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Chapter 1 - Introduction to the Food and Beverage Industry.ppt

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Purchasing Intentions toward Fast Food: The Mediating Role of Consumer Attitudes toward Fast Food:

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Purchasing Intentions toward Fast Food: The Mediating Role of Consumer Attitudes toward Fast Food:

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We highlight the role of fast food awareness and the features affecting the intentions of individuals buying it. The fast food industry is developing rapidly, opening new doors for various stakeholders. The objective of the study is to identify the impact of knowledge of fast food on the desire to buy fast food, study its impact on fast food purchasing intentions, and uncover the effect of fast food attitudes on consumers' purchasing intentions and intention patterns. Several studies discuss the factors prompting fast food purchases, but convincing findings have not been reported. The previous research did not disclose some significant variables influencing consumers' fast food-related decisions, namely, knowledge and uniqueness-seeking qualities. The existing studies are centered on connections between facts about fast food and unique consumer traits (independent variables), attitudes toward fast food (mediator), and fast food purchasing expectations (dependent variable). The mediator between attitudes toward fast food and fast food purchasing intentions is family structure. In previous studies, the variables and connections were examined from a different perspective. The study's data were collected through a questionnaire, and 279 consumers frequenting well-known shops in Pakistan were sampled. To provide statistical evidence, exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, and multigroup moderations were performed. Knowledge of fast food and uniqueness-seeking characteristics were relevant both directly and through mediation when predicting fast food purchasing intentions. The hypothesized direction between attitudes toward fast food and fast food purchases was also significantly moderated by family structure. This study is the first of its kind and helps identify the fast food purchasing behaviors of consumers in developing countries. The shift from joint family systems to a nuclear family model is a particularly important change in the social experience of food.

1. Introduction

1.1. Background of the Study

The fast food industry is growing tremendously, and the fast food segment of the market is providing financial incentives to stakeholders. This has led advertisers to consider the factors behind each person's desire to buy fast food. As has been noted, "the main appeal of fast food for people is taste and hygiene" [ 1]. Despite its affordability and the growth of the sector, the variables that influence fast food purchasing decisions, particularly in developing countries, are still underexplored. Various studies and a relatively large body of literature allude to the conditions contributing to fast food purchasing decisions, but consistent, compelling results have not yet been presented. The previous investigations did not identify any significant variables related to knowledge or the search for high quality that affected the fast food-related decisions of customers. As has also been noted, "food knowledge is in every respect strongly linked to the need for nutrition, particularly because of meat and vegetables" [ 2]. The key challenge for vendors is to grasp the causes of this shifting trend from traditional meal planning to fast food consumption. Fast food awareness and the specific characteristics of fast food consumers can impact fast food choices. Noteworthy research has been done on these factors to explore the relationship between these variables and anticipate fast food purchasing trends. In this paper, we explore the theory of value credentials and expected actions to assess the standards of consumer behavior. The research shows the convictions formed by several components (learning, ability, and commonalities) and is central to understanding the production of attitudes [ 3].

Furthermore, "attitude claims the way an essay is performed" [ 4]. Within this analysis, the VBS (value belief standard) and TEB (theory of expected behavior) are used to assess its significance when clarifying social goals related to fast food. Furthermore, the theories have been well tested in prior studies to explain the role of behavioral preferences, attitudes, and multiple variables. Expectations represent plans, goals, or expected events. Sellers' main interests depend on an understanding of the goals behind various buying choices. Therefore, individuals' goals regarding various products were usually understood in the past, but fast food goals remain miscalculated, especially in underdeveloped nations such as Pakistan. The aims of various topics, such as foodstuffs, social security, religious movements, and aspirations, have been discussed in previous studies in relation to many specific products and companies. For the majority, a smart diet and high-quality goods are preferable [ 5]. In studies related to personal aspirations and social norms, regarding social commitments, consumers displayed one-sided perceptions [ 6]. Generally, people should not attempt to hide their real perceptions of an object for various reasons, such as the fact that an individual can demonstrate a positive identity within society.

In fact, experienced clients occasionally hear from their communities about products that come from various sources, such as retailers' inventories, online databases, or websites. According to the study, the desire to get a good deal is growing because clients have a lot of knowledge or data on various subjects. The authors of the study also pointed to the need to educate repeat consumers because they have less knowledge of new items in various categories, so they may have greater negative expectations for new items [ 7].

Furthermore, it was noted that as consumers become more experienced, most of them care less about new products and fail to search for them because they do not want to look for new alternatives, so they have poor attitudes toward new items. Knowledge of various products can be used to strengthen a company in this way [ 8]. Written material is studied for various purposes, such as gaining knowledge of sports and medical facilities, but knowledge of fast food has not been studied the same way. Therefore, the effect of fast food knowledge should be studied so that its influence on customers' buying preferences can be seen. However, previous experience is not useful in the quest for understanding the individual characteristics of customers.

Uniqueness-seeking behaviors are the hallmark of a specific type of person's identity, and they can be distinguished by an excitement to embrace various kinds of risks, such as physical, social, and legal ones, which are financially linked to taking the initiative with new items, or those that are "not the same old thing but fresh, varied, and strong" [ 9]. Unique search features tend to create interest in creative solutions among customers. Using similar products daily leaves consumers bored. Thus, they look to each other for pleasure, feedback, and unique experiences. Often people experiment with a novel type of food and wish to try it in specific situations [ 10]. They may also adopt alternative homemade foods to make the everyday routine more varied. The risk associated with trying new products influences the basic path of the consumer. Individuals typically avoid risky situations and attempt to keep a safe distance from physical, financial, or psychological risks. It has been found that consumers maintain a strategic distance from some kinds of food to prevent various kinds of bad luck [ 11]. This includes a few customers avoiding the search for new items to reduce the possibility of newer issues. Likewise, in the medical sector, people deliberately avoid pursuing new drugs or treatments for a psychiatric or physical condition when they object to taking new prescription medications. People attempt to protect themselves by using proven approaches and medicines [ 12]. The personality of an individuals is, therefore, distinguished by whether they seek out new experiences. New technologies are being tried in the quest for innovation, but many people keep a strategic distance from them to avoid danger.

