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Why do we only look at Muslims who have influenced the world for good? 

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Why do we only look at Muslims who have influenced the world for good? 

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Suhaiymah won a poetry competition with her poem 'This is not a humanising poem'

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This is not a Humanising Poem by Suhaiymah Manzoor Khan - Spoken Word

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Case Study: Osama bin Laden (1957- 2011)
Osama bin Laden came from a wealthy Saudi Arabian family. When he was a young man he joined the Mujahideen, or those fighting to defend Islam, in Afghanistan. The Soviet Union had attempted to invade Afghanistan and thousands of Muslims from many countries, including the UK, travelled to join the fight.

Osama bin Laden became a commander of the Mujahideen, setting up a group called al- Qaeda, or ‘the base’ in 1988. Al- Qaeda is a network of Sunni Muslims, willing to use violence to achieve their aims. Ultimately al- Qaeda wanted an end to all foreign and secular influence in Muslim lands.

Once the war in Afghanistan ended al- Qaeda carried out attacks on military and non- military Western targets.  Al- Qaeda were designated as a terrorist organisation. They generally carried out suicide attacks on targets. They argued that a Jewish- Christian alliance was trying to destroy Islam and therefore their attacks were permitted by Islam. They viewed non-Sunni and liberal Muslims as also targets for attack.

On September 11th 2001 al-Qaeda operatives flew planes into the Twin Towers and Pentagon, killing thousands and starting the ‘war on terror’. This moment changed the world.  Osama bin- Laden was assassinated by US forces in 2011 after hiding out in Pakistan since 2001. He was buried at sea.

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Ayatollah Khomenei: an influential Muslim

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Ayatollah Khomenei: an influential Muslim

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Case Study: Ayatollah Khomenei (1900- 1989)

Sayyid Ruhollah Musavi Khomenei was the Supreme Leader of Iran after the revolution in 1979 till his death in 1989. He lead the 1979 Iranian revolution and once victorious, founded the Islamic Republic of Iran.

Before the revolution Iran was ruled by a Shah, or king. The last Shah sought to Westernise Iran and develop close ties with Britiain and the US.

Khomenei was a highly educated Islamic scholar and charismatic political leader. He strongly opposed the Shah of Iran, spending 15 years in exile. He argued that the only way to manage a country was according to Islamic teaching.

He led an Islamic revival, cuminating in the Iranian Revolution which brought Iran under Islamic rule. He described the US as the ‘great Satan’ and The USSR as the ‘lesser Satan’. Women were forced to wear modest, Islamic dress and the once liberal country became intolerant and conservative. He called for the murder of the novelist Salman Rushdie for his book The Satanic Verses. Thousands of political prisoners were hanged by his regime.

The Iranian Revolution is a major event in the history of the modern world. The Islamic State of Iran has a huge impact on global politics. As a Shi’a country, Iran has tense relaitonships with the Sunni Saudi Arabia and conflict between the two Islamic powerhouses is a feature of Middle East and more widely.

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1) Look at a few pages of the book 'Amazing Muslims who Changed the World'. If you do not have a copy, you can find images of several pages online.

2) Ask pupils to discuss why we only have a book about Muslims who are seen to have acted in a positive way. Discuss this question as a group.

3) Do pupils think we have a tendency to focus on people who inspire us, not just in relation to Muslims? Can pupils think of any books about people who could be seen to have a negative impact on the world (or partly negative)?

4) Ask pupils if they think we should have a book called 'World's 10 Most Influential Muslims', even if they have caused conflict, or have faced tragedy and struggle, or who hold views some people see as unjust?

5) Watch the video of Suhaiymah Manzoor Khan's poem. Make sure the subtitles are on. Play twice if necessary.

6) Choose some of her phrases, such as 'Brit-ish' or 'love us when we're down...' . Write these on the board. Give pupils time to think about what they mean.

7) Discuss how the poem feels to listen to. Do pupils feel upset? Hopeful? Angry? What do they think Suhaiymah wants to communicate to the audience?

8) Read about Osama Bin Laden and Ayatollah Khomenei. Make a list of the ways they influenced the world.

9) Talk about how it feels to learn about people involved in violence and conflict, especially Osama Bin Laden. Do pupils think this should be studied in school? Discuss this question.

10) Return to the question about why we tend to focus on people who have made a positive difference, discuss why pupils think this is.

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According to Qur'an 17:44, all existence glorifies God:
“The seven heavens and the earth and what is in them glorify him; there is nothing but that it glorifies him, together with praise of him, but you do not understand their glorification.”
Commentators remark that all orders of creation — angels, jinn, humans, animals, and inanimate phenomena — glorify God, through submission to God and God's laws; that this submission may be voluntary or involuntary or both; and that the precise nature and form of this submission may not be comprehensible to all.

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Sometimes the word 'Jinni' or 'Genie' is used instead of 'Jinn''. These words all describe the same beings.

The Jinns have free will, they can be benevolent, or not. They can be responsible for bad luck or illness. They can be bound to a sorcerer, they can inhabit dark, dinghy places.

Jinn are mentioned 29 times in the Qur'an. Muhammad was sent as a prophet to both humans and the Jinn.

Jinn are subject to God's laws, judgement and the afterlife.

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This website presents a collection of images of jinns painted over the years.
You can see that jinns have free will, like humans. However, unlike humans, jinns are made of 'smokeless fire'.
We learn that jinns can belong to any religion, including being non-religious athiests.
These images show jinns getting up to all sorts of activties, such as causing toothache, helping or fighting people and playing musical instruments.
Jinns inhabit a parallel world but also come into the human world and make contact with humans.

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Jinns are intelligent beings in Islamic belief system which have free will just like human beings. Unlike humans however they are made of smokeless fire. Jinns are also supposed to have different religions just like humans e.g., Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Hinduism etc and even Atheism. Jinns are supposed to live in the unseen world which can be thought of as a parallel dimension co-existing with our own. Here are some depictions of Jinns in Islamic art over the course of centuries.

Jinns that cause toothache! 18th century Ottoman Manuscript

The 72nd chapter of the Quran is also titled Surah Jinn

A Jinn from Shahnama from medieval Persia

The court of Solomon with Jinns, Angels, Animals and Birds (Mughal Miniature)

Mahan in the Wilderness of Ghouls-Jinns fighting dragons from Khamsa of Nizami

A Jinn drawn in the style of 'Muhammad Siyah Qalam by Muhammad Taqi

Jinn by the Ottoman master Mehmed Siyah Kalem

Rustom fighting a Jinn from a medieval Islamic manuscript

Arghan Div Brings the Chest of Armor to Hamza from Dastan Amir Hamza

Jinns from a medieval Islamic manuscript Wonders of Creation

Another Illustration of Jinn Shaitan from the 14th century Book of Wonders

Depiction of two Jinns from Iran/Central Asia from the Timurid Period

Jinns by the Ottoman Artist Mehmet Siyah Kalem in the East Asian style

Illustration of the Jinn Shaitan from the 14th century Book of Wonders

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Jinns are intelligent beings in Islamic belief system which have free will just like human beings. Unlike humans however they are made of smokeless fire. Jinns are also supposed to have different religions just like humans e.g., Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Hinduism etc and even Atheism.

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The word for angel is 'malaikah' in Arabic.
angels are mentioned more than 100 times in the Qur'an. They have been given all sorts of jobs by God, which they perform. The angels worship God.
In the Qur'an we learn that God created angels before human beings. The Qur'an also tells us that angels are made out of light. They are described as beautiful, neither male or female, possessing two, three or four pairs of wings (Qur’an 35:1) and bodies which can assume many forms. They do not need food, shelter or rest, they do not reproduce or have sex.
Angels cannot disobey God, they do not have free will. They have powers to carry out their roles, but do not make mistakes and always carry out God’s wishes.
Here are some angels and their roles:
Jibril: Brings word of God to the prophets (Qur’an 2:97)
Izra'il: the angel of death (Qur’an 32:11)
Mika'il: Nourishes bodies and souls of the living, oversees the seasons.
Israfil: Blows a trumpet at end of days, and again at Judgment
Al- Kiran al-Katibin ('the honourable scribes): Two angels record good and bad actions in a book, the basis of judgment. (Qur’an 54:52-3)

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Today it is common knowledge that Islamic art is non-figurative. This means Islamic artists and architects do not depict humans, animals or plants. Geometry, calligraphy and pattern are used instead. The reason for this is the fear of shirk, or idolatry and a desire to submit to the will of God.

The Qur'an repeatedly warns readers of the prohibitions against “associating others with God” (shirk). This is often phrased as a prohibition on worshipping or serving (ʿabada) anything other than God.

In a broad sense the worship of God involves fulfilling God’s law and submitting to God. ‘Submission’ in Arabic is ‘islam’.  Submission could therefore be seen as the fundamental message of the Qur'an; for humans to worship God alone.

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After Muhammad’s death the Arabs and Islam expanded rapidly into a huge diversity of cultures, which had already-existing and rich traditions of representational art, such as Turkey, Persia (Iran) and India.

The Islamic rulers had to manage the many cultures they came into contact with. Islamic teaching however is consistently aniconic (non-representational).

Shah Tahmasp I (1514- 1576) was the second Shah of Safavid Iran. He maintained the Safavif empire in Persia/ Iran.

He promoted and celebrated the arts. He built a royal house for painters, calligraphers and poets. He studied painting himself. This was not strictly acceptable in Islam, due to the fear of idolatry. Later, Shah Tahmasp turned against the arts, sending poets to exile in India.

Tahmasp's father, Ismail, who ruled Persia before him, insisted any Sunni Muslims in the empire converted to Shi'a Islam. He made Shi'a Islam the official religion of the empire. Sunni scholars were given the choice of conversion, death or exile. Sunni Sufi orders were disbanded.

Tahmasp came to the throne when he was ten, under a guardianship. He eventually took the throne and managed to stablise the empire despite conflict with the neighbouring Ottoman empire. He saw himself as a pious Shi'a king. His late father was seen as a saviour and worshipped by some. Tahmasp was encouraged by advisers to continue this tradition but after a spiritual experience and felt strongly that this was wrong and banned the practice. He became more religious, following a Shi’a Sufi path. He built houses and mosques for Sufi orders to carry out mystical ceremonies. He connected the Safavid kingship with custody of the Hidden Imam, combining religious and political power. This is still evident in Iran today.

Before his religious experience Tahmasp encouraged Persian miniature paintings. He provided rooms and materials for artists, including gold and lapis lazuli. During Tahmasp’s reign the Shahnameh was produced, named after him (the shah). This is one of the world’s most treasured illustrated manuscripts containing 258 miniature paintings.

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A major theme of this set of lesson ideas and resources is 'submission'. The word 'Islam' has two Arabic meanings; 'peace' and 'submission'. Submission is an important concept in Islamic life and belief, but it is rather abstract and might be difficult for children to grasp. Therefore comparing jinns and angels could be a way to unlock this abstract concept for young children. As you have read in the 'order of creation' section, all creatures ultimately exist in relation to God. Angels do not have free will, jinns do. Angels cannot disobey God, whereas jinns can be good or bad, as they control their actions. The following suggestions help you explore these ideas in the classroom.

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There are two challenges when we talk about art and Islam. For many people when they think about art and Islam they immediately think about calligraphy, the skill of beautiful and ornate handwriting or of geometric designs. This is because there is a common misconception that in Muslim art there is a prohibition against representing figures and there are particular bans against showing pictures of the prophet Muhammed.

The reality is more complicated. During Islam’s long history there have been traditions where not only have artists who are Muslim, depicted the human figure but there have also been times when the Prophet Muhammad has been represented. There are very strong artistic traditions in many Muslim cultures where art does not represent figures and there is a focus on calligraphy and patterns but this is not a uniform phenomenon. The Quran prohibits the worshipping of idols but it does not forbid the drawing or painting of figures.

What is Muslim art?

