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Napoleon Bonapartes brother was a French politician, diplomat and lawyer.
In 1796 he took part in Napoleon's campaign in Italy. The following year, during the First French Republic, he acted as a diplomat. He was a member of the Council of Five Hundred, the lower legislative body at the time of the Directory, in 1798. During the Napoleonic Wars he acted as his brother's envoy and signed treaties with the United States, Austria, Great Britain, and the Holy See. From 1806 to 1808 he governed the Kingdom of Naples by appointment of his brother.

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The Political Constitution of the Spanish Monarchy was the first Constitution of Spain and one of the earliest codified constitutions in world history (ratified on 19 March 1812 by the Cortes of Cádiz).
With the notable exception of proclaiming Roman Catholicism as the official and sole legal religion in Spain, the constitution was one of the most liberal of its time: it affirmed national sovereignty, separation of powers, freedom of the press, free enterprise, abolished corporate privileges (fueros), and established a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system.

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Francisco Goya’s (1746-1828) Disasters of War prints depict the guerrilla warfare, famine and political disillusionment which followed Napoleon Bonaparte’s (1769-1821) invasion of Spain in 1808. They contain some of the most brutally graphic images of war ever produced.
Goya worked on the plates for these etchings between 1810 and 1820 but, owing to the repressive regime of King Ferdinand VII (1784-1833), they were not published until thirty-five years after Goya’s death. The Chester Beatty Library holds the entire collection of 80 prints (from the second edition of 1892)

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In 1813 Napoleon agreed to recognise Fernando VII de Borbón as King of Spain again. He had kept him imprisoned in France since his abdication in 1808. Fernando VII therefore returned to Spain in 1814 having spent five years held captive in France.
His first actions were to undo the liberal reforms of governance that had been implemented in his absence. He annulled the Cádiz constitution, for example, dissolved the Cortes and suppressed the free press. He sought to abolish constitutionalism and re-establish the absolute monarchial system he had left in 1808.

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During the reign of Fernando VII, three periods predominated: The Absolutist Sexennium (1814-1820), The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823) and The Ominous Decade (1823-1833).

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The Liberal Triennium is a thematic portal on the liberal government of 1820-1823 in Spain, in the historical context of the first Spanish liberalism, the reign of Ferdinand VII, the drive for political and social reforms and the reactionary and anti-liberal opposition.
This constitutional triennium began on January 1, 1820 with the military uprising of Rafael del Riego to restore the Constitution of 1812 against the absolute monarchy of Fernando VII. This stage ends on October 1, 1823, when a decree of the king annuls the Constitution and the legislation of the Triennium. It returns to the absolute Monarchy during the Ominous Decade (1823-1833).

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The Congress of Vienna of 1814–1815  that reorganized Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. It was a series of international diplomatic meetings to discuss and agree upon a possible new layout of the European political and constitutional order after the downfall of the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte. Participants were representatives of all European powers and other stakeholders, chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich, and held in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815.

The objective of the Congress was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars without the use of (military) violence.

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The Holy Alliance was formed on September 26, 1815 in Paris by three European monarchies victorious of the Napoleonic Empire, heir to revolutionary France, with the aim of maintaining peace first, and then protecting each other from possible revolutions. Initially made up of the Russian Empire, the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia, it became the Quadruple Alliance and then the Fivefold Alliance.

The Holy Alliance was rejected by the Papal States and most of the European countries did not participate in it, such as the Kingdom of Spain, the Kingdom of Portugal, the Scandinavian kingdoms, Switzerland,... . It was only in 1818, after the foreign occupation had been ended, that France took part. It was dissolved de facto in 1825, on the death of Emperor Alexander I, who was the instigator.

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The invasion of 100.000 sons of Saint Louis

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The invasion of 100.000 sons of Saint Louis

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"The Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis" was the popular name for a French army mobilized in 1823 by the Bourbon King of France, Louis XVIII, to help the Spanish Royalists restore King Ferdinand VII of Spain to the absolute power of which he had been deprived during the Liberal Triennium. Despite the name, the actual number of troops was around 60,000
In 1822, Ferdinand VII applied the terms of the Congress of Vienna, lobbied for the assistance of the other absolute monarchs of Europe, in the process joining the Holy Alliance . In France, the ultra-royalists pressured Louis XVIII to intervene. The Duc de Richelieu deployed troops along the Pyrenees Mountains along the France-Spain border, charging them with halting the spread of Spanish liberalism and the "yellow fever" from encroaching into France. In September 1822 this "cordon sanitaire" became an observation corps and then very quickly transformed itself into a military expedition.