Personality characteristics are an integral aspect of analyzing the uniqueness-seeking behaviors of consumers. Previous studies have showed how specific personality traits affect the actions of customers. The frameworks analyzing identity attributes and their impacts on consumer decisions can be seen in the critical research. It was unquestioned for people who are curious to use a margin for building their mood to make an object [ 13]. Several studies have provided ample information about buyers purchasing various objects, as shown by their intentions regarding fashion items [ 14]. This paper will aid in identifying the characteristics related to the purchase of fast foods. The paper's value depends on identifying the personality characteristics that influence the purchase of fast food items. It will help to explain the many factors influencing food selection. This exceptional research will help to clarify environment-based causes. The principles of VBN and TPB are used to illustrate the impact of fast food offerings on the consumer's food selection process. The fast food market is growing; thus, we must identify the proper causes of fast food market growth before conducting research on the fast food industry. In other words, the market alters consumers' behaviors regarding fast food products. These findings in this paper will allow marketing departments to efficiently execute successful marketing strategies for fast food products.

1.2. Theory of Planned Behavior

"Attitude" is a combination of somebody's philosophies, feelings, and theories. A person's attitude can be transformed into desirable behaviors if appropriate behavioral tools are available (Ajzen, 1991). As an extension of the theory of reasoned action, the theory of planned behavior (TPB) states that a positive attitude toward goods transforms purchasing behaviors (Ajzen, 1991). Behavioral intentions dependent on attitude produce similar behaviors (Schiffman & Kanuk, 2004). Furthermore, as an explanation of behavior through attitude, the theory of planned behavior explains the space between attitude and behavior by introducing the concept of behavioral controls (Ajzen, 1991). This paper considered family structure an important determinant of attitudes toward fast foods and consumers' purchasing priorities.

Family structure can refer to various types of living arrangements among families. Some households prefer to live as an extended family, while some prefer to live as isolated units. If a household contains a couple of parents and their offspring, it is called a nuclear household. A family involving multiple nuclear households and uncles, aunts, and/or grandparents is called an extended/joint family. The structure has very significant role in the purchase of appropriate meals. The rules of families restrict purchasers' buying decisions. Osborne and McLanahan (2007) examined the fact that the structure of a household plays a moderating rule in purchasing decisions. In particular, with an increase in joint family systems, there are fewer appropriate nutrition choices than in nuclear family systems.

1.3. Research Objectives

The existing studies are centered on connections between facts about fast food and uniqueness-seeking traits (independent variables), attitudes toward fast food (mediator), and fast food purchasing expectations (dependent variable). In line with its role in terms of fast food purchases, the role of mediator is taken over by the family system. In previous studies, various variables and their relationships within specific contexts have been discussed. The following priorities are emphasized in the present analysis:(1) Identify the impact of fast food knowledge on the desire to buy fast food and its impact on fast food purchasing intentions in relation to uniqueness-seeking traits. (2) Identify the effect of fast food knowledge on the intention to purchase it and intention patterns. (3) Explore the relationship between knowledge of fast food; the mediator's effect on fast food; and the specific characteristics, social effects, and perceptions related to fast food purchases. (4) Classify the effect of family structure on the relationship between attitudes toward fast food.

The novel contribution of this research is that it presents a proof: no combination of variables in a coordinated system was observed previously; thus, our findings fill a research gap. The effects of the two independent variables on fast food purchasing behaviors have never been contemplated considering the mediating effect of attitudes toward fast food. The fast food sector was chosen as the research topic because of numerous factors. It is a quickly developing sector in advanced and developing nations. Fast food consumers are increasing enormously in Pakistan. According to the literature, knowledge of fast food and uniqueness-seeking qualities are a significant element contributing to the development of the fast food industry. Thus, the findings of this study will be useful for the development of marketing strategies for the fast food industry.

1.4. Problem Statement

There is a predicament among Pakistan's fast food producers. While fast food is widely sold (as in many other countries), sales lag in Pakistan. The growth of many fast food companies has been negatively affected by this issue. Consumers' low level of knowledge of fast food items, various social factors, and consumers' lifestyles are possible explanations for this issue. This research, which is an investigation of the factors behind the purchasing of fast foods via a quantitative analysis, is aimed at reversing the situation.

The fundamental goal of this research is to discover the drivers of the issue and to further the research on the topic. This section begins with the background of the study and it involves a discussion of the importance of awareness and connections between planned variables, i.e., knowledge of fast foods, the modification of search behaviors, assertiveness about the direction of nutrition, and goals related to fast foods. In this paper, information about fast food and the various consumer characteristics that may affect the likelihood of purchasing it are observed. We have also observed how families think about fast food and what their response is toward the purchase of these food items. The abundant literature provides adequate knowledge about purchasers' purchasing intentions toward a variety of manufactured goods. O'Cass and Frost (2002) observed shoppers' intentions regarding fashion items. Likewise, O'Leary (2005) analyzed behaviors related to broadband facilities in cellular manufacturing. Supplementary research by Ottman (1993) has assessed consumption goals for green crops, and Feldman and Lynch (1988) deliberated the aims for vehicle purchases; however, purchasers' intent concerning fast foods is still especially underexplored in emerging countries like Pakistan. The present paper may aid in discovering the consumer characteristics related to the decision to purchase fast foods.