Some people believe that the phrase ‘Muslim Art’ is unhelpful because it is unclear what we mean by it. Do we mean art that is made by Muslims, or do we mean art that is made by people who live in or identify with Muslim cultures? Is Muslim art religious art or is it Muslim if it about Islam or made by a Muslim? Contemporary Muslim communities are nationally and culturally diverse. About a quarter of the world’s population is Muslim and over 50 countries (in Asia, Africa and the Middle East) have Muslim populations where between 50 to 90% of the people are Muslim. Historically there were different Muslim civilisations that encompassed multiple traditions and so talking of a recognisable body of work that can be called “Muslim’ is very difficult.

The artists we have selected are all contemporary, but they come from different traditions. They are explored in the seciotn entitled 'Muslim Artists'.

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Victoria and Albert Museum: Resources for Primary Schools

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Victoria and Albert Museum: Resources for Primary Schools

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This link will take you to the Victorian and Albert Museum. Their specialists have created a range of resources for primary and secondary pupils that use calligraphy and geometric patters as a way of teaching about art and key ideas associated with Islam.

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Download our free lesson plans for Key Stage 1 and 2 students (ages 5 - 11) covering many areas of our collections and varied exhibition programme.

These resources support self-guided visits to collections on permanent display:

Key Stages 1 & 2: Art & Design, Design & Technology and English

Explore the fascinating culture of historical and contemporary Japan through creative hands-on activities designed for a museum visit and back in the classroom.

Key Stages 1 & 2: Maths, Art & Design, and Design & Technology

Develop knowledge and understanding of two-dimensional shape and pattern through Islamic design.

Key Stages 1 & 2: Literacy and Art & Design

Learn about the art, culture and stories of another time and place and discover more about Islam.

Key Stages 1 & 2: Art & Design, Literacy, RE

Explore South Asian art and artefacts to gain an understanding of the culture, religion and style of the Indian subcontinent.

Key Stages 1 & 2: Art & Design, Literacy, RE

Discover 5000 years of Chinese culture through the Museum's extensive collection of Chinese art & design.

Key Stage 2: Art, Design and Technology, English, History, Music, P.E.

Discover how circus developed from the 18th century to the present day. Packed with images, making activities and discussion points.

These resources support visits to temporary exhibitions. Some resources are for exhibitions that have now closed but many of the activities can be adapted for use in the classroom and our permanent collections:

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Teachers' resources for primary schools · V&A

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Download our free lesson plans for Key Stage 1 and 2 students (ages 5 - 11) covering many areas of our collections and varied exhibition programme.

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Victoria and Albert Museum: Resources for Secondary Schools

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Victoria and Albert Museum: Resources for Secondary Schools

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Here you will find the link to the Secondayr resources.

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Download our free lesson plans for Key Stage 3 - 5 students (ages 11 - 18) covering many areas of our collections and varied exhibition programme.

These resources support self-guided visits to collections on permanent display:

Key stages 3 - 5 Design & Technology and Art & Design

Explore the 20th century using this resource to support teaching and learning linked to the National Curriculum for D&T and Art & Design. This resource meets key criteria for AQA, Edexcel, and OCR D&T GCSE specifications by linking with suggested artists, designers, themes and movements from this period and beyond.

Exploring Calligraphy in Islamic Art

Key Stages 3 - 5: Art & Design, Design & Technology

Learn about Islamic culture and design through calligraphy. Investigate the links between design, language and communication in cultures past and present.

Exploring Plant-Based Design in Islamic Art

Key Stage 3 - 5: Art & Design, Design & Technology

Study examples of Islamic plant-based designs at the V&A and give students inspiration for creative projects.

Key Stage 3 & 4: Art & Design, Design & Technology

Explore pattern through the V&A and RIBA architecture collections.

Key Stage 3 & 4: Art & Design, Design & Technology

Learn about the design processes and inspiration behind iconic buildings in the V&A and RIBA architecture collections and use these ideas to inspire new product design projects.

Key Stage 3 & 4: Art & Design, Design & Technology

Research the extensive fashion collections at the V&A and use them to inspire new designs.
Fashion & Textiles: State of Early Modern Undress
Key Stage 4 & 5: Art & Design and Design & Technology
Also suitable for Higher Education groups

Explore replica costumes of outfits worn by 17th Century Spanish royalty. Develop an understanding of garment construction and take inspiration for future design projects.

Key Stage 4 & 5: Photography, Art & Design

Support teaching and learning inspired by the Museum's national collection of photography.

Key Stage 3 & 4: Art & Design, Design & Technology

Explore the V&A's collection of European jewellery from 1200 to the present day, looking at the different materials and techniques featured, the function and context of the objects, and the inspiration behind the designs.

Key Stage 3 & 4: Drama and English

Explore the different aspects of performance such as costume, production and promotion.

Key Stage 5: English, Drama, History

Discover why Brook and his collaborators approached particular plays and themes and consider how these could be relevant today.

Resources supporting visits to temporary exhibitions. Some resources are for exhibitions that have now closed but many of the activities can be adapted for use in the classroom and our permanent collections.

Key Stages 3 - 5: Art & Design and Design & Technology

This resource will encourage students to reflect on their own society and their influence on it through their creative designs. They will explore key themes from the exhibition such as the power of Quant's brand, her use of innovative textiles and the idea of women's liberation through fashion.

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V&A · Teachers' resources for secondary schools & colleges

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Download our free lesson plans for Key Stage 3 - 5 students (ages 11 - 18) covering many areas of our collections and varied exhibition programme. These resources support self-guided visits to collections on permanent display: Key stages 3 - 5 Design & Technology and Art & Design Explore the 20th century using this resource to support teaching and learning linked to the National Curriculum for D&T and Art & Design.

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This link takes you to a great essay on the representation of the figure in Muslim art by specialists at the British Museum. The article also questions the idea that there is such a thing as ‘Islamic art’.

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If you want to understand more about the past and present of a country, there is no better place to start than contemporary art. The Middle East and North Africa saw the birth and flourishing of ancient civilisations and religions, literature, music and art. Yet in recent memory, there has also been revolution, conflict, the destruction of cultural heritage and mass migration that is still ongoing and remains one of the most troubling and defining features of our time. The stories behind the artworks in this display echo that great sweep of history, expressing reflections on the past and considering the relationship between past and present. While some artists allude to artistic or literary heritage, others speak of taboos, history and current politics and reflect on their own societies, all of which have experienced extraordinary changes in living memory.

Reflections: contemporary art of the Middle East and North Africa comprises over 100 works on paper from the British Museum's own collection: drawings, etchings, posters, photographs and artists' books, by artists who either live in the countries of their birth, or have left for a variety of reasons, including war and persecution. The Museum began collecting works on paper by artists from the Middle East and North Africa in the 1980s. In 2006, the museum showcased works from the collection in Word into Art and the success of this exhibition led to the formation of a patrons' group in 2009, known as CaMMEA (Contemporary and Modern Middle East Art) dedicated to expanding the collection. There are now about 300 artists from across the region represented in the British Museum collection.

As the collection has grown, I have become increasingly fascinated by the stories artists tell through the work they make. Collected through the prism of the British Museum as a museum of history, I see these works both as art as well as documents that speak of their time. This display invites you to delve deep into the worlds of the artists, and these are just some of the fascinating themes and works that visitors will discover.

The Figure

People often think that within the cultures of Islam, the depiction of the human figure is completely forbidden. Although the Qur'an opposes the worship of images, it does not reject representational art. The Prophet's hadiths (sayings), compiled a century after his death, provide evidence both in favour of and against figural imagery. Figural representation is never found in copies of the Qur'an and other holy texts, nor in religious spaces such as mosques and shrines. However, the ban did not extend to non-religious contexts and there is a rich tradition of illustrating manuscripts such as the Persian Shahnama (Book of Kings) in which the figure is freely depicted. Nevertheless, across the centuries and in different countries and times, unease over figural representation has continued. For the first modern artists in the MENA region (Middle East and North Africa) of the early 20th century, whose works are found in the first section of the display, it was not always possible to study the figure in their own countries as their contemporaries could in the art schools of Europe.

The first section of the display focuses on the different ways that artists use the figure from the early 20th century, when art schools were being established across the region, up to the present day. Among the early works are those by artists sent on scholarships to study at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris or the Accademia di Belle Arti in Rome. There, away from the conservatism of home, they would learn life drawing alongside landscape and perspective and were also exposed to European art movements.

The sculptor Michel Basbous (1921-1981) had begun his studies at the Académie Libanaise des Beaux-Arts in Beirut and went from there to the Beaux Arts in Paris in 1949. During a second stay, in 1954, he joined the studio of the Russian artist and sculptor Ossip Zadkine (1888-1967). Basbous's drawings (1) were often sketches that would be transformed into glorious sculptures. Figurative as well as abstract, these fill the garden (2) of his house in the village of Rachana, which he turned into an open-air museum and artistic and cultural centre which flourished in the years before the Civil War that engulfed Lebanon between 1975 and 1990. I was fortunate enough to have visited Rachana some years ago and was amazed at the beautiful white sculptures that began to appear on the main road as we neared the village.

For Syrian artist Fadi Yazigi (born 1966), although like Basbous a painter and a sculptor, his figures are from another time and tell a different story (3). A graduate of Damascus University, he still lives in the city and his studio is in one of the old quarters, where he goes to work every day. The figures he draws on delicate rice paper, tumble in all directions wide-eyed and contorted, their features and expressions inspired by the people he sees around him. Drawn to the ancient past, and to the art of the Babylonians, whose empire extended from Iraq into Syria, he writes: 'The Babylonians were depicting the human form 6000 years ago and I, along with others, am simply continuing what they began.'

The figures of Hayv Kahraman (born Baghdad 1981) are more unsettling (4). They are women in traditional hijab who hang in ever-diminishing sizes from the branches of a tree, the thick trunk of which recalls the brush strokes of a calligrapher. The artist's intention is to shine a spotlight on what is known as honour killing, which refers to the murder (often by family members) of women accused of breaking social conventions governing gender relations.

Abstraction

Abstraction, along with the use of geometry and script, is the second major theme within the works on display. An important feature of Islamic art, together with geometry and calligraphy, abstraction is also an influential strand in international modern art. The artists straddle these different worlds adapting shape, pattern, script, line and colour to represent complex, personal or conceptual subjects as can be seen in the following examples.

Susan Hefuna (born 1962) spent the first ten years of her life in Egypt, mostly in the Nile Delta and Alexandria. She now lives and works between Cairo, Berlin and New York. From 2004 she began working with Cairene craftsmen who make the wooden screens known as mashrabiya that filter the light and create privacy in traditional houses. In her versions, Hefuna places within them words or short texts in Arabic or English. One beautiful example is on display in the Sainsbury Africa Galleries at the Museum (Room 25) into which she has inserted the words in Arabic, 'Knowledge is Sweeter than Honey' (5). The designs of the wooden screens inspired the delicate abstract drawings displayed in the exhibition (6). Created from ink and layers of tracing and cartridge paper, Hefuna works in one sitting for many hours and compares her method to writing calligraphy, which also requires that intensive meditative process.

Arabic calligraphy is a key element of the hallmark style of Algerian artist Rachid Koraïchi (born 1947). He writes his texts in all directions, lines are repeated and combined with mystical signs and symbols which appear in other media such as his Path of Roses installation (7) which was conceived as a tribute to the Sufi mystic Rumi (1207-73).

His etching included in Reflections, (8) is one of a series of prints entitled A Nation in Exile, a collaboration between Koraïchi and the Palestinian poet Mahmoud Darwish (1941-2008) whom he met in Tunis in 1982. 'It was not a question for me of illustrating his poems' described Koraïchi, 'I loved his texts and he appreciated my work. I wanted to seize aesthetically the emotion that was the essence of the poem.' The poem 'It was what it will become', (the title is inscribed at the top of the etching), was written by Mahmoud Darwish as a tribute to his friend and poet Rashed Hassan who died tragically in a fire in New York.