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The death of Fernando VI and the “Pragmática sanción”

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The death of Fernando VI and the “Pragmática sanción”

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Ferdinand had no children from his three marriages, and his absolutist supporters looked to his even more absolutist younger brother, Don Carlos (Carlos María Isidro de Borbón), to succeed him. In 1830 his fourth wife, María Cristina, gave birth to a daughter, the future Isabella II. Isabella’s birth prompted Ferdinand to revoke the Salic Law of Succession, which prevented women from acceding to the throne. During Ferdinand’s illness, Don Carlos tried to persuade the queen to recognize his rights, but Ferdinand recovered, banished Don Carlos, and looked for moderate liberal support for his young daughter. When Ferdinand died in September 1833, Isabella was recognized as the sovereign, but his widow was obliged to lean on the liberals as Don Carlos asserted his claims from Portugal and thus began the First Carlist War.

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The Isabel II Liberal Regime And The Carlist Wars

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The Isabel II Liberal Regime And The Carlist Wars

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They were the liberals. They sought to limit the powers of the Crown and centralize the government of the country. Among them were the courtly nobility, the bourgeoisie and the middle and popular classes of the cities.

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The Carlists formed the traditional wing of Spanish society at the time, encompassing the so-called "apostolic" or traditionalists and, above all, the anti-liberal reaction. On the one hand, the defenders of the Old Regime (the Church, the aristocracy, etc.) and on the other, the supporters of the liberal reforms promoted by the bourgeoisie, which emerged as a consequence of the French Revolution, which had begun to reorganize society in the political sphere. Thus, Carlism had less impact in large cities, being a predominantly rural movement.

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The first Carlist war was a civil war that took place in Spain between 1833 and 1840 between the Carlists, supporters of the Infante Carlos María Isidro de Borbón and an absolutist regime, and the Elizabethans or Christians, defenders of Isabel II and the regent María Cristina de Borbón, whose government was originally moderate absolutist and ended up becoming liberal to gain popular support. In the past it was known by Spanish historiography as the Seven Years' War or the First Civil War.

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The war of the matiners, Second Carlist War or Montemolinista campaign was a war that took place mainly in Catalonia between September 1846 and May 1849.

It was due to the failure of the attempts to marry Isabel II with the Carlist pretender, Carlos Luis de Borbón (Charles VI in the nomenclature of his followers), who had been sought so much by some moderate Elizabethan sectors —particularly those led by Jaime Balmes and Juan Donoso Cortés—as for Carlism. The queen would end up marrying her other cousin Francisco de Asís de Borbón.

Characterized by some historians more as a conflict than a real war, it was basically a popular uprising in different parts of Catalonia.

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The Third Carlist War was a civil war that took place in Spain from 1872 to 1876, between supporters of Carlos, Duke of Madrid, Carlist claimant to the throne, and the governments of Amadeo I, the First Republic and Alfonso XII. In the past it was known by Spanish historiography as the "Second Civil War" and some contemporary historians such as Jordi Canal call it the "Second Carlist War", denying this name to the Matiners' War.

In March 1870, Ramón Cabrera resigned as Carlism's political and military chief because he believed that the "reasonable conditions for achieving victory by force of arms" did not exist and he did not want to expose Spain to a new civil war. The pretender, who had spent months preparing the insurrection from exile, established April 21, 1872 as the date for the beginning of the uprising.

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The Loss Of The American Spanish Empire (1810-1825)

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The Loss Of The American Spanish Empire (1810-1825)

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In this period many countries in the Americas became independent from Spain. They were Colombia (1810-1819), Mexico (1810-1821), Argentina (1810-1820), Central America (1811-1821), Uruguay (1825) and Panama (1821).

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It was a conflict that took place in the territories that belonged to the Viceroyalty of Granada.

The first phase of the process, from 1810 to 1815, was characterized by various conflicts between the defenders of the monarchy and the independentistas. In 1811, some provinces of New Granada were grouped together as a new independent state, consisting of a loose confederation of those provinces that had proclaimed government juntas in 1810.

In 1816, King Ferdinand VII's troops regained control of the country, which led to the Reconquest of New Granada led by the king's officer, Pablo Morillo.

In 1819, an independence army commanded by the Venezuelan soldier Simón Bolívar crossed the mountains that separated the provinces of Casanare and Tunja, and after the battles of Paya, Pantano de Vargas and Puente de Boyacá, obtained a free hand to take control of the capital. , Santa Fe, a city where he arrived on August 10, 1819.

The territory occupied by the Viceroyalty of New Granada became the Republic of Colombia, a republican state named after the explorer Christopher Columbus.