The importance of the paper depends on presenting the practical effects of the information and the variations in the characteristics that affect the purchase of fast food items. This paper may help readers understand the many factors that have a significant effect on the selection of food items. Our plan may help to engender an understanding of the factors from an educational point of view. Additionally, the VBN and TPB concepts clarify the influence of combined causes on consumers' fast food selections. As can be seen, the fast food market is increasing, so before we attempt to perform research in the fast food sector, we must understand the characteristics contributing to the growth of the fast food market. In other words, it can be said that the market can cause modifications in the behavior of consumers regarding fast food. This paper will help marketing teams prepare good advertising campaigns to market fast food items effectively.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Knowledge about Fast Foods

Since awareness is considered an essential part of life, it is characterized by various fields of study. As renowned logicians, scientists and researchers [ 15] define awareness as a practical, correct belief. It has been suggested that training depends on persuasion. This means that individuals have subjective views as well as knowledge. According to another source, the study of certainties, rules, or basic beliefs is characteristic of awareness. It is also well known that people are generally supported by their convictions (knowledge); thus, we should consider how to increase the likelihood of people gaining awareness of fast food. When consumers possess more knowledge about items, it makes it easier for consumers to access them. Knowledge can create confidence in consumers when contemplating trying new items, like convenience foods.

As has been noted, "customer awareness and knowledge have a huge influence on their food decisions" [ 16]. In addition, the following has been said of consumers about the awareness of food when making purchasing choices: "a comment on a certain form of food has a major effect on consumers' intentions" [ 17]. Through brand awareness, external signals, prices, perceived risks, and financial incentives, consumers' intentions are influenced by knowledge and family structure [ 18].

In addition, it was found that differences among shoppers in terms of advertisement outcomes exist in real life and reflect a lack of awareness and the presence of fewer targets than for ordinary foods [ 19]. In this way, item awareness is an essential part of the popularity and quality of a brand. Any instance in which someone speaks or writes involves knowledge of invisible concepts and facts. This is true regardless of the source of the knowledge, and the data sources are mostly figures [ 20]. Based on all these facts, it has been mentioned that without regard to the assessment source, information has various forms and uses.

The measurement of awareness is not difficult. After analyzing information, one can quickly imagine where knowledge came from and how it was discovered. Books, journals, teachers, and social groups are the most popular sources of information. Literature is another source of information, and it is considered both a good and bad source. It has been said that information can be used for a public reason by someone with a private motive [ 14].

To put it more precisely, it was never essential to specify where information was derived from, but it was used for specific purposes, such as evaluation, purchases of items, or the making of proposals. It has been recognized that awareness has a positive effect on purchasers' decision-making capabilities. Consumers only buy products about which they feel they have enough knowledge. The behaviors of individuals in the field of environmental protection were also evaluated in accordance with their levels of awareness [ 21].

2.2. Uniqueness-Seeking Traits

Individual features are known as personality qualities by psychologists. As the latest research shows, the quest for uniqueness is related to research exercises that rely on new stimuli [ 22]. Individuals are empowered to look for new items with unique qualities. Persons with strong specific characteristics seek different things and are usually driven and have unpredictable personalities. Uniqueness-seeking in the quest for higher quality encourages people to find new solutions to old issues to resolve dissatisfaction in combination with old methods. Individuals with solid uniqueness-seeking characteristics seek to extend their degree of fulfillment and they share four assets, as follows: (1) investigative sensitivity; (2) impulsiveness; (3) extravagance; and (4) chaos.

This means that the interest of individuals may be sparked by the quality of uniqueness (personality characteristics). In addition to naturally occurring resources, people may hunt for unexpected things for many reasons [ 23]. Specific characteristics are characteristics of identity and immediately affect individual social expectations. Often individual examples that are contrary to a person's identity are just interpretations of their identity. Identity evaluation situations illustrate people's attitude toward the Earth and new objects, such as the search for individuality and oddity [ 24].

A person's specific personality is composed of many characteristics, which are shown not only by a person's methodology/immediate response to new items or hazardous situations but also by their desire to buy remarkable items [ 25]. The primary findings of both research and interest would be that consumers like to buy new items. Thus, the unique search for identity-related features has a unique effect on the decisions of consumers regarding various items. We want to do new things with the same resources but cannot, and thus we must do new things with new resources. There are two types of people in society: those who rely on others to obtain things and are less confident and others who seek new things on their own [ 26]. The knowledge in various fields was evaluated in direct connection with various forms of intellectual creativity, flexibility, and originality, if people have more constructive intentions in relation to modern subjects.

2.3. Attitude toward Fast Foods

Attitude has other meanings in this analysis and in the results of many other researchers. Notwithstanding the fact that the pattern of meanings associated with attitude has persisted, the uses of the term in various contexts are distinctive. In 1960, Alexander Bain used "attitude" first and made it clear that he was prepared to look inward. Numerous scientists have subsequently pondered the meaning of the word "attitude" in relation to its connection with behavior. They have characterized the term attitude as an assessment of a negative or positive quality held by an article or person [ 27].

Throughout this context, various researchers have contrastingly defined the significance of the variable meaning of "attitude" throughout various studies. This is an essential aspect of the discussion, which must be understood to summarize it, and it has been studied extensively in various works. The past work addresses a deeply consistent mindset and its effect on the social perceptions of customers. As has been noted, "most significant discoveries view disposition as these, as it is a forerunner to social expectations" [ 14].

It has been claimed that behavioral motives should take priority, as consumers are mainly influenced by actions, and they behave consistently according to their status. "Our mindset is the driving force behind our business planning," according to Hawkins (1989). "That is why we make our marketing campaign based on our understanding and knowledge of the range. It has been decided that Chinese consumers are not interested in the US restaurant holder because they do not offer services" [ 28].

2.4. Family Structure

In large measure, the structure of the family involves various types of family members or connections with specific family members. In the context of a collective family unit or in a separate one, the unit typically includes guardians and their children. Thus, a family consisting of two adults and their children is characterized as a family unit or separate family [ 29].

