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They hypothesise that chemical and physical processes could have produced simple cells through a sequence of four main stages:

1. The abiotic (nonliving) synthesis of small organic molecules, such as amino acids and nitrogenous bases (Synthesis of Organic Compounds on Early Earth)

2. The joining of these small molecules into macromolecules, such as proteins and nucleic acids (Abiotic Synthesis of Macromolecules)

3. The packaging of these molecules into protocells, droplets with membranes that maintained an internal chemistry different from that of their surroundings (Protocells)
- montmorillonite = soft mineral clay, increases rate of vesicle formation

4. The origin of self-replicating molecules that eventually made inheritance possible (Self-Replicating RNA)
- Constantly becoming better until it evolved into prokaryotes

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RNA plays a central role in protein synthesis and can act like an enzyme-like catalyst. The RNA molecule with the greatest ability to replicate itself will leave the most descendant molecules. Copying errors may result in a molecule which is even more adept at self-replication (survival of the fittest).

Vesicles with strong self-replicating RNA would grow and split and pass its RNA molecules on. The "daughter cells" that it was passed onto would be protocells. When RNA sequences became apparent in protocells it allowed for for example the template on which DNA was assembled. DNA of course allowed genetic inheritance to stimulate life further.

- RNA still very unstable. but more stable than other molecules

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First eukaryotic cells developed around 1.8 billion years ago

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First eukaryotic cells developed around 1.8 billion years ago

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Unlike Prokaryotes they contain membrane bound organelles, a nuclear envelope 80S ribosomes and a cytoskeleton

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When a prokaryotic cell is taken into an eukaryotic cell and acts as an organelle for the eukaryotic cell. For example, mitochondrion has traces of its own DNA.

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1. Double membrane system similar to prokaryotes
2. Remnants of circular DNA + ribosomes
3. Autonomous
4. Ribosomes are more similar to bacterial ribo. than cytoplasmic ribo. (size, RNA sequences, and sensitivity to antibiotics)

Note: serial endosymbiosis (not all eukaryotic cells contain plasmids/chloroplasts)

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Image from Campbell Biology (12th edition), p. 97. 

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- Protocell with DNA evolved into prokaryote

Most prokaryotes live as single-celled organisms, although some join together to form chains, clusters, or other organised multicellular structures. Members of this class exploit an enormous range of habitats, from hot puddles of volcanic mud to the interiors of other living cells, and they vastly outnumber all eukaryotic organisms on Earth. Some are aerobic, using oxygen to oxidise food molecules; some are strictly anaerobic and are killed by the slightest exposure to oxygen.

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Image from Essential Cell Biology (4th edition), p. 21. 

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Image from Campbell Biology (12th Edition) p.100.

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- Prokaryotes were engulfed
- Prokaryotes can clump together but can not be organised
- Eukaryotic cells are organised

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differences between eukaryotes and prokaryotes

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The Geological Record with key events/elements corresponding with the epoch's.

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Identifying and structuring the different periods in time was done using sedimentary rock layers called strata. Radiometric dating was used to calculate the age of fossils (radioactive isotopes & half-life).

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Short answer: Plants evolved from green algae

(plants also evolved from simple/small to more complex)
Many species of charophyte algae inhabited shallow waters (like the edges of ponds and lakes) -> as such they would occasionally be exposed to drying (out of water experience). -> Natural selection favoured those that did better in these conditions and so species developed that were more resilient to drying.

This could at some point have allowed for the first plants to live above the waterline. The new habitat/atmosphere had new characteristics:
+ sunlight that was not filtered by water and plankton
+ more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
+ soil close to water was rich in mineral nutrients
- scarcity of water
- lack of structural support from gravity

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Miller-Urey Experiment (Indiana University Press Release, retrieved from NASA Astrobiology)

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"primordial soup" experimented on under various conditions to "recreate" the start of life.

Which conditions are necessary for the synthesis of organic compounds?
- We do not exactly know which conditions are necessary but there are multiple hypotheses (close to know)
- Temperature/energy
- High pH
- Elements

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Relationship among human populations on the basis of blood type frequencies - Evolution book p.703

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Human groups are not genetically distinct, and there are few alleles that are uniquely diagnostic of ancestral origin. Most alleles are found in multiple regions of the globe, and the minority of alleles that are found only in a single region tend to be very rare even in the population where they are found.

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Relation between Human Population and Blood Type Frequencies

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The expansion of modern humans across the globe - Evolution book p.710

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1. The first single-celled organisms (Stromatolites)
- Layers of rock that interacted with water
- Rock formed as product of prokaryotes binding sediments (the prokaryotes are not holding hands, they are binding sediments)
- Gives an idea as to how prokaryotes were living

2. Photosynthesis and the oxygen revolution
First photosynthetic prokaryotic cells. An increased presence of oxygen in the atmosphere inhibits some enzymes & could damage cells -> this led to the extinction of many prokaryotic groups. Furthermore, oxygen influences geology as for example
rust.