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The Mexican independence movement was framed by the Enlightenment and the liberal revolutions of the latter part of the 18th century. At that time, the enlightened elite began to reflect on the ideas of popular sovereignty and the relations between mainland Spain and the rest of the empire.

Starting in 1810, the independence movement went through various stages depending on the military status of the insurgency, as successive leaders were defeated, captured, and imprisoned or executed by forces loyal to Spain. At first popular sovereignty was claimed but Ferdinand VII was recognized as king of Spain and its colonies, then the leaders later assumed more radical positions, including issues of social order such as the abolition of slavery.

A timid and misguided reaction by Viceroy Apodaca caused a military rout and determined the change of position of the New Spain elites that until then had supported Spanish rule. Finally, the independence of Mexico was consummated and it declared itself independent on September 27, 1821.

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In the history of Argentina, the period of independence is known as the period between the May Revolution of 1810 and the Anarchy that dissolved all national authorities, in the year 1820.

During this period, the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata – initial name of the current Argentine Republic – began its existence as a sovereign country, successfully sustained it through a prolonged War of Independence, and declared its independence. But also during this period they failed to come up with a central government and a constitution that would be permanently accepted by all its provinces.

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Independence of Central America (1811-1821)

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Independence of Central America (1811-1821)

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The independence of Central America is called the emancipatory process, through the signing of the Central American Independence Act on September 15, 1821, by the current countries of Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica, in which they break ties to the Spanish Empire.

The first independence movement in Central America occurred on November 5, 1811, when a conspiracy headed by the priests José Matías Delgado and Nicolás Aguilar tried to seize some weapons that existed in the casemate of San Salvador. This movement was followed by revolts in Nicaragua, the Belén conspiracy and other movements from 1814 to 1821. A meeting between the same colonial authorities and a board of notables made up of religious leaders and enlightened Creoles ended on September 15, 1821 with the Spanish rule in the former general captaincy of Guatemala, which included the current territory of the state of Chiapas and the republics of Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica.

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In Uruguay, the expression Declaration of independence refers to the act carried out on August 25, 1825 by the Congress of Florida, made up of representatives of the town councils of the Eastern Province. Through it, the Oriental Province proclaimed its independence from the Empire of Brazil and declared itself part of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata.

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The independence of Panama was the emancipatory process developed between November 10 and 28, 1821 by which Panama broke the colonial ties that existed between its territory and the Spanish Empire, thus ending more than 300 years of viceregal life.

The Panamanian movement for independence from the Spanish Crown began on November 10, 1821, with the Independence of Villa de Los Santos led by Colonel Segundo de Villarreal, which had the support of other towns such as Natá de los Caballeros, Penonome, Ocu and Parita.

The independence of Panama was finally proclaimed on November 28, 1821 and immediately afterwards, he voluntarily decided to join the Gran Colombia presided over by Simón Bolívar.

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Amadeo de  Saboya  years and the fist  Spanish  Republic 

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Amadeo de  Saboya  years and the fist  Spanish  Republic 

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The Queen of sad fates, as she has also been called,29 had to face the Revolution of 1868 (known as La Gloriosa),30 which forced her to leave Spain by train from San Sebastián where she spent the summer.

Isabel II went into exile in France, where she received the protection of Napoleon III and Eugenia de Montijo, and established her residence in the Parisian Palace of Castilla until her death; On June 25, 1870, he abdicated in Paris in favor of his son, the future Alfonso XII.

Why?
The rebellion triumphed in Madrid, forcing Elizabeth II to flee to France with her son: the future King Alfonso XII.

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He was King of Spain from January 2, 1871 to February 11, 1873. He was also the first Duke of Aosta and head of the Savoy-Aosta branch.
He was elected King of Spain by the Cortes Generales in 1870 after the dethronement of Isabel II in 1868.

He was reigned for a little over two years, in his period as king there was political instability. During this period of time, 6 rulers rose and none succumbed to the crisis, aggravated by the independence conflict in Cuba, which had begun in 1868, and a new Carlist war, which began in 1872. His abdication and his return to Italy in 1873 led to the Declaration of the First Spanish Republic.

How he came to be king was thanks to the fact that he was always a candidate, at that time Spain was poor and the constitution was looking for a candidate who would fit constitutionally into the monarchy

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The Republic was governed by four distinct presidents—Estanislao Figueras, Francesc Pi i Margall, Nicolás Salmerón, Emilio Castelar; then, only eleven months after its proclamation, General Manuel Pavía led a coup d'état and established a unified republic dominated by Francisco Serrano.