Where a family includes uncles, aunts, grandparents, and so on, it is an extended family. A family arrangement may also have two main groups that coexist as a blended family and a separate family. Numerous relatives such as grandparents, uncles, aunts, and stepparents may be part of a joint family, whereas only two parents and their own children are included in a nuclear family.

Many researchers describe the structure of a family unit as consisting of just a couple and their children. The two family arrangements still present an extraordinary comparison. In Pakistan, 67% of families (Gallup Pakistan, 2010) were joint ones, 31% were nuclear, and the Gallup experts said that 2% of the families did not respond. Pakistan has similar types of family structures in which very specific family values are prominent.

Family structure affects consumer behaviors. The buying choices of consumers are constrained by family values, local laws, and guidelines. Individuals strive to demonstrate behaviors that are admirable according to their families' values to enjoy a high level of esteem. The structure of a family also affects the goals of its members. Researchers have discussed the odds of people demonstrating negative behaviors in relation to family expectations [ 30].

The main aim of this research is to discover the role of household structure in the development of behaviors related to fast food purchases. The use of drugs plays a significant role in a family's welfare [ 31]. In contrast with children who receive adequate parental care, children who are deprived of the attention of their mother and father are less developed. Variations in family structure have been shown to have a bad influence on the disposition of the offspring and their likelihood of making healthy choices [ 32].

2.5. Fast Food Purchasing Intentions

In previous years, the purchasing patterns of consumers have become a cause for concern, considering the number of interactions with consumers who have specific behavioral goals for various issues. Intentional purchases have many definitions according to the nature of a study, which may vary. A few analysts have said that consumers' evaluations of and positive reasons for choosing an item or brand can be equated with purchasing intentions: "therefore, purchasing intentions are defined as the buying decision of an object or administration for a company based on the study of the specific components of the decision to acquire it" [ 33]. The focus for numerous consumers has remained purchasing intentions towards fast food (as expectations for buying fast food).

The analysis shows that people who are knowledgeable about quality are less likely to buy private brands [ 14]. In addition [ 34], consumers with an overwhelming urge to buy private labels were surveyed again. Purchasing intentions are of extraordinary importance to researchers and should be extensively studied. The motives for purchasing an item (as targets for fast food) play a significant role in the decision to purchase it. Consumers' intentions affect the decision to purchase an object [ 35]. It was noted in one study that expectations play a key role in people's actions.

To a consumer, the purchasing goal is the most significant aspect of purchasing decisions. The business sector claims that purchasing intentions reflect plans to buy a product in the future. The emphasis is placed on purchasing intentions in the marketing research that has been conducted in the field of consumer behaviors surrounding health goods, sports, and fashion, but the context of fast foods is still unexplored. Intentions are considered the basis for behaviors. Unique goals should be dealt with in the same way. Intending to work positively in accordance with such intentions is viewed as an intentional act. Intentions are central to behavior, as explained in planned action theory [ 36].

2.6. Influence of Awareness of Fast Food and Uniqueness-Seeking Traits on Fast Food Purchasing Intentions

Individuals never were equal; some are renowned and highly regarded for their intelligence, abilities, decisions, and actions, while others lack such abilities. Knowledge is the most desirable resource of the various skills and assets an individual can possess, and it is crucial for success.

Many consumers engage in simple educational process. When a new product is mysterious and consumers lack details, some never choose to try it. Learning about a product can trigger customers to choose something new. Therefore, information is a necessity for all people. The value and advantages of knowledge in our everyday lives become evident by studying the past.

This is the most anticipated variable in various fields, as indicated by innovation, leading to the introduction of new products and the development of highly efficient technologies [ 37]. Technology can be viewed as a tool that is built for a variety of learning uses. As has been noted, "then innovation should be taught as a type of knowledge-like learning" [ 38].

Innovation depends, according to the scientists above, on learning about a specific subject. Essentially, in the field of design and fashion, consumers' preferences for various brands depend on their understanding of the brands [ 39]. This research explores the effect of fast food awareness on attitudes toward such food and the purchasing decisions related to it. The existing work also aims to analyze the food-buying goals and attitudes of consumers and the role of awareness of fast food in directing the purchasing intentions of consumers. The quest for variety/uniqueness dictates that new products should be distinct from the standard offerings. If people have been exposed to the same things for a long time, something new is needed to get consumers' attention. Thus, the products offered by a business, i.e., food, clothes, or any other product used by humans, must be varied. Therefore, we propose the following hypotheses:

2.7. Influence of Attitudes toward Fast Food on Fast Food Purchasing Intentions

An attitude may reflect support for or disagreement with a person, place, object, or purpose; it is primarily psychological and necessary [ 33]. The transformation of psychology unfolds unpredictably, as the actions demonstrate a person's identification and the large-scale identity of others. In multiple studies, indeed, several meanings have been proposed by various researchers. Distinguished scholars and clinicians have alternately taken different approaches, as their results suggest.

In this respect, the behaviors studied by various fields, such as brain science, reasoning, guidance, etc., are generally regarded as variable. Attitude is a more widely studied variable that can influence fast food purchasing goals. Most marketing experts have chipped away the mindsets of consumers, metrics, and effects of various things on individual behaviors. As [ 14] demonstrates, an advertiser plays a key role in the creation of promotional systems. The behavioral consequences are often examined, but their bearing on fast food purchasing behaviors is still at the forefront of the discussion.

This study is meant to help marketers recognize how attitudes toward fast food affect the desire to purchase it and the degree to which it is necessary to cater to the food habits of consumers. The attitude of consumers toward fast food in developed nations has evolved, but it is still underemphasized in developing nations such as Pakistan. Ideally, this inquiry will address fast food-related concerns in developing countries such as Pakistan and help marketers on a large scale.

