on the Sarcophagus of Ahiram.

The use of the Phoenician alphabet spread to Anatolia, North Africa, and Europe as a result of their trade.

Greeks adopted the alphabet and modified some characters in the eighth century BCE. Some scholars attribute it to Phoenician immigrants from Crete, which eventually spread northward.

The religion of the Phoenicians was said to have originated in the ancient Semitic world, which influenced the Canaanites. The rites centered on paying taxes as religious sacrifices for the city-states.

They also practiced temple prostitution and child sacrifice at special sites known as "Tophets," where children were said to be burned.

They thought it was Yahweh's condemnation in the Hebrew Bible. Other parallels with the ancient Hebrews were discovered.

Melqart was a royal title that meant "king of the city" in Phoenicia.

Tyre had a place called marzeh, where they held reunions. The gatherings were intended to foster social bonding and family loyalty.

Dedicatory offerings to the Phoenician gods were also made in the form of figurines and pottery vessels. Evidence was discovered in the Mediterranean.

Speculations about rituals performed aboard ships arose as a result of the Phoenicians' primacy as seafarers, but the purpose of these rituals remained unknown.

Phoenicia Worksheets

This is a fantastic bundle that includes everything you need to know about Phoenicia across 25 in-depth pages. These are ready-to-use Phoenicia worksheets that are perfect for teaching students about Phoenicia, which was an ancient civilization composed of independent city-states located along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea stretching through what is now Syria, Lebanon, and northern Israel. They were famed as the 'traders in purple', referring to their monopoly on the precious purple dye of the Murex snail, used for royal clothing. Phoenicians had a notable contribution to the world, which was the formulation of the phonetic alphabet.

Complete List Of Included Worksheets

Phoenician Facts

Phoenicia's City State

Who were the Phoenicians?

The Trading Goods

Now Let's Start Sailing and Trading

Legacy to Remember

Down and Across

Shekels for Temple Tax Issue

Spot the Words

The Phoenician Alphabet

Barter with the Merchants

Frequently Asked Questions

What is Phoenicia called now?

Most scholars disagreed with the claim of the Phoenicians' migration, claiming that they were once Canaanites who settled in modern-day Lebanon.

What is Phoenicia known for?

They became the region's exclusive mercantile and maritime power, a spot they held for centuries.

What ethnicity were the Phoenicians?

Canaanite culture existed during the Late Bronze Age, and they were the known origin of the Phoenicians.

What language did the Phoenicians speak?

The Phoenicians spoke the Punic language and got it from their Canaanite ancestors.

Why did the Phoenicians fall?

Around 572 BCE, the Assyrians conquered the Phoenicians. Persians, aided by Alexander the Great, destroyed Sidon and Tyre in the fourth century BCE. After losing the two most important Phoenician cities, the citizens began to leave the Mediterranean coast and eventually became part of other cultures.

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Phoenicia Facts & Worksheets | Civilization, Etymology & History

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Not ready to purchase a subscription? Click to download the free sample version Download sample Phoenicia was an ancient civilization composed of independent city-states located along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, stretching through what is now Syria, Lebanon, and Northern Israel.

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