That was the case, those were times of poverty

The first republic in Spain did not last even a year. The tension and political radicalization was such that in that short period of time there were four presidents of the first republic.
The first president was Figueras, who became so fed up with political problems that one day he left his office and headed directly for Paris. Shortly before this stampede, he gathered his supporters and his opponents and told them solemnly: "Gentlemen, I'm fed up with all of us."
Its second president, Pi y Margall, described the disappointments that politics had given him in this way: "My bitterness in power has been so much that I cannot covet it. In government, I have lost my tranquility, my rest, my illusions, my confidence in men, which constituted the bottom of my character. For every grateful man, a hundred ungrateful; for every disinterested and patriotic man, hundreds who did not seek in politics but the satisfaction of their appetites. I have received evil for good..."
The third president was Nicolás Salmerón, famous as Castelar, for his oratory. He resigned because he was not willing to sign an order that went against his principles. Indeed, on the mausoleum in the Madrid cemetery where he is buried you can read: "He abandoned power for not signing a death sentence."
The fourth was Emilio Castelar. When he took over the executive power, he said in a speech in the Cortes: "To sustain this form of government I need a lot of infantry, a lot of cavalry, a lot of artillery, a lot of Civil Guards and many police officers."

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6:  THE ALSONSO XII AND ALFONSO XIII REGIME

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6:  THE ALSONSO XII AND ALFONSO XIII REGIME

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''Pronunciamiento'' of General Martínez Campos in 1874

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''Pronunciamiento'' of General Martínez Campos in 1874

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On December 27, 1874, General Martínez Campos left Madrid for Sagunto, requested by the Valencian Alfonsinos to make a statement, receiving a telegram with the text Naranjas en condiciones, an expression in code devised by the Valencian conservatives, so that he could direct the motion.

On December 27, 1874, General Martínez Campos left Madrid for Sagunto, requested by the Valencian Alfonsinos to make a statement.
That same day, Brigadier General Luis Dabán, head of the Segorbe (Castellón) brigade, transferred part of his troops (two infantry battalions, several squadrons and some artillery pieces, a total of one). On December 29, Martínez Campos He puts himself in charge of the brigade and, with the soldiers forming a square in a place called "Las Alquerietas", near Sagunto, where the Sagunto-Burgos highway begins, s 1800 men) until Sagunto.
A few hours later, the pronouncement in favor of Prince Alfonso is communicated to the military chiefs,

who was Martínez Campos ?
Arsenio Martínez-Campos Antón (Segovia, December 14, 1831 – Zarauz, September 23, 1900) was a Spanish military and politician, author of the pronouncement that led to the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy.

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 Antonio Canovas del Castillo  and Sagasta (liberal turn),

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 Antonio Canovas del Castillo  and Sagasta (liberal turn),

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Antonio Cánovas was born in Malaga in 1828, he started very early in politics. Already in 1854 he wrote the "Manzanares Manifesto", the program of the military pronouncement known as the "Vicalvarada" in which the crown was required to make liberal reforms and the abolition of the government. Pronouncement that gave way to the so-called "progressive biennium" with General Espartero, already retired, at the helm.

In that year, after the renewal of the Cortes, he was elected deputy for Malaga for the Constituent Assembly and, after the fall of O'Donnell, civil governor of Cádiz. He was also Minister of the Interior in 1864 and of Overseas in 1865 during the reign of Isabel II before the Revolution of 1868.

After the expulsion of Isabel II, he held the presidency of
the Moderate Party,

Antonio Cánovas, who was assassinated on August 8, 1897 at the hands of the anarchist Angiolillo, whose hand had been financed by Cuban or American money, according to some sources, was going to change the fate of the war in the overseas provinces as well as the future from Spain.

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The Cuban War of Independence, fought from 1895 to 1898, was the last of three liberation wars that Cuba fought against Spain, the other two being the Ten Years' War (1868–1878) and the Little War (1879–1880). The final three months of the conflict escalated to become the Spanish–American War, with United States forces being deployed in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippine Islands against Spain. Historians disagree as to the extent that United States officials were motivated to intervene for humanitarian reasons but agree that yellow journalism exaggerated atrocities attributed to Spanish forces against Cuban civilians.

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The conflict arose in 1898 when the United States, rather than acknowledging the Philippines' declaration of independence, annexed the Philippines under the Treaty of Paris at the conclusion of the Spanish–American War.

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On April 25, 1898 the United States declared war on Spain following the sinking of the Battleship Maine in Havana harbor on February 15, 1898.
Hostilities began in the aftermath of the internal explosion of USS Maine in Havana Harbor in Cuba, leading to United States intervention in the Cuban War of Independence. The war led to the United States emerging predominant in the Caribbean region,[16] and resulted in U.S. acquisition of Spain's Pacific possessions. It led to United States involvement in the Philippine Revolution and later to the Philippine–American War.