2.8. Impact of Social Influences on Fast Food Purchasing Intentions

One outstanding source of the most analyzed variables on community impact is whether the majority is believed to embrace a proposition. The existing literature has demonstrated substantial evidence indicating that the support of large numbers of people has a consistently greater impact on consumers' purchasing preferences than the quantitative alternatives [ 40].

In any case, minorities are increasingly persuading themselves similarly under certain conditions of straight-line procedures (for instance, Baker and Petty (1994)), and when the results are inconclusive, private research is being performed on transitional disposition to identify consumers' intentions for branded goods [ 41]. Unlike the reliability of supply, some instruments seem to feed toward marginal subscribing for the dominant portion. If a large part of the system initiates a heuristic agreement and contributes to regular, strong acceptance, the least is a complicated system [ 17].

2.9. Impact of Awareness of Fast Food and Uniqueness-Seeking Traits on Attitudes toward Fast Food

Assessments that consider themselves, other persons, various items, and various concerns are defined as universal assessments. As the extensive definition suggests, attitude is one of many variables that are not necessarily observable [ 42].

Later, three variables were surveyed, which shape mindsets and can have an increased or decreased relationship with these components. Nevertheless, recent work indicates that only a few variables are necessary to establish an attitude [ 43]. Attitude is a persuasive factor that influences the social perceptions of consumers regarding various subjects. Thus, analysts have become concerned that this variable can be explored from multiple perspectives. Analysts have looked at a person's mentality, what forms a personality, and the changes that can influence holistically to analyze it.

Examinations from past years remind us of various factors that affect behavior but are considered less applicable to fast food. For example, the influence of information about fast food and the desire for uniqueness can be great, but researchers need data to analyze the effect on attitudes toward fast food. Individual characteristics are aspects of consumers' personalities, and they may shift from one person to another. The characteristics of personality are varied between people. These features are important for researchers to understand.

People tend to become bored with old things and hunt for new ones. People spend time and money buying various kinds of food, including non-perishable items, non-fast foods, cooked foods, and homemade foods. Some individuals may have strongly positive attitudes toward buying new products (overly enthusiastic) [ 44]. Therefore, we propose the following hypotheses:

2.10. Impact of Knowledge of Fast Food and Uniqueness-Seeking Traits on Fast Food Purchasing Intentions in View of the Mediating Effect of Attitudes toward Fast Food

For several of the experiments, assertiveness according to various concepts and digital definitions was used as an intermediary. This variable reflects consumers' attitudes in practice (theory of planned conduct) according to various beliefs. Attitude as a mediator was measured, and it was found to have a significant impact on behavior. As a mediator, the attitude of an existing ecological model was applied [ 45]. Knowledge plays a role in the development of positive or negative attitudes toward a commodity [ 46]. We tested the proposition that information can become a justification for an attitude toward a product. Consumer demand depends on consumers' awareness of a commodity [ 47].

Consumers' actions and attitudes are affected by individual differences. Thanks to their various features, consumers continue to buy new goods and are encouraged to do so, which increases their satisfaction. Such characteristics have been studied by many researchers because of the significance of uniqueness-seeking features. It has been found that insolence in education fluctuating among people is due to the fact that the essence is different [ 48]. Students' level of learning activity was also measured by the learning motivation of students and based on students' patterns of acquiring new knowledge [ 49].

2.11. Moderating Effect of Family Structure on the Relationship between Attitudes toward Fast Food and Fast Food Purchasing Intentions

To our understanding, family structure has no significant influence on consumers' fast food purchasing decisions, that is, the influence of family structure has not been explored in this way before. According to [ 50], family structure has little effect on attitudes.

On the other hand, however, a theory called the value credential norm theory explains that various family values and attitudes influence the conduct of an individual. They also have a significant impact on family structure [ 51]. It is easier to assume that the attitudes and actions of the family unit are controlled. Therefore, differences in family structure have a major effect on children's care and decision-making powers or abilities. After numerous family structure studies and experiments, it was concluded that the alteration of a single variable within a family can generate a lot of variance in the attitudes or actions of people.

3. Research Model and Methodology

3.1. Research Purpose

The goal of this study is to investigate the effect of awareness, attitudes, social influences, and family structure on purchasing intentions related to fast food (Figure 1). Attitudes toward fast food are well documented in the academic literature, but how does family structure (joint or nuclear) affect them? What about the effect on fast food purchases? The connection between the two variables has not been properly examined; however, a few inquiries about this structure have demonstrated their exceptional importance due to their effects on the behaviors of consumers. Family composition has implications for the health of adults because people with two parents typically have sound health in comparison with people raised by single parents (Dawson, 1991). The influence of family structure can be seen in the correlation between fast food attitudes and purchases. This is measured by a scale measuring family units.

3.2. Choice of Method

Regarding the research methodology, the quantitative approach and systematic data collection relate to the quantitative process defined by Brown [ 52]. In this type of research, many participants are necessary; therefore, comprehensive data collection is used to assess data trends. This study's key hypothesis is that family structure guides the connection between fast food-related attitudes and fast food purchasing intentions. This hypothesis was evaluated using a methodology in which participants had to answer items on a questionnaire in a predetermined order.

3.3. Operationalization of Variables and Research Design

3.3.1. Knowledge of Fast Food

Knowledge is viewed as the most significant variable impacting individuals' disposition and conduct. Individuals often make choices based on the degree of insight they possess. Cantin and Dubé (1999) noticed that attitudes related to sustenance hold some significant highlights of conviction as awareness of qualities and accommodation. They additionally discovered that attitude has some other significant components related to feelings and emotions. In the present examination, knowledge is considered awareness of fast foods. It implies that a person possesses knowledge of information related to fast food items, their brands, and other relevant data.

Measurement. For this examination, knowledge was measured using an eight-item scale, which was modified by Flynn and Goldsmith (1999). The participants' reactions were measured using a five-point Likert scale (1 for "unequivocally concur" and 5 for "emphatically oppose"). We used a one-dimensional scale.