Tangled Histories

Mehdi Farhadian (born Tehran, 1980) is fascinated by the monumental triumphal arches that are found all over Iran. Many of these impressive, richly ornamented structures were built to commemorate key moments in Iran's history, from revolutions to coronations and military victories. The inspiration for this particular work (9) is a temporary structure set up in late 19th-century Tabriz, in western Iran. In Farhadian's rendering, the space becomes a stage set with ballet dancers emerging delicately through pink washes of paint. There is a darker side to this fantasy however, as on either side of the arch are cannons and military flags hinting at violence beneath the seemingly dreamy scene.

The 'Arab Spring', the name given to uprisings against established regimes that took place across the Middle East, began in Tunisia in 2011. Since then, a number of Tunisian artists have made work that re-examines the complex history of their country. Nidhal Chamekh (born 1985), for example, has focused on neglected histories and often uses newspaper cuttings which he repurposes to act as a reminder. In Nos visages no. XI (10) he tells the story of the many troops from the French colonies who helped to liberate France during the Second World War (1939-45) but who were afterwards cast aside and forgotten. The two contradictory half faces, taken from the newspaper Le Miroir, serve to emphasise the denial of their existence.

In Syria, the uprisings that began in the town of Deraa in the south in 2011 saw activism on the streets, brutal repression by the government, and a surge of graffiti in towns and cities all over the country. Monif Ajjaj (born 1968) uses the graffiti style to inscribe in spray paint the words in Arabic Haya li'l abad (Life to the end) on the back of a kneeling figure (11).

There are thousands of Syrians now in refugee camps, and in her photograph from the series Natreen (We are waiting), (12) Leila Alaoui (1982-2016) captures the state of limbo and despair as the central figure, with her compatriots, literally waits for someone else to decide their fate.

The desperate story of fleeing and migration is seen further in an installation of little boats made out of bicycle mudguards filled with spent matches (13) which is displayed in the Albukhary gallery, alongside other works relating to the themes of Reflections. The boats were made by Syrian artist Issam Kourbaj (born 1963) and are part of a project with poet Ruth Padel (born 1940) called Dark Water, Burning World.

For both, it was seeing for themselves, on Lesbos, the tragedy of Syrians making these dangerous voyages, so many dying in the attempt, that began this collaboration which has resulted in installations of boats and readings around the world. Kourbaj and Padel are willing us not to forget the tragedy of Syria that is now 10 years old:
'..and their stories our stories, steered by the small star-light of cell phones waves like rings of a tree rings of the centuries rocking and spilling on the windy sea ...'
(Lesbos 2015) Ruth Padel 'Dark Water, Burning World' from We are All from Somewhere Else, Vintage (2020).

The universality of mass migration is defining of our time, and because of this the installation of boats was chosen as Object 101 on the 10th anniversary of A History of the World in 100 Objects. And as Neil MacGregor describes; 'Kourbaj's little convoy of matchstick figures stand for all migrants, anywhere, driven by fear, guided by hope.'
Reflections: contemporary art of the Middle East and North Africa is open 17 May - 15 August 2021 in Room 90, and further works can be seen in the Albukhary Foundation Gallery of the Islamic World. Watch the curator's tour of the show here. The display is supported by the CaMMEA acquisition group. Many of the works in the exhibition are published in the accompanying book Reflections: contemporary art of the Middle East and North Africa by Venetia Porter with Natasha Morris and Charles Tripp (£25, British Museum Press 2020). Available to order from the British Museum shop.
Events
Explore the themes of the display through related online events - from a curator's introduction to panel discussions and talks with artists in the show. To book upcoming events visit britishmuseum.org/reflections Past events can be viewed on-demand through our events YouTube channel, including: A curator's introduction - Venetia Porter discusses the many stories that are threaded through the display. At home in the world: Syrian contemporary art - take a closer look at contemporary Syrian art in this online talk with writer Malu Halasa, artists Issam Kourbaj and Sulafa Hijazi and art historian and independent curator Dr Charlotte Bank.
Art has no country - Journalist and editor Jo Glanville talks to Iranian artist Afsoon, Iraqi artist Mahmoud Obaidi and Almir Koldzic, Director of Counterpoints Arts, about the impact of displacement, migration and exile on artists.

Through the lens - Artists Newsha Tavakolian, Laura Boushnak and Manal AlDowayan talk with curator Venetia Porter about how they are driven to observe, to document and to give voice through their work.
Marcos Grigorian: Pioneer of Iranian art - Discover more about the artist, gallerist and actor (1925- 2007). In collaboration with Magic of Persia Foundation, Layla Diba, Vali Mahlouji, Elizabeth Rauh, Siavash Saba, Yvette Tajarian and Parviz Tanavoli explore the life of this extraordinary man. Tunisia: art as a mirror - This panel discussion seeks to capture the scope of Tunisian visual arts with particular focus on the artistic possibilities offered by the 2011 revolution. Music to stir the soul - Enjoy a performance by Maya Youssef, composed in response to the display and recorded in the gallery, and Samira Abbassy and Yasmine Seale in conversation with curator Venetia Porter. Against Disappearance - A discussion about cultural heritage, presented by the Cultural Protection Fund and Shubbak Festival, in partnership with the British Museum.

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Reflections: contemporary art of the Middle East and North Africa

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Venetia Porter, Curator of Islamic and Contemporary Middle East Art, looks at how artists of the Middle East and North Africa respond to, and reflect on, issues of gender, identity, politics, history and cultural tradition, through the prism of contemporary art.

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Jinns have free will, like humans, and angels do not have free will. Talk about what this means- it means angels cannot disobey God, whereas jinns and humans can. They can also choose to obey God.

Create a Venn diagram featuring humans, jinns and angels. What does each creature share, and what makes them different? Is there anything that all creatures share, for the centre of the Venn?

Are pupils surprised that jinns can belong to any religion? Talk about whether this is an aspect of their free will- if they are geniunely free, they are free to choose their religion, or even atheism.

Make a list of all the things jinns do that pupils have learnt about. Jinns live in a parallel world but have contact with the human world. Make a list of the ways jinns come into contact with humans. What sense do pupils get of jinns overall- what are they, what is their existence like, are they as diverse as humans?

Discuss if jinns could be metaphors. Could they symbolise forces, such as chaos, or bad luck, or hope? Learn the word 'personification', where an abstract idea is represented as a person, such as the idea of 'evil' is personified as a figure called the Devil.

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Show pupils this fountain where the bowl rests on carved lions. Teach that this is in a Moorish palace in Granada, Spain, called the Alhambra. This is from a time when Moors, or Moroccan Muslims, ruled Spain.

You can find many pictures of the Alhambra online. It is a palace built in the mountains outside the city with intricate Islamic designs on many walls. It is very famous and very beatiful.

Ask pupils if they think these lions are idolatrous, if Muslim artists should not be creating representations of real animals or people.

Information about this topic is given in the section below. You could separate it into small cards and ask pupils to choose two or three cards to answer the question: Is the fountain of the lions idolatrous?

Pupils should highlight one or two pieces of information that they use to answer the question. They should write their answer to the quesiotn using this information and be prepared to explain to the class.

In advance of this analysis, you might want to define some key words from the information: polytheism, monotheism, shirk, idolatry and representaiton.

Suggestions for wider learning:

Look at more images of Moorish Spain, such as the cities of Granada and Cordoba, especially the mosque in Cordoba. This is a beautiful mixture of Arabic and European architecture.

Read the passage from Exodus that forbids images.

'You shall not make for yourself an image in the form of anything in heaven above or on the earth beneath or in the waters below.' (Exodus 20:4)

Talk about why pupils think this is a commandment. Make links between Jews, Christians and Muslims in this key belief.

Find images online of Protestant churches which are very plain with no images or statues and plain walls and windows. Talk about how they are also concerned to avoid idolatry.

Teach that as the Protestant church was growing in Europe, many traditional churches (Catholic churches) were ransacked and their images and statues damaged or destroyed. This happened in England and Scotland in many churches.

Show the interior of a Catholic church. Children will see lots of colour, art, stained glass, images and statues. Catholic churches also use music, chanting and incense. Ask children why they think this is the case. In the Catholic tradition all the senses are engaged to help people focus and connect to the mystery and wonder of God. Images would also serve the purpose of teaching an illiterate congregation about the Bible and how they should live.

Discuss why some Protestant reformers would go to the extent of destroying statues and images in a church. What is pupils' reaction to this?

Teach that when the Prophet Muhammad finally won Makkah for the Muslim community, after years of fighting, he entered the Ka'ba and destroyed all statues of other gods, seen as false gods, or idols.

Talk about the relationship between these two worldviews: whether to engage the senses or avoid distraction.

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The Court of the Lions ( Spanish: Patio de los Leones; Arabic: بهو السباع) or Palace of the Lions ( Spanish: Palacio de los Leones) is a palace in the heart of the Alhambra, a historic citadel formed by a complex of palaces, gardens and forts in Granada, Spain. It was commissioned by the Nasrid sultan Muhammed V of the Emirate of Granada in Al-Andalus. Its construction started in the second period of his reign, between 1362 and 1391 AD. Along with the Alhambra, the palace is part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It was minted in Spain's 2011 limited edition of €2 Commemorative Coins.

The Palace of the Lions is one of the most famous palaces in Islamic architecture and exemplifies the apogee of Nasrid architecture in Al-Andalus. The architecture of the palace presented a significant shift in the design of Nasrid palaces and introduced new trends in ornamentation. The building consists of a rectangular courtyard centered on a marble fountain with twelve sculpted lions. Four main halls surround the courtyard, along with some upper-floor rooms. Water channels connect the central fountain with smaller fountains in the four halls. The halls feature some of the most elaborate and sophisticated vaults in the Islamic world.

The Alhambra was a self-contained palace-city surrounded by fortifications, built up by the Nasrid rulers of the Emirate of Granada in the 13th to 15th centuries. Multiple palaces were added and expanded over the years by different rulers. The Palace of the Lions was added by Muhammad V, who is also responsible for other important contributions to the Alhambra. The period of Muhammad V's reign is considered by scholars to mark the apogee of Nasrid architecture, characterized in particular by a profusive use of (stalactite-like sculpting) and three-dimensional muqarnas vaults. The chronology of construction in the Palace of the Lions is not clearly established, but it took place during Muhammad V's second reign (1362-1391), after his return from a period of exile. The Hall of the Two Sisters ( Sala de Dos Hermanas), on the north side of the court, was completed in 1362 or between 1362 and 1365, when Muhammad V was celebrating his return to the throne and was also refurbishing the Mexuar and the Comares Palace. According to scholar Felix Arnold, the rest of the palace was built between 1377 and 1390. Some scholars have suggested that the palace was most likely completed in 1380. Inscriptions throughout the palace feature poems by Ibn Zamrak, a poet and long-serving vizier at the time, which suggests that he was probably involved in its design.

The area the Palace of the Lions was built on was formerly part of a larger garden or . Much of the area around it remained an open garden afterward, including the area on its north side which is now occupied by the Patio de Lindaraja (Courtyard of Lindaraja). Possibly because of this, the palace's original name was Qasr ar-Riyad ( Arabic: قصر الرياض, 'Palace of the Garden') or, more fully, Qasr ar-Riyad as-Sa'id ( Arabic: قصر الرياض السعيد, 'Palace of the Joyous Garden'). Another former name of the palace may have been Dar 'Aisha ( Arabic: بيت عائشة, 'House of 'Aisha'), purportedly named after one of Muhammad V's favourite wives, although there is no historical record of what Muhammad's wives were called. This name was later corrupted to Daraxa or Daraja in Spanish, and survives in the name of the Lindaraja courtyard. The palace was originally completely independent from the nearby Comares Palace to the west and had its own street entrance. On the south side of the palace, separated from it by a narrow street, was the Rawda ( Arabic: روضة), the dynastic mausoleum of the Nasrids (of which only the foundations remain today).