3. The first eukaryotes
Endosymbiosis = prokaryote engulfs small cells that will then function as a mitochondria for the prokaryote. This could be a predatory process as well as through mutualism/symbiotic.

4. Early multicellular eukaryotes (first organisms: Ediacaran biota: 635-541 mya: unknown taxonomic classification: incl. algae and animalia)

5. The Cambrian explosion
Organisms developed away from soft bodied to ......

6. The colonisation of land

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Sunlight, carbon dioxide, ammonia and water vapor allowed the transfer of inorganic molecules into organic ones which are primitive life forms

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Developed 1.3 billion years ago, however more diverse multicellular organism occurred 600 million years ago. After cambrian explosion, present day animal phyla appeared 535-525 million years ago. Before cambrian explosion all animals were soft bodied, but afterwards predetors with claws and are 1m long emerged.

- Cambrian explosion = boom of biodiversity, many species starting to exist in about 10 million year timespan

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- Terrestrial prokaryotes: 3.2 bya
- Fungi, plants and animals: 500 mya

- Adaptations in plants:

vascular system for internal transport

waterproof wax coating on leaves for reducing transpiration

VAM plants (symbiotic association with fungi)

- Arthropods (extensive) + tetrapods (incl. humans)

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1) Structural organization → the ability to maintain distinct parts and the connections between them • Levels of the biological organization include: 1. Biosphere → consisting of all life on earth – bodies of water, regions of land, atmosphere, etc. 2. Ecosystems → consists of all the living things in a particular area, along with the non-living components of the environment with which life interacts (soil, water, atmospheric gas, etc.)3. Communities → array of organisms inhabiting a particular ecosystem – each of these forms of life belong to a species (= a group whose members can only reproduce with other members of that group 4. Populations → all individuals of a species living within the bounds of a specific area 5. Organism → individual living things – fungus, bacterium, animal 6. Organs → a body part that is made up of multiple tissues and has a specific function in the body 7. Tissues → a group of cells that work together 8. Cells → life`s fundamental unit of structure and function – single cell, multicellular 9. Organelles → various functional components present in cells 10. Molecules → chemical structure consisting of two or more units called atoms 2) Homeostasis → the ability to adjust the internal environment to maintain a stable equilibrium • Homeostasis → maintaining a steady state even when the external environment changes • This can be body temperature (humans 37°), blood pH (0.1 pH), and blood glucose concentration (70-110 mg per 100mL of blood) • Animals that are regulators → use of internal mechanisms to control internal change in the face of fluctuations • Animals that are conformers → allow its internal condition to change in accordance with external changes in the variable • Animals have a set point → fluctuations in a variable above or below triggers a stimulus → this is detected by a sensor → this triggers a response in the hypothalamus 3) Metabolism → the control of chemical reactions • Metabolism = The totality of an organism`s chemical reactions • Metabolic pathway → a series of defined steps resulting in a certain product → each reaction is catalyzed by an enzyme • The metabolism manages the material and energy resources of the cell by breaking down complex molecules into simpler compounds → energy release in form of ATP • Catabolic pathways → degrative process – e.g.: cellular respiration → glucose and other organic compounds are broken down (in presence of oxygen) to carbon oxide and water • Anabolic pathways (biosynthetic pathways) → building process - consumption of energy to build more complicated molecules from simpler ones – e.g.: synthesis of amino acids 4) Growth → cell growth and division + 6) Reproduction → the ability to produce new individual organisms • Ability to procreate → distinguishes living from non-living things • “Every cell from a cell” → Rudolf Virchow – reproduction/ cell division • Cell division → plays several roles in life – from procreation to repair and renewal • Cell division process integral part off cell cycle • Unicellular organisms reproduce by cell division • Multicellular organisms depend on cell division for their development of fertilized egg 5) Adaptation → the ability to change • Nutritional diversity much greater in prokaryotes than in eukaryotes → they can be photoautotrophic, chemoautotrophic, chemoheterotrophic, etc. • Evolutionary adaptation to changes in the environment has allowed organisms to develop → survival of the fittest/ natural selection = the one who adapts the best to the environment has the best chances to survive • Eukaryotes can adapt and grow through protein synthesis • Thermoregulation = example of adaptation to external stimuli 6) Reproduction → the ability to produce new individual organisms • In animals: - Sexual reproduction → requires the fusion of male and female gambets forming a diploid zygote - Asexual reproduction → production

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Hadean: formation of earth

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Homo sapiens survived natural selection, developed into being bipedal.
Enlarged frontal lobe allows more interaction/information processing, formation of memories.
First cooked food is fish, many oils/omega that was good for development of the brain.
Darwin: monkey --> homo sapiens

add more about evolution of humans

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Hominoids—members of a superfamily known as the Hominoidea. This clade, also known as the apes, consists of eight living genera: orangutans (Pongo), gorillas (Gorilla), chimpanzees (Pan), humans (Homo), and four gibbon genera.

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Hominin Clade; humans and the extinct species more closely related to humans than to chimpanzees.

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Bipedal Locomotion
Opposable Thumbs