3.3.2. Uniqueness-Seeking Traits

It has been shown in various articles that the desire to seek out uniqueness motivates consumers. How to manufacture products that capitalize on the disposition to seek novel food items merits consideration. Individuals become bored with the standard offerings, and they seek newer ones. Additionally, individuals like to experiment with various kinds of sustenance, such as convenience foods, broiled foods, and home-cooked meals. Adding a bit of variety here and there expands the appeal of food.

Individuals often seek out various sorts of nourishment just to check them out or to enjoy their uniqueness and taste. They may also want to seek alternative types of nourishment just to enjoy something different and escape the everyday fare that bores them. The need for variety in sustenance has attracted some attention (Foxall, 1993). In this examination, uniqueness-seeking qualities are operationalized as identity attributes that influence individuals to purchase new items. The tendency to seek out new items if the existing ones do not meet their needs is an identity characteristic of numerous individuals.

Measurement. The measurement scale that was utilized here was created by Campbell and Goodstein (2001). This scale includes seven items. The participants' reactions were measured on a five-point Likert scale (1 being "emphatically concur" and 5 being "firmly oppose").

3.3.3. Attitude toward Fast Foods

Our concurring hypotheses of attitude are based on three significant components: knowledge, convictions, and contemplation. Attitude is a strong inclination that has the propensity to influence an individual's conduct. Attitude is characterized as "a long-suffering association of inspirational, enthusiastic, perceptual, and subjective procedures concerning some part of our condition" (Hawkins, Best and Coney, 2004). Attitude can compel individuals to carry on with a specific goal in mind. Solomon et al. (2002) found that attitude plays a role in the general population's decisions related to nourishment and various other items. In the present investigation, "attitude" is described as one's disposition toward fast food, which implies that a consumer's attitude has the power to affect their conduct concerning fast food purchasing decisions.

Measurement. A four-item scale was utilized to quantify attitudes. It was created based on the work of Yi and Jeon (2003). A five-point Likert scale was utilized to measure the participants' reactions (1 being "firmly concur" and 5 being "unequivocally oppose").

3.3.4. Fast Food Purchasing Intentions

Aims are viewed as forerunners of conduct. Consumers demonstrate their goals through their conduct. If a consumer has optimistic views of fast food, he/she will, without a doubt, demonstrate positive conduct toward it as well. Thus, consumers' goals have remained a focal point for advertising analysts. As Wong and Merrilees (1998) discovered, consumers' purchasing intentions with respect to design items were impacted by big-name support. Furthermore, Jobber (2000) found that consumers' purchasing goals regarding an item were affected by their purchasing power and their estimation of the impact of the item. Consumers' expectations have been examined with respect to many topics, yet fast food purchasing goals in developing nations like Pakistan have not been adequately examined.

A seven-item unidimensional scale created by Grewal et al. (1998) was used to calculate fast food purchasing intentions. Purchasing intentions were operationalized as purchasing intentions toward fast food items.

3.3.5. Family Structure

There are numerous types of family structures across the world. Each family structure has its own benefits, which can be contrasted with those of the others. With such distinctions in mind, specialists have done numerous investigations to discover the effects of such distinctions. Family structure has not been adequately examined as an arbitrator of the connections between two variables, yet a few inquiries have demonstrated its extraordinary significance in terms of people's conduct. As Dawson (1991) reported, family structure impacts an individual's choice of profession, as individuals who grow up with both parents generally have more solid identities and basic leadership skills than those who grow up with only one parent. Family structure was thus utilized as a mediator of the connection between attitudes toward fast food and fast food purchasing intentions. A scale accounting for combined families and family units was used to estimate these variables.

3.3.6. Social Influences

The scale used is composed of five-point Likert-type estimations of the significance of a predefined facet of one's character. We adopted three items from the four-item scale utilized by Kleine and Kernan (1993). Arnett, German, and Hunt (2003) referred to Callero (1985) as the inspiration for their system; however, they made some minor adjustments to the setting of the scale (being a graduate of a specific college).

3.4. Data Collection

3.4.1. Instrument

A self-directed survey was utilized to gather the data. Knowledge of fast food was estimated using an eight-item scale (for example, "I feel very educated about fast food"); it was adopted from Flynn and Goldsmith (1999). Similarly, the uniqueness-seeking attribute was estimated via seven items (for example, "when something becomes exhausting, I like to seek out new experiences") in view of the work of Campbell and Goodstein (2001). To gauge mentalities toward fast food, we drew on the work of Yi and Jeon (2003) with four items (for example, "I like fast food more than other types of food"). Lastly, consumers' intentions to purchase fast food were estimated using seven items (for example, "my probability of acquiring a fast food item is high") adapted from Grewal, Krishnan, Baker, and Borin (1998). Concerning family structure, we utilized a system with 1 indicating "joint family" and 2 indicating "family unit." The scale demonstrated the degree to which a consumer possessed unwavering qualities ( α  = 0.892). The participants' responses to all the items were recorded on a five-point Likert scale (1 being "firmly agree" and 5 being "unequivocally disagree"). The surveys were disseminated and were offered to shoppers at fast food outlets and stores that sold fast food.

Unwavering qualities were demonstrated by Cronbach's alpha coefficient. The data collected are considered reliable if Cronbach's alpha coefficient is at least 0.7 (Cronbach, 1951). According to Peterson (1994), a Cronbach's alpha value of 0.6 is adequate. A value under 0.7 demonstrates that the data gathered are flawed and cannot be considered reliable. Values roughly equivalent to 0.7 are considered adequate. One variable in the present investigation (uniqueness-seeking qualities) had a Cronbach's alpha value of 0.679, which was slightly under 0.7.