A widely-held scholarly view is that the palace was intended to serve as a private residence with a more intimate character than the Comares Palace, which served more official public functions. It may have served as a pleasure palace for entertainment. In his 2004 book on the Alhambra, Robert Irwin argued that while this interpretation is plausible, there is little direct evidence about the palace's function. One theory by art historian Juan Carlos Ruiz Souza has proposed that it may have actually been a rather than a palace. It has also been suggested that the palace was built to commemorate Muhammad V's victories, in particular his retaking of Algeciras in 1369. Robert Irwin states that there is no direct evidence for this interpretation either and that the chronology of events makes it unlikely. However, the loot gained from those victories may have helped Muhammad V finance his construction projects.

Granada was conquered by the Catholic Monarchs of Spain in 1492 and the Alhambra became a palace owned by the Spanish monarchy. Like much of the Alhambra, the Palace of the Lions suffered damages and underwent various repairs, restorations, and modifications over time. Under the Catholic Monarchs, it was connected to the Comares Palace by a direct passage for the first time, as it remains today. Starting in 1528, emperor Charles V commissioned the construction of new apartments in the area to the north of the palace. The former gardens on the north side of the palace, which had allowed for an uninterrupted view of the city on this side, were turned into an enclosed garden during this period, resulting in the present Patio de Lindaraja. Additionally, the original entrance to the Palace of the Lions, on its south side, was suppressed in order to make a connection to the new Renaissance-style Palace of Charles V. Modifications were also made to the fountain inside the Court of the Lions during the second half of the 16th century.

In 1590 the western chamber of the palace, the Sala de los Mocarabes, was destroyed by the explosion of a nearby gunpowder magazine. The room's former muqarnas-vault ceiling, now lost, was eventually replaced by a Baroque-style plaster vault in 1714, designed by painter Blas de Ledesma for the visit of Phillip V and Isabella of Parma. In the 19th century, probably during the French occupation (1810-1812), the floor of the courtyard was replaced with gardens - although there has been much debate among scholars as to whether gardens had previously existed in the courtyard. In 1859 the architect Rafael Contreras "restored" the courtyard's eastern pavilion by giving it a spherical dome roof with ceramic tiling, based in part on Iranian architecture. This conformed to what European restorers at the time thought the "Arab style" should look like. The domed roof was disassembled in 1934 by Leopoldo Torres Balbás and replaced with its current pyramidal roof, which set off an international debate about the nature of restorations. Torres Balbás argued for a more scientific approach to restoration, in contrast with the more "stylistic" restoration philosophy of his predecessors. Nonetheless, Torres Balbás's roof is still partly incorrect, as its angles are too steep compared with similar pyramidal roofs in Moorish architecture.

In 2002, the Patronato de la Alhambra (the official agency in charge of the historical site) began a major and comprehensive restoration of the Court of the Lions. This involved the temporary removal of the fountain's lion sculptures and modifications to its hydraulic system. The restoration of the fountain and most of the courtyard was completed in 2012. One of the last steps in the restoration was the replacement of the courtyard's previous gravel flooring with a pavement of Macael marble flagstones, a decision based on the study of historical archives and on new archeological investigations showing that the underlying rock bed would have made the topsoil too thin for gardens. A recent study of some of the muqarnas compositions around Court of the Lions was able to identify deformations and imperfections that have occurred due to the many repairs and restorations that took place across generations. The Sala de los Reyes is still undergoing further restoration work. A project to restore its three painted leather ceilings was completed in 2018, while a new project to restore the stucco decoration below these ceilings began in July 2022.

The palace is centered around a rectangular courtyard, which is surrounded on four sides by chambers and an arcaded gallery or portico. Many of the names for individual rooms were coined in Spanish after the end of the Reconquista and have little to do with any original Arabic names.

The courtyard (Patio de los Leones)

The rectangular courtyard measures about 28.7 meters long and 15.6 meters wide, with its long axis aligned roughly east-to-west. The arches and columns of the surrounding portico are arranged in a complex pattern that is unique in the architecture of the Islamic world. Single columns alternate with groups of two or three columns to forming a visual rhythm that highlights certain parts of the façade. Each column or group of columns demarcates a bay: there are 17 bays on the north and south sides of the courtyard and 11 bays on the east and west sides. On the north and south sides, the central bay is wider than all the others as it leads to the entrance of the hall behind it. On the east and west sides, a pavilion structure projects into the courtyard from the portico. It has been argued by Georges Marçais that the spacing of columns and arches was set to the golden ratio, but there is no strong evidence that Muslim architects ever used it. Instead, as Antonio Fernández-Puertas postulates, the rectangles used in the construction may have been based on square roots and surds.

The pavilions are also supported by slender columns forming three bays of different sizes on each side of the pavilion, with the middle bay slightly wider than the two side bays. At the corners of the pavilion the columns meet in groups of three. The pavilions have pyramidal roofs covering a wooden dome ceiling inside it. The wooden domes feature geometric patterns similar in style to the wooden ceilings in other parts of the Alhambra like the Hall of the Ambassadors.

The arcades of the porticos and the pavilions feature intricately-carved stucco decoration, known as in Spanish. A sebka motif - a stylized lozenge-like motif - fills the spaces above the arches and between the columns, accompanied by further vegetal arabesques, other abstract motifs, and muqarnas sculpting. There are also Arabic inscriptions, including the repetition of the Nasrid motto " wa la ghaliba illa-llah" ( Arabic: ولا غالب إلا الله, 'And there is no conqueror but God').

The courtyard also features a sophisticated system of water channels, fountains, and basins. At the center of the southern hall, the northern hall, and the eastern and western porticoes is a small fountain at ground level with a round basin from which a water channel runs across the marble floor along the central axes of the courtyard. Additional fountains with basins are situated at the center of the pavilions, along these channels, and separately at the corners of the western and eastern porticoes. The four water channels intersect at the center of the courtyard, where the famed Fountain of the Lions stands. This fountain consists of a large elevated basin surrounded by twelve stylized lion sculptures, all carved from marble.

The Sala de los Mocárabes

The chamber on the western side of the courtyard, through which visitors enter the Court of the Lions today, is known as the Sala de los Mocárabes or "Hall of the mocárabes ( muqarnas)". It is a narrow rectangular hall. Originally, it was covered by a ceiling of muqarnas vaults and was considered one of the most beautiful rooms in the Alhambra. However, in 1590 the chamber was largely destroyed by the explosion of a nearby gunpowder magazine. The ceiling was eventually replaced by the current Baroque-style plaster vault in 1714, designed by Spanish painter Blas de Ledesma. The hall is connected to the rest of the courtyard via three muqarnas archways.

The Sala de los Abencerrajes and the Patio del Harén

The hall accessed on the south side of the courtyard has been known since either the 16th century or the 19th century as the Sala de los Abencerrajes or "Hall of the Abencerrajes". This name derives from the powerful Abencerrajes family ( Banu Sarraj in Arabic) who played a political role in the emirate, but there is no actual historical relation between the family and this chamber. Its original name in Arabic was al-Qubba al-Ġarbīya ("the Western Dome"). The reasons for this name are unclear, but it may have been called that in relation to the dome of the Palacio del Partal Alto, a palace further east near the present Partal Palace.

The hall consists of a central square space, acting almost like another courtyard, which is flanked by two niche-like side chambers. This kind of layout found in many other palace halls across the Alhambra. The side chambers are separate from the central space by double arches. A short corridor, passing through multiple archways, separates the hall from the Court of the Lions. On an upper floor above this corridor is a small chamber with a window overlooking the courtyard, similar to a (lookout). The main central space of the hall is covered by a highly elaborate three-dimensional muqarnas dome ceiling, featuring a 16-sided cupola in the shape of an eight-pointed star. The cupola and the transitional zones around its base are all filled with muqarnas. Each of the cupola's 16 sides is pierced by a window. Inscriptions in the hall by Ibn Zamrak compare this dome to the heavens, the sun, the moon, and the stars. The upper walls of the chamber are covered in more stucco decoration, while the lower walls are covered with tile decoration. The original tiles were replaced in the 16th century with contemporary tiles from Seville.

A small passageway nearby leads to the upper floor where there were additional rooms and a latrine. These rooms are not usually accessible to tourists today. One of the chambers is a courtyard known as the Patio del Harén ("Courtyard of the Harem"), located above and just west of the Sala de los Abencerrajes. It was part of an independent apartment which could be accessed from the palace's original street entrance. It is also located above a cistern which supplied water for the nearby Comares Baths. This courtyard is flanked by two arcades of three arches that feature marble columns topped by capitals carved in serpentine, which are unique in the Alhambra. Fragments of original fresco decoration are also preserved on the lower walls. Another nearby element, slightly to the east, is the Puerta de la Rauda ("Gate of the Rawda"), a horseshoe-arch doorway topped by a dome. No longer accessible to general visitors today, this was probably the original entrance to the palace before the 16th century.

The hall on the eastern side of the courtyard is known as the Sala de los Reyes or "Hall of Kings". This hall is essentially a wide rectangular space, but it has a more complicated subdivision in comparison with the other rooms of the palace. The hall is divided into seven sub-units by muqarnas arches. Each of these sub-units is covered by its own muqarnas vault ceiling. Three of the sub-units are square chambers and their muqarnas vaults are set within a cupola pierced with windows, which brings in more light. These chambers are open to the courtyard via a triple archway sculpted with more muqarnas. The other four sub-units are smaller and rectangular in shape, serving as either transitional spaces between the square chambers or as side chambers at opposite ends of the hall.

Each of the seven sub-units of the hall is accompanied by a niche-like chamber of equal width behind it (on its eastern side). The three larger chambers are each covered with a rounded vault ceiling made of wooden planks. The surface of the ceiling is covered with leather that has been painted with pictorial scenes. Pictorial scenes are relatively rare in Islamic art (with the exception of miniatures) and scholars generally agree, based on their Gothic-like style, that these paintings were probably executed by Christian artists from a Spanish court (probably the court of Pedro of Castile in Seville). Another theory by art historian Jerrilynn Dodds is that they were executed by Muslims who were kept as captives in the court of Pedro and thus became familiar with Christian paintings but not deeply rooted in those traditions, resulting in a mix-and-match of Christian Romantic motifs in the same scenes. The painting in the middle chamber shows a group of 10 Nasrid officials and dignitaries, including the sultan, sitting on cushions and engaged in a discussion or debate. This scene, because it shows the ruler or "king", inspired the hall's current name. The paintings in the other two chambers show scenes of court life, including a jousting competition and hunting scenes, set amidst a landscape of gardens and palaces.

After the Reconquista, the Sala de los Reyes was used as a chapel and as a headquarters for the parish of Santa Maria de la Alhambra while the church of the same name was being built nearby (over the site of the previous mosque) during the 16th century. In 1855 Rafael Contreras significantly modified the roof the hall by the addition of new individual roofs on top of each of the painted wooden roofs, replacing the former common roof that protected all three of them. This resulted in poor ventilation and caused the paintings to deteriorate. In 2006, as part of the ongoing major restoration of the palace, the original wooden roofs were restored and steps were taken to prevent further damage. The paintings themselves underwent a restoration process which was completed in 2018.

The Sala de Dos Hermanas

The hall on the northern side of the courtyard is known as the Sala de Dos Hermanas or "Hall of the Two Sisters", so-called because of two large slabs of marble that form part of the pavement. Its original Arabic name was al-Qubba al-Kubrā ("the Great Dome"), suggesting it had a particular significance. Like the southern Sala de los Abencerrajes across from it, it consists of a large square space covered by an elaborate muqarnas dome, with two small side chambers on either side. The muqarnas dome is set within an eight-sided cupola pierced with two windows on each side. The dome has a diameter of 8 meters, making it the second-largest dome in the Alhambra. The transitional zones between the octagonal cupola and the square chamber are occupied by muqarnas sculpting, much like in the Sala de los Abencerrajes. The dome is considered of the most magnificent muqarnas domes in Islamic art. The muqarnas composition, which consists of at least 5000 prismatic pieces, unfolds from the central summit into sixteen miniature domes right above the level of the windows. The upper walls of the hall are also covered in intricate stucco decoration, while the lower walls have preserved their original tile decoration. Right above the tile decoration is an inscription band containing a 24-line poem by Ibn Zamrak which praises the hall's dome and makes reference to the Pleiades.

Even more so than the southern hall, this northern hall appears to have designed as its own independent residence. The side chambers on either side of the hall are accessed through single doorways and these chambers have their own smaller niche-like side chambers on their north side. An upper floor exists and wraps around the central hall, with a single arched window on each side of the hall providing a view from this floor to the hall below. As with the Sala de los Abencerrajes, an upper floor room above the entrance corridor also has windows overlooking the courtyard. The large wooden doors of the at the entrance of the hall are masterpieces of Nasrid-era carpentry. They were removed from their original location and are currently housed and displayed at the Alhambra Museum. Right behind the doorway is a small passage on the left leading to latrines and a small passage on the right leading to a staircase to the upper floor.

On the northern side of the Sala de Dos Hermanas is an arched doorway leading to a wide rectangular chamber known as the Sala de los Ajimeces ("Hall of the Mullioned Windows"). This chamber is covered by a long rectangular muqarnas vault ceiling which is composed of multiple consecutive muqarnas domes blending into one another. On the north side of this hall is a small projecting room with double-arched windows on three sides which overlook the gardens below. This lookout chamber is known as the Mirador de Lindaraja. The Spanish word mirador denotes a belvedere or lookout, while the name Lindaraja is a corruption of Arabic 'Ayn Dar 'Aisha ( Arabic: عين دار عائشة, 'Eye of the House of 'Aisha'). This small chamber has some of the most sophisticated stucco-carved decoration in the Alhambra, featuring arabesque, geometric, and epigraphic motifs with blind muqarnas arches framing the windows. The lower walls also have original mosaic tilework forming very fine Arabic inscriptions. One of the inscriptions around the window refers to the ruler's throne as the " caliphal throne" and describes the ruler (Muhammad V) as the "pupil" of the garden (referring either the garden below or to the adjoining hall). The mirador room is covered by a unique lantern vault ceiling consisting of a wooden lattice structure shaped into an interlacing geometric motif and filled with pieces of coloured glass. This ceiling is the only one of its kind in the Alhambra, but historical Arabic sources describe the existence of an even larger glass ceiling that was once present in the Mexuar palace.

The central fountain of the courtyard, which has been modified and restored several times over the centuries, consists of a bowl-like marble basin surrounded by twelve lions, which face outwards and appear to support the bowl on their backs. They are made of Macael marble from Almeria. The existence of fountains with lion sculptures is documented at other sites of al-Andalus such as the earlier Medina Azahara near Cordoba. The Pisa Griffin is even larger.

The marble water basin was carved from a single piece of marble. While it appears completely white today, it was originally painted with subtle colors in order to highlight its carved decoration, but these colors have been lost due to repetitive cleaning over the centuries. This decoration includes a long inscription around the border of the bowl featuring a poem by Ibn Zamrak. The original hydraulic system was designed to keep a consistent water level in the basin.

The origin of the sculpted fountain and its lions has been debated. A theory by Frederick Bargebuhr in 1956 suggests that the lion sculptures came from the 11th-century palace of the Jewish vizier Yusuf ibn Nagrela (d. 1066). Bargebuhr even suggested that the Palace of the Lions was built on the foundations of this earlier palace. Oleg Grabar later supported this origin story for the fountain. The proposal was based on the description of a fountain found in a poem by Ibn Gabirol in the 11th century which described the vizier's palace. Under this interpretation, the lions represented the Twelve Tribes of Israel, and two of them have a triangle on the forehead, indicating the two extant tribes Judá and Leví. However, this origin theory has since been challenged or refuted by many other scholars, mostly on the arguments that a poetic description is not direct evidence of the two fountains being the same, that the description in the poem itself is not an exact match, and that the style of the lions belongs to 14th-century Nasrid art.

In the second half of the 16th century, after the Alhambra had become a Spanish palace, the fountain was significantly modified by the addition of smaller water basins above the central spout in order to create a multi-level fountain. In 1624 sculptor Alonso de Mena repaired the fountain and cleaned it. In the early 19th century a set of spouts were added to the fountain and in 1837 another spout was added at the top of the fountain to reflect the tastes of the time. The original (lower) main basin was also raised in height in 1884.

In the 20th century efforts were made to return the fountain to its original state. Several tests and studies began in 1945 and in 1966 it was generally restored to its hypothesized original appearance, removing the pieces that were added to it from the 16th century onward. In 2002 another major restoration process was begun by the Patronato de la Alhambra. One of the 12 lion sculptures was removed that year, followed by the rest in 2007, in order to undergo restoration in the Patronato's workshops. Harmful residues and particles were removed and cracks were repaired. The water basin, due to its size, remained on site and was restored in situ. After being exhibited at the Alhambra Museum for 2 years, the lions were put back in place in December 2011.

The hydraulic system of the fountain was also studied during the recent restoration process. In 1884, when the fountain's main basin was raised, a cylindrical marble bloc was discovered whose top was pierced by many holes. In 1890, archeologist Francisco de Paula Valladar hypothesized that this piece was the means by which water originally spilled into the fountain's main basin. Based on the description provided by Ibn Zamrak's poem inscribed on the basin, he theorized that the holes were connected to a system of pipes that allowed water to flow both in and out of the basin at the same time. This system maintained a steady water level in the basin and prevented the surface of the water from being disturbed, as suggested by Ibn Zamrak's poem, which evokes the "solid" appearance of the water. During the restoration work of the 1960s, experts were not yet able to implement this hydraulic system, therefore the fountain was left with a small water jet spouting water in the middle of the basin. In 1981 the original marble cylinder piece was removed for preservation and further study at the Alhambra Museum. In 2012, upon completing the restoration of the fountain, a replica of this cylindrical piece was installed in the fountain to replace the water jet, thus restoring the hydraulic system to its hypothesized original state.

The restoration choices that the Patronato has made over the years in regards to the fountain have been met with criticism or skepticism from some scholars. Bernhard Schirg, for example, has criticized the use of Ibn Zamrak's poem as a documentary reference to reconstitute the fountain's hydraulic system. Schirg argues that poems like those composed by Ibn Zamrak, as well as descriptions made by other historical writers, often blended direct description with metaphor and fantasy, and thus should not be taken at face value.

Excerpt of Ibn Zamrak's poem on the basin

The poet and minister Ibn Zamrak wrote a poem to describe the beauty of the courtyard. It also describes the fountain's hydraulic system. It is carved around the rim of the basin:

وَمَنْحُوتَة مِنْ لُؤْلُؤٍ شَفَّ نُورُهَا تُحَلِّي بِمُرْفَضِّ الجُمَانِ النَّوَاحِيَا
بِذَوْبِ لُجَيْنِ سَالَ بَيْنَ جَوَاهِرٍ غَدَا مِثلَهَا في احُٰسْنِ أبْيَضَ صَافِيَا
تَشَابه جَارٍ لِلْعُيُونِ بِجَامِدٍ فَلَمْ نَدْرِ أَيَّاً مِنْهُمَا كَانَ جَارِيَا
أَلَمْ تَرَ أَنَّ المَاءَ يَجْري بِصَفْحِهَا وَﻻكِنَّهَا سَدَّتْ عَلَيْهِ المَجَارِيَا
كَمِثْلِ مُحِبٍّ فَاضَ بِالدَّمْعِ جَفْنُهُ وَغَيَّضَ ذَاكَ الدَّمْعَ إِذْ خَافَ وَاشِيَا

Such a translucent basin, sculpted pearl!
Argentic ripples are added on it by the quiet dew
And its liquid silver goes over the daisies, melted, and even purer.
Hard and soft are so close, that it would be hard to distinguish
liquid and solid, marble and water. Which one is running?
Don't you see how water overflows the borders
and the warned drains are here against it?
They are like the lover who in vain
tries to hide his tears from his beloved.

The overall form of the palace courtyard - an elongated rectangle with two halls facing each other at either end - is found in many earlier palaces in Al-Andalus, including other Nasrid palaces in the Alhambra (e.g. Comares Palace), and precedents for this type can be found as far back as the 10th century in Madinat al-Zahra (near Cordoba). The main innovation in the Palace of the Lions is the addition of two more halls facing each other across the courtyard's short axis and the accompanying extension of the columned portico to all four sides of the courtyard.

The presence of the four converging water channels in the floor of the courtyard is generally considered to be a symbolic representation of Paradise, which in both Muslim and Christian traditions is described as having four rivers. This arrangement may have drawn on the tradition of the Persian chahar bagh - a garden divided along its central axes into four symmetrical parts - while combining it with the classical peristyle tradition (a portico or arcade surrounding a courtyard). Gardens with a chahar bagh-type quadripartite division are also known in many earlier monuments in both Al-Andalus and North Africa, where they are often known as a riad (or riyad). The star-like shape of the elaborate muqarnas dome in the Hall of the Abencerrajes (on the south side of the courtyard) may also symbolize the celestial heaven, as suggested by a poem by Ibn Zamrak that was originally inscribed on the walls. A similar comparison is made in the inscriptions of the northern Hall of the Two Sisters.

According to Robert Irwin, the architecture and decoration of the Palace of the Lions was probably influenced by Marinid architecture in Fez (present-day Morocco), as Muhammad V spent his exile between 1359 and 1362 living in Fez under the protection of the Marinid court and he built the palace after this upon his return to Granada. Irwin further notes that the decoration of the palace resembles that of Marinid madrasas in Fez. Jonathan Bloom also remarks that the design differences between the Palace of the Lions and earlier Nasrid palaces does not appear to be a "linear development" and that Muhammad V's time in Fez may be a factor in this evolution.

Barrucand, Marianne; Bednorz, Achim (1992). Moorish architecture in Andalusia. Taschen. ISBN 3822896322.

López, Jesús Bermúdez (2011). The Alhambra and the Generalife: Official Guide. TF Editores. ISBN 9788492441129.

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The Court of the Lions ( Spanish: Patio de los Leones; Arabic: بهو السباع) or Palace of the Lions ( Spanish: Palacio de los Leones) is a palace in the heart of the Alhambra, a historic citadel formed by a complex of palaces, gardens and forts in Granada, Spain.

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This information is to help pupils decide if the lions of the Alhambra are idolatrous.

Who were the Moors?
The ‘Moors’ were the Muslims who ruled Morocco, Algeria, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Spain and Portugal. They also occupied Southern France, Sicily, Southern Italy and Malta for periods of time.

In 711 CE, the Moors conquered Christian Spain. Tariq ibn-Ziyad, the leader, brought most of Spain under Islamic rule in an eight-year campaign. The Moors moved north into France but were stopped by the Frank (Frenchman) Charles Martel at the Battle of Poitiers in 732.

The Moors called their Spanish territory Al-Andalus, an area comprising Gibraltar, most of Spain and Portugal, and part of France.

The term “Moors” has been used in Europe in a broader sense to refer to Muslims, especially those of Arab or African descent. The word originally comes from ‘Morocco’. They are culturally Berber, a North African ethnic group, with Arabian cultural influences since they adopted Islam.

Art in the Alhambra
Although a huge variety of cultures have accommodated Islam over the centuries, generally Islamic art is non-figurative. This means Islamic artists and architects do not depict figures of humans or animals. Plants or floral patterns are usually acceptable. Even if there is some figurative representation, depicting God or prophets is forbidden. Geometric patterns and Arabic calligraphy are used instead.

There are two main reasons for this. The first reason is the fear of idolatry which is widespread across all the Abrahamic traditions (Judaism, Christianity and Islam). Idolatry is worshipping something other than God, or a so-called ‘idol’. In Islam this is called shirk and is seen as an extremely serious sin against God. Shirk translates as ‘polytheism’, or the idea that different gods share divine attributes. In Islam Allah is seen as containing all divine powers. Jews and Muslims do not have any representative images in places of worship in case they make the mistake of worshipping them instead of God. This comes from the Jewish bible: ‘You shall not make for yourself an image in the form of anything in heaven above or on the earth beneath or in the waters below.’ (Exodus 20: 4). Protestant Christians also avoid images in churches for the same reason.