3.4.2. Sample Selection

The participants of the investigation were shoppers at selected stores. Likewise, some of the responses were taken from shoppers at stores that were not dedicated to selling fast food. The group of participants included 279 consumers who patronized the chosen stores according to the standard created by Chou and Bentler (1986): 1027 = 270. For exactness, the test estimate was extended to 279. Another method was utilized for data collection; inspection of existing data is the most common data collection procedure when an adequate sample cannot be gathered. Nine additional cases were added to increase the rigor of the investigation.

3.5. Data Collection Procedure

The sample for the examination was composed of consumers visiting selected stores in the Multan region of Pakistan. Multan is divided into four towns: Musa Pak, Mumtazabad, Shershah, and Shah Rukne Alam. The marked stores carried items from five noteworthy fast food brands, including K&N's, Menu, PK, Dawn, and Monsalwa, and five stores were chosen in each town. In addition, five non-marked stores, which carried items from the previously mentioned brands, were likewise chosen in each town. We finished the review in five weeks. During the study, a total of 875 consumers were asked to complete the survey. A total of 342 consumers consented to provide responses, of which 279 were utilized for the investigation. The remainder were disposed of because of inappropriate answers or missing data.

In this examination, we utilized a survey as the instrument for gathering the data. It was utilized to assess knowledge about fast food, uniqueness-seeking qualities, attitudes toward fast food, fast food purchasing aims, and family structure. With the assistance of the survey, knowledge of fast food, uniqueness-seeking qualities, fast food purchasing expectations, attitudes toward fast food, and family structure were assessed. Various marked fast food outlets and other stores were visited during the data collection process. The respondents at the selected locations were asked to fill out the survey. The respondents were additionally reassured that the data gathered from their responses would be utilized only for the investigation and for instructional purposes and that their data would remain confidential.

It was not a simple undertaking to gather knowledge from the participants while they were shopping. Nonetheless, the shoppers were asked repeatedly to participate and they were monitored while filling out the survey. A few people declined to fill out the survey, while many of them acknowledged the request and complied. Time was the fundamental constraint, as many people did not have enough time to purchase their items and fill out the survey. In any case, after many visits to the stores that sold fast food, the data collection process ended. Some of the respondents requested remuneration for filling out the survey; however, they were not compensated because of concerns that the answers would be biased. The vendors played a significant role in the gathering of knowledge, as they asked shoppers to fill out the survey and collected some surveys later from shoppers who were in a rush and could not fill them out right away.

3.6. Data Analysis and Processing

The current version of SPSS (v. 20) was used for the data analysis. An ACD (auxiliary condition displaying) analysis with AMOS (analysis of moment structure) was used for this investigation. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software was utilized to analyze the collected data and characterize the scale during the survey coding. In addition, the appropriate responses were further investigated according to the requirements of this investigation. When necessary, AMOS was also used to examine the data obtained using structural equation modeling (SEM).

To assess the reliability of the model we used in the examination, SPSS software was used. Furthermore, SPSS software was used to understand the data in relation to the terminology of the measurements. To verify the results achieved through the examination, investigative variable analysis (IVA) and confirmatory variable analysis (CVA) were used. Furthermore, to examine the proposed speculations in the investigation and model, SEM was used. Auxiliary equation modeling (AEM) was also used as a fundamental capability of AMOS to check the model by removing the esteem structure of the SPSS knowledge sheet.

3.6.1. AMOS and SEM

AMOS (v. 5) is an add-on module in SPSS that has two major components: AMOS graphics and AMOS BASIC. AMOS graphics provides an explanation of the work using graphs, diagrams, and graphical descriptions of the model. AMOS BASIC gives equational explanations of the model. These AMOS features are important because they can be used to produce a reliable period for measurement and for bootstrapping any issues or errors.

3.6.2. SEM

SEM can be used to deal with large numbers in statistical models and is useful in calculations of important theories with large amounts of data, as is explained by Lei and Wu (2007). General linear modeling (GLM) methods include multiple linear regression and analysis of variance (ANOVA). SEM is of more importance than GLM because it has the added quality of making it possible to find hidden variables and their connections with various methods. This application is useful and can be applied to cross-sectional data, longitudinal data, experimental data, and non-experimental data. Moreover, Lei and Wu (2007) explained that for hidden constructs, another application called confirmatory factor analysis is helpful. It is better to state that the SEM model explains the distribution of two models, that is, the measurement model and path model. Through the use of SEM analysis, a study can include diagrams of connections, predictions, and a summary of the model that has been described in it. The main objective of using SEM is to predict whether a hypothesis is constant with the data collected. A hypothesis is verified depending on which level is examined by the constancy of the model and its fitness summary.

4. Data Analysis and Research Findings

4.1. Factor Analysis of Knowledge of Fast Food

Eigen analyzed two variables in which there was only one element at variable 2; there was no extreme or solid association, but it was slightly more prominent than the variable 1 relationship. Therefore, just one calculation of eight items was retained for KFF. The specific characteristics were initially calculated with only one measurement and seven components. After EFA, the characteristics were identified, and three CST items were removed due to the absence of relationships with the elements (items one, six, and seven). In addition, two possible CST variables were found, as shown in Table 1. Fast food-related behaviors had only one measurement in the beginning, and, after EFA, a single measurement remained because EFA had not demonstrated any other conceivable possibility. AFF was done in consideration of all the items, as shown in the table below.

First, fast food purchase intent (FFPI) was conceived of as a unit of measurement for seven items, but one additional measurement was tested using EFA. One aspect (item two) was examined with EFA and removed, as it had a lower weight. Table 2 shows outstanding results with stacking of greater than 0.5. Four items were classified under social control, and, after a factor review, all four items remained. The threshold was met by all the items. Therefore, we did not remove any of the items.