The second reason is the idea that God alone has the power of creation. God is referred to in the Qur'an as musawwir, or ‘maker of forms’, so artists and sculptures do not want to challenge God by also making ‘forms’. Some artists or weavers would design an imperfection into a pattern so as not to challenge God’s creative powers.

The gardens in the Alhambra echo Qur'anic verses about heaven as a cool garden with shade and many fruit trees.  The many rooms of the Alhambra are covered with Arabic inscriptions, such as ‘"wa la ghalib illa-llah" or ‘And there is no conqueror but God’. There are also repeat patterns of floral designs and coloured mosaic tiles.

The lion statues around the fountain in the ‘Court of the Lions’ are believed to have been the creation of earlier stone masons, possibly at the site of an earlier palace. Legend has it they were commissioned by a Jewish vizier and each lion represents a tribe of Israel, but this is not confirmed. Although the Moorish rulers avoided images of animals and humans, the lions’ position under the water basin is deemed to show their submission to God.

The lion fountain is part of an advanced hydraulic system allowing water to run around the palace. The palace rooms are angled to receive the sun in winter but not summer. They are well-ventilated to keep cool in summer. The upstairs rooms are smaller and well insulated to keep warm in winter.

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Learn about angels through paintings from different part of the Islamic world. Although there are few images of angels, some representations survive.This allows an insight into what the angels do and how they are represented.
This Wikipedia link (above) contains four paintings of angels from Islamic civilisations. However be warned, two contain images of Muhammad so you might consider not showing these at all.

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Angel in a Persian miniature, in the style of Bukhara, 16th century

In Islam, angels ( Arabic: , malāk; plural: , malāʾik/malāʾikah) are believed to be heavenly beings, created from a luminous origin by God (Allah). Although Muslim authors disagree on the exact nature of angels, they agree that they are autonomous entities with subtle bodies. Yet, both concepts of angels as anthropomorphic creatures with wings and as abstract forces are acknowledged.

The Quran is the principal source for the Islamic concept of angels, but more extensive features of angels appear in hadith literature, , Islamic exegesis, theology, philosophy, and mysticism. Belief in angels is one of the main articles of faith in Islam. The angels differ from other spiritual creatures in their attitude as creatures of virtue, in contrast to evil and or ambiguous jinn.

Angels are more prominent in Islam compared to Judeo-Christian tradition. Angels play an important role in Muslim everyday life by protecting the believers from evil influences and recording the deeds of humans. They have different duties, including their praise of God, interacting with humans in ordinary life, defending against devils ( shayāṭīn) and carrying on natural phenomena. Angelic qualities, just as devilish ones, are assumed to be part of human's nature, the angelic one related to the spirit ( ruh) and reason (' aql), while the devilish one to egoism. Angels might accompany aspiring saints or advise pious humans. Angels are believed to be attracted to clean and sacred places.

Islamic Modernist scholars such as Muhammad Asad and Ghulam Ahmed Parwez have suggested a metaphorical reinterpretation of the concept of angels. Adherents to the Salafi methdology stick to a literal belief in the existence of angels, but nonetheless, have a less vivid imagination of angels, their individuality, and their interactions with the human world in general compared to traditional Islamic thought.

Angel Blowing a Woodwind, ink and opaque watercolor painting from Safavid Iran, c. 1500, Honolulu Academy of Arts

The Quranic word for angel (Arabic: ملك, romanized: malak) derives either from Malaka, meaning "he controlled", due to their power to govern different affairs assigned to them, or from the triliteral root '-l-k, l-'-k or m-l-k with the broad meaning of a "messenger", just as its counterpart in Hebrew ( malʾákh). Unlike the Hebrew word, however, the term is used exclusively for heavenly spirits of the divine world, as opposed to human messengers. The Quran refers to both angelic and human messengers as rasul instead.

In Islam, angels are heavenly creatures created by God. They are considered older than humans and jinn. Contrary to popular belief, angels are never described as agents of revelation in the Quran, although exegesis credits Gabriel with that.

One of the Islamic major characteristic is their lack of bodily desires; they never get tired, do not eat or drink, and have no anger. As with other monotheistic religions, angels are characterized by their purity and obedience to God. In Islamic traditions, they are described as being created from incorporeal light ( Nūr). A narrative transmitted from Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, audited and commented by two hadith commentary experts in the modern era, Shuaib Al Arna'ut and Muḥammad 'Abd ar-Raḥmān al-Mubarakpuri, has spoken a hadith that Muhammad said the number of angels were countless, to the point that there is no space in the sky as wide as four fingers, unless there is an angel resting his forehead, prostrating to God.

Muslim scholars have debated whether human or angels rank higher. Angels usually symbolize virtuous behavior, while humans have the ability to sin, but also to repent. Humans are considered to be able to reach a higher level than angels due to their ability to choose to avoid sin. The prostration of angels before Adam is often seen as evidence for humans' supremacy over angels. Others hold angels to be superior, as being free from material deficits, such as anger and lust. Angels are free from such inferior urges and therefore superior, a position especially found among Mu'tazilites and some Asharites. A similar opinion was asserted by Hasan of Basri, who argued that angels are superior to humans and prophets due to their infallibility, originally opposed by both Sunnis and Shias. This view is based on the assumption of superiority of pure spirit against body and flesh. Maturidism generally holds that angels' and prophets' superiority and obedience derive from their virtues and insights to God's action, but not as their original purity.

Contrarily argued, humans rank above angels, since for a human it is harder to be obedient and to worship God, hassling with bodily temptations, in contrast to angels, whose life is much easier and therefore their obedience is rather insignificant. Islam acknowledges a famous story about competing angels and humans in the tale of Harut and Marut, who were tested to determine, whether or not, angels would do better than humans under the same circumstances, a tradition opposed by some scholars, such as ibn Taimiyya, but still accepted by others, such as ibn Hanbal. It seems that humans' quality of obedience and temptations mirrors that of angels: In the Quran, Adam fell from God's favor for his wish to be like the angels, while a pair of angel is said to have fallen for their desire for human lust. In a comment of Tafsir al-Baydawi it is said that the angels' "obedience is their nature while their disobedience is a burden, while human beings' obedience is a burden and their hankering after lust is their nature.

Andalusian scholar ibn Arabi argues that a human generally ranks below angels, but developed to Al-Insān al-Kāmil, ranks above them. This reflects the major opinion that prophets and messengers among humans rank above angels, but the ordinary human below an angel, while the messengers among angels rank higher than prophets and messengers among humans. Ibn Arabi elaborates his ranking in al-Futuhat based on a report by Tirmidhi. Accordingly, Muhammad intercedes for the angels first, then for (other) prophets, saints, believers, animals, plants and inanimate objects last, this explaining the hierarchy of beings in general Muslim thought.

Groups of modern scholars from Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University in Yemen and Mauritania issued fatwa that the angels should be invoked with blessing Islamic honorifics ( ʿalayhi as-salāmu), which is applied to human prophets and messengers. This fatwas were based on the ruling from Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya.

The angels Harut and Marut punished by hanging over the well, condemned to teach sorcery. (c. 1703)

The possibility and degree of erring angels is debated in Islam. Hasan of Basra (d. 728) is often considered one of the first who asserted the doctrine of angelic infallibility. Others accepted the possibility of fallible angels, such as Abu Hanifa (d. 767), who ranked angels based on their examples in the Quran.

The Quran describes angels in al-Tahrim (66:6) "not disobeying" and in al-Anbiya "not acting arrogant", which served as a base for the doctrine of angelic impeccability. Others argue that, if angels couldn't sin, it wouldn't be necessary to compliment them for their obedience. Similarly al-Anbiya (21:29) stresses out that if an angel were to claim divinity for himself, he would be sentenced to hell, implying that angels might commit such a sin. This verse is generally associated with Iblis (Satan), those nature (angel, jinn, or devil) is likewise up to debate. The presence of two fallen angels referred to as Harut and Marut, further hindered their complete absolution from potentially sinning.

To defend the doctrine of angelic impeccability, al-Basri already reinterpreted these verses and argued that Harut and Marut were human kings but not angels. Likewise, he was a strong advocate for rejecting Iblis' angelic origin. His approach is by no means universally accepted among Muslim scholars. Unlike philosophers, most mutakallimūn accept to a certain degree that angels might err. Fakhr al-Din al-Razi is an exception and agrees with the Mu'tazilites that angels can't sin. He goes further and includes to the six articles of faith not only belief in angels, but one must also believe in their infallability.

Al-Maturidi (853-944 CE) pointed at verses of the Quran, according to which angels are tested by God and concludes angels have free-will, but, due to their insights to God's nature, choose to obey. Some angels nevertheless lack this insight and fail. Al-Baydawi asserts that "certain angels are not infallible even if infallibility is prevalent among them - just as certain human beings are infallible but fallibility is prevalent among them." Al-Taftazani (1322 AD -1390 AD) agrees with al-Basri that angels wouldn't become unbelievers, such as Iblis did, but accepted they might slip into error and become disobedient, like Harut and Marut. Most scholars of Salafism reject accounts on erring angels entirely and do not investigate this matter further.

Angels believed to be engaged in human affairs are closely related to Islamic purity and modesty rituals. Many hadiths, including Muwatta Imam Malik from one of the Kutub al-Sittah, talk about angels being repelled by humans' state of impurity. Such angels keep a distance from humans, who polluted themselves by certain actions (such as sexual intercourse). However, angels might return to an individual as soon as the person (ritually) purified themselves. The absence of angels may cause several problems for the person. If driven away by ritual impurity, the Kiraman Katibin, who record people's actions, and the Guardian angel, will not perform their tasks assigned to the individual. Another hadith specifies, during the state of impurity, bad actions are still written down, but good actions are not. When a person tells a lie, angels nearby are separated from the person from the stench the lie emanates. Angels also depart from humans when they are naked or are having a bath out of decency, but also curse people who are nude in public.

Some scholars assert that such circumstances might interfere with an angels' work and thus impede their duty. For example, dogs, unclean places, or something confusing them might prevent them from entering a home.

The al-Sahifa al-Sajjadiyya, a book of prayers attributed to Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin, contains a chapter praying for blessings for the angels.

Inspired by Neoplatonism, the medieval Muslim philosopher Al-Farabi developed a cosmological hierarchy, governed by several Intellects. For al-Farabi, human nature is composed of both material and spiritual qualities. The spiritual part of a human exchanges information with the angelic entities, who are defined by their nature as knowledge absorbed by the Godhead. A similar function is attested in the cosmology of the Muslim philosopher Ibn Sina, who, however, never uses the term angels throughout his works. For Ibn Sina, the Intellects have probably been a necessity without any religious connotation.

Muslim theologians, such as al-Suyuti, rejected the philosophical depiction on angels, based on hadiths stating that the angels have been created through the light of God ( nūr). Thus angels would have substance and could not merely be an intellectual entity as claimed by philosophers.

The chain of being, according to Muslim thinkers, includes minerals, plants, animals, human and angels. Muslim philosophers usually define angels as substances endowed with reason and immortality. Humans and animals are mortal, but only men have reason. Devils are unreasonable like animals, but immortal like angels.

1543 illustration of the Mi'raj from an edition of the Khamsa of Nizami Ganjavi created for Shah Tahmasp I[58]

Unlike kalām (theology), Sufi cosmology usually makes no distinction between angels and jinn, understanding the term jinn as "everything hidden from the human senses". Ibn Arabi states: "[when I refer to] jinn in the absolute sense of the term, [I include] those which are made of light and those which are made of fire." While most earlier Sufis (like Hasan al-Basri) advised their disciples to imitate the angels, Ibn-Arabi advised them to surpass the angels. The angels being merely a reflection of the Divine Names in accordance within the spiritual realm, humans experience the Names of God manifested both in the spiritual and in the material world.

Just as in non-Sufi-related traditions, angels are thought of as created of light. Al-Jili specifies that the angels are created from the Light of Muhammad and in his attribute of guidance, light and beauty. Influenced by Ibn Arabi's Sufi metaphysics, Haydar Amuli identifies angels as created to represent different names/attributes of God's beauty, while the devils are created in accordance with God's attributes of Majesty, such as "The Haugthy" or "The Domineering".

The Sufi Muslim and philosopher Al Ghazali ( c. 1058-19 December 1111) divides human nature into four domains, each representing another type of creature: animals, beasts, devils and angels. Traits human share with bodily creatures are the animal, which exists to regulate ingestion and procreation and the beasts, used for predatory actions like hunting. The other traits humans share with the jinn and root in the realm of the unseen.

In later Sufism, angels are not merely models for the mystic but also their companions. Humans, in a state between earth and heaven, seek angels as guidance to reach the upper realms. Some authors have suggested that some individual angels in the microcosmos represent specific human faculties on a macrocosmic level. According to a common belief, if a Sufi can not find a sheikh to teach him, he will be taught by the angel Khidr. The presence of an angel depends on human's obedience to divine law. Dirt, depraved morality and desecration may ward off an angel.

Ahmad al-Tijani, founder of the Tijaniyyah order, narrates that angels are created through the words of humans. Through good words an angel of mercy is created, but through evil words an angel of punishment is created. By God's degree, if someone repents from evil words, the angel of punishment may turn into an angel of mercy.

According to al-Ghazali, humans consist of animalistic and spiritual traits. From the spiritual realm (malakut), the plane in which symbols take on form, angels and devils advise the human hearth ( qalb). However, the angels also inhabit the realm beyond considered the realm from which reason ('aql) derives from and devils have no place.

While the angels endow the human mind with reason, advices virtues and leads to worshipping God, the devil perverts the mind and tempts to abusing the spiritual nature by committing sins, such as lying, betrayal, and deceit. The angelic natures advices how to use the animalistic body properly, while the devil perverts it. In this regard, the plane of a human is, unlike whose of the jinn and animals, not pre-determined. Humans are potentially both angels and devils, depending on whether the sensual soul or the rational soul develop.

Contemporary Salafism continues to regard the belief in angels as a pillar of Islam and regards the rejection of the literal belief in angels as unbelief and an innovation brought by secularism and Positivism. Modern reinterpretations, as for example suggested by Nasr Abu Zayd, are strongly disregarded. Simultaneously, many traditional materials regarding angels are rejected on the ground, they would not be authentic. The Muslim Brotherhood scholars Sayyid Qutb and Umar Sulaiman Al-Ashqar reject much established material concerning angels, such as the story of Harut and Marut or naming the Angel of Death Azrail. Sulayman Ashqar not only rejects the traditional material itself, he furthermore disapproves of scholars who use them.

Islam has no standard hierarchical organization that parallels the division into different "choirs" or spheres hypothesized and drafted by early medieval Christian theologians, but generally distinguishes between the angels in heaven ( karubiyin) fully absorbed in the (knowledge) of God and the messengers ( rasūl) who carry out divine decrees between heaven and earth. Others add a third group of angels, and categorize angels into İlliyyûn Mukarrebûn (those around God's throne), Mudabbirât (carrying the laws of nature), and Rasūl (messengers). Since angels are not equal in status and are consequently delegated to different tasks to perform, some authors of tafsir ( mufassirūn) divided angels into different categories.

Al-Baydawi records that Muslim scholars divide angels in at least two groups: those who are self-immersed in knowledge of "the Truth" (al-Haqq), based on "they laud night and day, they never wane" (21:29), they are the "highmost" and "angels brought near" and those who are the executors of commands, based on "they do not disobey Allah in what He commanded them but they do what they are commanded" (66:6), who are the administers of the command of heaven to earth.

Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (d. 1209) divided the angels into eight groups, which shows some resemblance to Christian angelology:

Hamalat al-'Arsh, those who carry the 'Arsh (Throne of God),[78] comparable to the Christian Seraphim.

Muqarrabun (Cherubim), who surround the throne of God, constantly praising God (tasbīḥ)

Archangels, such as Jibrāʾīl, Mīkhāʾīl, Isrāfīl, and ʿAzrāʾīl

Angels of Paradise, such as Riḍwān.

Angels of Hell, Mālik and Zabānīya

Guardian angels, who are assigned to individuals to protect them

The angels who record the actions of people

Angels entrusted with the affairs of the world, like the angel of thunder.

Muhammad advancing on Mecca, with the angels Gabriel, Michael, Israfil and Azrail. (Siyer-i Nebi, 16th century)

Angels in Islamic art often appear in illustrated manuscripts of Muhammad's life. Other common depictions of angels in Islamic art include angels with Adam and Eve in the garden of Eden, angels discerning the saved from the damned on the Day of Judgement, and angels as a repeating motif in borders or textiles. Islamic depictions of angels resemble winged Christian angels, although Islamic angels are typically shown with multicolored wings. Angels, such as the archangel Gabriel, are typically depicted as masculine, which is consistent with God's rejection of feminine depictions of angels in several verses of Quran. Nevertheless, later depictions of angels in Islamic art are more feminine and androgynous.

The 13th century book Ajā'ib al-makhlūqāt wa gharā'ib al-mawjūdāt (The Wonders of Creation) by Zakariya al-Qazwini describes Islamic angelology, and is often illustrated with many images of angels. The angels are typically depicted with bright, vivid colors, giving them unusual liveliness and other-worldly translucence. While some angels are referred to as "Guardians of the Kingdom of God," others are associated with hell. An undated manuscript of The Wonders of Creation from the Bavarian State Library in Munich includes depictions of angels both alone and alongside humans and animals. Angels are also illustrated in Timurid and Ottoman manuscripts, such as The Timurid Book of the Prophet Muhammad's Ascension ( Mir'ajnama) and the Siyer-i Nebi.

There are four special angels ( karubiyin) considered to rank above the other angels in Islam. They have proper names, and central tasks are associated with them:

Jibrīl/Jibrāʾīl/Jabrāʾīl (Arabic: جِبْرِيل, Jibrīl; also Arabic: جبرائيل, Jibrāʾīl or גַּבְרִיאֵל , Jabrāʾīl; derived from the Hebrew Gabriel), is venerated as one of the primary archangels and as the Angel of Revelation in Islam. Jibrīl is regarded as the archangel responsible for revealing the Quran to Muhammad, verse by verse; he is primarily mentioned in the verses 2:97, Gaḇrīʾēl) (English: 2:98, and 66:4 of the Quran, although the Quranic text does not explicitly refer to him as an angel. Jibrīl is the angel who communicated with all of the prophets and also descended with the blessings of God during the night of Laylat al-Qadr ("The Night of Divine Destiny (Fate)"). Jibrīl is further acknowledged as a magnificent warrior in Islamic tradition, who led an army of angels into the Battle of Badr and fought against Iblis, when he tempted ʿĪsā (Jesus).

Mīkāl/Mīkāʾīl/Mīkhāʾīl (Arabic: ميكائيل)(English: Michael), the archangel of mercy, is often depicted as providing nourishment for bodies and souls while also being responsible for bringing rain and thunder to Earth. Some scholars have pointed out that Mikail is in charge of angels who carry the laws of nature.

Isrāfīl (Arabic: إسرافيل) (frequently associated with the Jewish and Christian angel Raphael), is the archangel who blows into the trumpet in the end time, therefore also associated with music in some traditions. Israfil is responsible for signaling the coming of Qiyamah (Judgment Day) by blowing a horn.[citation needed ] However, Ali Hasan al-Halabi (a student of Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani), Muhammad ibn al-Uthaymeen, and Al-Suyuti, have given commentary that all the hadiths that describe Israfil as the horn-blower are classified as Da'if, although given the multitude of narrative chains that support this concept, they state that it is still possible.

ʿAzrāʾīl/ʿIzrāʾīl (Arabic: عزرائيل)(English: Azrael), is the archangel of death. He and his subordinative angels are responsible for parting the soul from the body of the dead and will carry the believers to heaven (Illiyin) and the unbelievers to hell (Sijjin).

A 16th-century Siyer-i Nebi image of angel Gabriel visiting Muhammad

Nāziʿāt and Nāshiṭāt, helpers of Azrail who take the souls of the deceased.[99]

Nāziʿāt: they are responsible for taking out the souls of disbelievers painfully.

Nāshiṭāt: they are responsible for taking out the souls of believers peacefully.

Hafaza, (the Guardian angel):

Kiraman Katibin (Honourable Recorders),[100] two of whom are charged to every human being; one writes down good deeds and another one writes down evil deeds. They are both described as 'Raqeebun 'Ateed' in the Qur'an.

Mu'aqqibat (the Protectors)[101] who keep people from death until its decreed time and who bring down blessings.

Muhammad requests Maalik to show him Hell during his heavenly journey. Miniature from The David Collection.

Angels of Hell:

Angels who distribute provisions, rain, and other blessings by God's command.[104]

Ra'd or angels of thunders, a name of angels group who drive the clouds.[105][106] The angels who regulating the clouds and rains in their task given by God were mentioned in Quran 13:13 Ibn Taymiyyah in his work, Majmu al-Fatwa al-Kubra, has quoted the Marfu hadith transmitted by Ali ibn abi Thalib, that Ra'd were the name of group of angels who herded the dark clouds like a shepherd.[106][107] Ali further narrated that thunder (Ra'dan Arabic: رعدان) was the growling voices of those angels while herding the clouds, while lightning strikes (Sawa'iq Arabic: صوائق) were a flaming device used by the said angel in gathering and herding the raining clouds.[106] Al-Suyuti narrated from the hadith transmitted from Ibn Abbas about the lightning angels, while giving further commentary that hot light produced by lightning (Arabic: Barq برق) were the emitted light produced from a whip device used by those angels.[106][107] Saudi Grand Mufti Abd al-Aziz Bin Baz also ruled on the Ayah 13 Quran sunnah practice of reciting Sura Ar-Ra'd, 13:13 (Translated by Shakir) whenever a Muslim hears the sound of thunder, as this was practiced according to the hadith tradition narrated by Zubayr ibn al-Awwam.[108] The non-canonical interpretation from Salaf generation scholars regarding the tradition from Ali has described that "It is a movement of celestial clouds due to air compression in the cloud. However, this does not contradict that (the metaphysical explanation), [...] the angels move the clouds from one place to another. Indeed, every movement in the upper and lower World results from the action of the angels. The voice of a person results from the movement of his body parts, which are his lips, his tongue, his teeth, his epiglottis, and his throat; he, however, along with that, is said to be praising his Lord, enjoining good, and forbidding evil."[109]

Hamalat al-'Arsh, those who carry the 'Arsh (Throne of God),[78] comparable to the Christian Seraphim.

Harut and Marut, a pair of fallen angels who taught humans in Babylon magic; mentioned in Quran (2:102).[110] Some scholars, such as Hasan al-Basri, don't consider Harut and Marut to be angels.[111][112]

The angels of the Seven Heavens.

Jundullah, those who helped Muhammad in the battlefield.[113]

Those that give the spirit to the fetus in the womb and are charged with four commands: to write down his provision, his life-span, his actions, and whether he will be wretched or happy.[114]

Malakul Jibaal (The Angel of the Mountains), met by the Prophet after his ordeal at Taif.[115]

Munkar and Nakir, who question the dead in their graves.[116]

Angel of ice an fire, an angel Muhammad met during his night journey composed of ice and fire.

Angel who bestowed with strength equal of 70,000 angels and has 70,000 wings.[117] This angel were narrated in Al-Dur al-Manthur were able to see Al-ʽArsh, which were made of red ruby.[117]

Hadith narratives of Isra and Mi'raj

Muhammad encounters the angel composed of fire and ice during his Night journey. Miniature from a copy of al-Sarai's Nahj al-Faradis from The David Collection

According to hadith transmitted by Ibn Abbas, Muhammad encountered several significant angels on his journey through the celestial spheres. Many scholars such as Al-Tha'labi drew their exegesis upon this narrative, but it never led to an established angelology as known in Christianity. The principal angels of the heavens are called Malkuk, instead of Malak.

The rooster angel, in Miraj Literature, was held to be "enormous" and "white", and the comb on the top of his head "graze[d] the foot of Allah's celestial throne, its feet reach[ed] the earth", and its wings were thought to be large enough to "envelop both heaven and earth" and were covered with emeralds and pearls. It is also thought to wake up mankind every morning through means like making " cocks below on Earth...crow" when it opens its mouth.

Ridwan, the keeper of Paradise.

Artiya'il, the angel who removes grief and depression from the children of Adam.

The angels charged with each existent thing, maintaining order and warding off corruption. Their exact number is known only to God.

Darda'il (The Journeyers), who travel the earth searching out assemblies where people remember God's name.

Dhul-Qarnayn, believed by some to be an angel or "part-angel" based on the statement of Umar bin Khattab.

Khidr, sometimes regarded as an angel which took human form and thus able to reveal hidden knowledge exceeding those of the prophets to guide and help people or prophets.

Azazil, considered the name of Satan before his fall by those who agree that he was an angel once.

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In Islam, angels ( Arabic: , malāk; plural: , malāʾik/malāʾikah) are believed to be heavenly beings, created from a luminous origin by God (Allah). Although Muslim authors disagree on the exact nature of angels, they agree that they are autonomous entities with subtle bodies.

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Talk about all the jobs angels perform for God. Some have jobs that they perfom all the time, such as Mika'il who nourishes bodies and manages the seasons. Others have jobs they will not do very often, such as Jibril who brings words to prophets (in fact, as Muhammad is the final prophet, Jibril will no longer perform this role). Others have one specific job that they will do once, such as Israfil who blows a trumpet to signal the End of Days and the onset of the Final Judgment.

The angels do not have free will, and so they cannot make mistakes in performing their roles for God. Talk about whether God needs reliable beings who won't make mistakes. If jinns or humans have these roles, do pupils think they would make mistakes or even do something different to what God has requested?

Return to the idea of judgment and the End of Days. A lot of the Qur'an deals with matters of the End Times, the Day of Judgment and the afterlife. This is called 'eschatological' thinking, after the Greek word 'eschaton' meaning the End of Days. Other religious traditions also have eschatological beliefs. Do pupils know about other forms of eschatological thinking, for example in Christianity or Judaism?

Talk about the idea of being judged for your actions on earth, and your eternal afterlife being based on this. Angels do not have free will so cannot make mistakes. Does this mean they will all reach heaven when they are judged?

Ask a philosophical question, such as do you need free will in order to be truly good?

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This video presents Ruh Al-Alam's work.

Ruh Al-Alam is a British artist whose family originally came from Bangladesh. He is a Muslim who loves the traditions associated with classical Muslim cultures and he spent years in Cairo learning Arabic and studying calligraphy.

He thinks that many Muslim traditions and beliefs are thought of as old fashioned and he wants to make them modern and up to date. He takes Islamic ideas and uses them to make pictures or to decorate objects that Muslims can use in their everyday life.

He wants to make calligraphy and Muslim art for a modern audience and one way he does this is through making special designs for prayer mats. Some of the prayer mats have calligraphy on them. They are beautiful objects that can be used by Muslims when they pray.

Why are prayer mats important to Muslims?

Many Muslims payer five times a day, at set times, depending on the place of the sun in the sky. When Muslims pray it is tradition that they bow down on the floor. Because Muslims are on the floor when they pray they use a prayer mat so that the space where they pray to God is clean.

Ruh Al -Alam  thought that many prayer mats were ugly or badly designed. He wanted to create prayer mats that were so beautiful that they made praying even more special.

Some of the prayer mats that Ruh Al-Alam makes are made of leather or they use geometric designs.

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Exclusively designed cushioned Muslim prayer mats

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Usarae Gul is a Pakistani British woman who is an artist and a Muslim. She loves the city of Manchester where she has lived and gone to university. She says she is 'Unglish'. This is a word that she has made up to describe the fact that she is British but she is also not just British, she is lots of different things. She was born in Pakistan and grew up in England, she speaks Urdu (the language of Pakistan) and she is a Muslim.

She says that when she was growing up there were not many artists that looked like her or who were Muslim and so she is very proud that she is an artist who has work shown in galleries.

Why is her work so colourful?

In Pakistan even everyday objects like trucks or buildings are sometimes made to look bright and very beautiful. She loves the idea that you can take very normal, ordinary objects and make them wonderful by using colours.

What is her work about?

Usarae’s work explores what it means to live in lots of communities. In her work she tries to answer the question -What is it like to be a Muslim and come from South Asia and live in Manchester? Her part of Manchester is busy and full of shops that sell food from India and Pakistan and there is a large mosque. She says that sometimes she thinks that other people in England don’t really know what it’s like for immigrants or Muslims and she wants to find a place where images of her community can be seen.

Usarae's art is about lots of different things but she loves to show how it feels to be woman that is British and Pakistani and a Muslim all at the same time. Her work is a celebration of her heritage and her beliefs. Usarae is an immigrant, this means that although she lives in this country right now, originally she came from another part of the world. Many Muslims in this country are immigrants or they are the children and grandchildren of immigrants.

There is an important idea for many `Muslims, this is the `ummah,' the idea that there is a community of Muslims, that is like an international brotherhood/sisterhood that means wherever you are in the world you are a part of that community. When you are part of the Ummah you are not just British or Pakistani, or white or brown or male of female, you belong to something bigger. Sometimes in her work she shows objects from different cultures and communities.

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Usarae GulArtist and Textile Designer - Rethinking Civil Society

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This video presents Usarae talking about her work.

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This exhibition of five contemporary artists presents their work in conversation with pieces selected from the Whitworth’s art collection.

It brings together the artworks and stories of artists Robina Akhter Ullah, Shabana Baig, Fatimah Fagihassan, Aida Foroutan and Usarae Gul as they explore themes of identity, faith, cultures, otherness and belonging. Investigating key questions around in/exclusion in art spaces and public collections, this group exhibition showcases the important and often overlooked contribution of Muslim women to culture and the arts in contemporary Britain.

Combining graphic design, textiles, painting and photography, Beyond Faith will be shown in the Collection Centre and as part of an artist intervention in Four Corners of One Cloth: Textiles from the Islamic World. It marks the culmination of a major Arts and Humanities Research Council Project on the roles and experiences of Muslim women in the UK Cultural Industries led by Dr Saskia Warren, The University of Manchester.

Funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council (UKRI)
At the Whitworth Art Gallery

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This is a longer video created by the Courtauld Art Institute in London. There is a clip that starts about 9.30 minutes into the vide where Usarae Gul talks about her work and her ideas.

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Watch this video where Mohammed talks about his work.

Mohammed Ali was born in Birmingham. He makes art in public places, like streets, walls and shopping centres. His nickname used to be “Aerosol Arabic’ because he painted on walls using an aerosol spray can.
Why does he paint on Walls?
When people paint or draw on walls this is called graffiti. Usually graffiti is against the law – you’re not allowed to paint on other people’s property!  But graffiti can be very beautiful or it can communicate an important message. Some artists paint on walls because lots of people will see the work. When Mohammad paints on walls he makes sure that he always has permission from the owners.
Mohammad tells stories about places, beliefs and people. He thinks that some voices never get a chance to be heard and by painting on walls in public spaces he can tell those stories. He thinks that if art is in a gallery most people will never see it so painting on walls is a good way to share the stories.

Some people have called him the Muslim Banksy. Banksy is a very famous artist who paints on walls, the sides of buildings and sometimes on the floor.

What are his paintings about – submission and beauty?

Sometimes Mohammed uses geometric patterns or Arabic writing. Some of his pictures are about Birmingham and the heritage of the city as a centre of creativity and industry. He believes that as humans we have a duty to make a positive change to the world we live in. He doesn’t like to preach or tell people what to believe but he does think there are universal values of peace and love that are at the heart of Islam and which all people share.

The word Islam means 'submit' or 'submission'. Submission means when you allow and accept the authority and beliefs of something else. For most Muslims this means not just obeying the laws of Allah but wanting to obey them. Most Muslims believe that when they are at one with Allah they have peace and that submission is the best way to experience this peace. For Mohammed the peace that submission to Allah brings is also about making connections between communities so that they can share their love of beauty and work together as a shared community.

A lot of his work is in the city of Birmingham and he thinks that if people can see his work as they go about their everyday business it might make them feel happy or it might make them ask them important questions about their life.

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Meet Mohammed Ali, a Birmingham based street artist  | Art and Design - What is Art?

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Birmingham: Mohammed Ali - Islamic street graffiti artist goes to different faiths

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BBC Radio 4 - Religion & Art with Mohammed Ali

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Ruh Al-Alam
- look at some of Ruh's artistic influences- such as Arabic calligraphy and the colours and art of Cairo. Talk about influences on pupils' lives; are we all inspired by a combination of different cultures, styles and visual languages?

- Talk about Ruh's idea of updating a traditional object that Muslims use all the time, as well as making it beautiful. Are there other objects that pupils can think about updating in this way?

- Does it make a difference that the prayer mats are a key part of a religious activity? Are prayer mats themselves religious objects, like a holy book or icon?

- Do pupils think some Muslims might welcome an artistic focus on the humble prayer mat, or might some feel the prayer mat is too close too the sacred and there are dangers in artistic experimentation?

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- Talk about Usarae's word to describe herself, 'Unglish'. What does she mean- does she mean this in a positive or negative way? Pupils might remember that Suhaiymah Manzoor Khan uses the word 'Brit-ish' to describe the way she and other British Muslims can be seen as outsiders in Britain. Suhaiymah is not using the word in a positive way. Give pupils time to talk about this. Usarae also has spoken about being a British artist with Pakistani heritage and the discrimination she has faced.

- Ask pupils to think about whether art is a universal language. does it matter what country or culture the artist comes from, is art accesible to people who speak any language?

- Look for images online of colourful buses and trucks in Pakistan. Why does Usarae use lots of colour in her work. Think about what colours can symbolise, such as the Pride flag, the Ukraine flag, red for 'stop' and green for 'go', the white of purity, or black for mourning.

- Usarae wants to represent both the British and Pakistani dimensions of her experience. Do pupils in the class have dual heritage? Think about the benefits of knowing two (or more) languages, places and cultures.

- Think about what might be difficult, you might want to revisit words like 'Unglish' and 'Brit-ish'.

- Learn the word 'ummah', meaning the worldwide Muslim community. Print pictures of Manchester and Pakistan- food, city streets, people, the natural world. Use these images to collage a poster saying 'ummah'. Add to the poster some information about Usarae's art.

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- Mohammed Ali is called 'Aerosol Arabic' and the 'Muslim Bansky'. Why is he given these names? If pupils could be given nicknames to describe their style, whether artistic, musical, clothes, sports or talents, what would it be?

- Look at the video of Mohammed Ali's work. Talk about why he paints on walls. Do pupils think that more people are more likely to see his art than if it is in a gallery? Do pupils think galleries could be off-putting for some people? Talk about if pupils have ever been to an art gallery. Would they prefer to go to a gallery or encounter art by surprise in the street?

- As you will learn in the information, one meaning of the word 'Islam' is 'submission' to God. Talk about why Mohammed Ali uses calligraphy and geometric patterns. Is this a form of submission?

- Write the word 'submission' on the board. Ask pupils to suggest information about Ali's beliefs about God, art and other people/ society. Add these words to the board.

- Print out some blank geometric pattern sheets. Pupils choose a pattern and add any words from the board they want to within the pattern. They can choose single words or phrases. They must fit them somehow into the pattern. They can add colour too if they want.