4.2. KMO and Bartlett's Test of Sphericity

The examination of the findings for KMO and the test for the construction proposed by Bartlett are given in Table 3. Fast food information was an autonomous variable and required one test; it included eight items in this study. The items were inspected using the main application of CFA, model fitness assessment, but only seven items remained due to the disadvantageous stacking of items when EFA was continued based on fast food knowledge. CFA was only applied to KFF at first. The value of the unwavering combination quality was 0.714, as shown in Table 4.

Initially, uniqueness-seeking traits were used as a free variable for the model with seven items, all of which applied to the whole model. The stacking of such items with a non-substantial load was rejected when the EFA analysis was conducted. The average reliability rating was 0.689. Right off the bat, it was necessary to use CFA to create a layout that suits in a single way, as mentioned in Table 5.

The establishment of a value representing disposition toward fast food, which was necessary because of the subsequent investigation, consisted of four items, as an EFA analysis depends on a predetermined number of variables, and the initial application of CFA is linked to this process after the successful application of EFA. All of the variables has a relapse load over 0.5, but, after the initial results, nothing was rejected. Issues appeared in the table following the initial CFA analysis. The composite dependability of the construct was 0.761, as is mentioned in Table 6.

Fast food purchasing expectation, which, in this study, is a dependent variable, consisted initially of seven items. It was a one-mass construct. Following the successful use of EFA, six items remained and one item was excluded due to poor measurement stacking depending on the set number of variables in the EFA examination. CFA is linked on this construct after EFA's first order. It changed concurrently due to weak institutionalized recurrence loads. Each variable had an adequate institutionalized rebound (>0.4) weight, so after the first CFA application, nothing was excluded. The issues are shown in the table following the first CFA submission. The fusion of efficiency was 0.824, as shown in Table 7.

4.3. Overall Model Fitness

Through means of ailing CFA's and EFA's previously deliberated measurements for the entire scope, the model is discussed in the following section. So far, the calculation model for the dependent and independent variables has been the topic of discussion. Through this method, eight items were removed to achieve the best model according to the results achieved by conducting EFA and CFA on the first order. Due to small, consistent packaging and the irritated filling of an item with many aspects, some items were excluded from the model.

All aspects of the model have been studied to verify its fitness, and a covariance check of the dependent and independent covariances according to arbitrary variables was developed. When five additional items were excluded, the overall model became more efficient. Therefore, the final 13 elements (Table 8) of the various constructions match the data and measurement model. Thus, eight items were removed to provide a suitable statistical model.

4.4. Construct Validity

Method approval is a notable review method that provides a fundamental basis for validating the discovery process and whether a theory is pragmatic. If a review of an instrument must occur, the material concerns and issue of legitimacy will be examined, as shown in Table 9.

There is no general difference (the method in this paper has already been debated) in this paper. The criteria are valuable for confirming or rejecting the hypotheses' validity. Fast food purchasing expectancy (FFPE) has a significant impact on single feed purchasing (SFP) at ( beta = 0.357). Fast food knowledge has an intangible FFPI connection ( beta = −0.037). In all cases, CST's fast food disposal (FFD) has an interceding FFPI connection with ( beta = 0.112). Similarly, KFF has a large influence on the FFPI of AFF ( beta = 0.298). However, AFF has substantial influence on FFPI ( beta = 1.008), as shown in Table 10.

4.5. Analysis of Hypotheses

The errors signify meaningless relationships between information about fast food and fast food purchasing intentions, with a value of 0.523. H1, therefore, was not upheld, as it does not indicate a desire to buy fast foods. According to the results, possessing information about fast food has an impact on fast food purchasing intentions of −0.038. The relationship, however, is not significant. It has been discovered that, in some way, the situation restricts past knowledge so that learning about fast food and pursuing the goal of survival have a positive relationship among other variables. This result further strengthens the negative link between knowledge of fast food and the intention to purchase it. Therefore, without the presence of two variables, there can be no relationship between or effect on each other.

The institutionalized evaluation of the CST-FFPI relationship reflects an estimate of .358 with a value of 0.002 (Table 11), showing that there is a critical connection between the two. A similar correlation was found in [ 53], which showed that people function organically according to personality characteristics that encourage them to buy the same foods or seek new ones. The findings therefore confirmed H2, which expresses the desire for individuality and seeks to identify characteristics that have a positive effect.

H3 reflects a value of 0.002 for the KFF-AFF relationship, which shows that knowledge of fast food has a large impact on fast food-related attitudes. Thus, the findings of the analysis endorse the existing ones. The positive links between knowledge and the popularity of a product (computers, foods, mobile telephones, and so on) have been identified. The fact that knowledge of consumer goods raises the probability of it being desired has been observed. The perception of specific goods thus generates a positive attitude weight of 0.296 using a normal regression.

The uniqueness-seeking attribute and fast food-related attitudes have a great relationship, reflecting a value of 0.038. H4 is also maintained in this way. The past examinations are supported; the connection between these two variables is similarly supported by the current analysis. The present examination's findings legitimize the effect of uniqueness-seeking qualities on attitudes toward fast food. The weight of the normal recurrence is 0.358.

Fast food-related attitudes appear to interfere with the connection between fast food knowledge and fast food purchasing intentions, with a value of 0.001. Fast food-related attitudes fundamentally interfere with the link with uniqueness-seeking, which reflects attributes and fast food purchasing goals, with institutionalized repetitive loads and a value of 0.038.

The results show a remarkable link between the willingness to purchase fast food and fast food purchasing intentions, with a value of 0.00002. Subsequently, support for H7 was strengthened. Based on the outcomes, attitudes toward fast food decidedly impact fast food purchasing intentions, with a weight of 1.009.

5. Conclusion and Limitations of the Study

5.1. Conclusion

In recent years, the fast food industry has been developing rapidly, leaving the door open for various stakeholders. Along these lines, it has become important for advertisers to distinguish between the components driving consumers' aims when buying fast food. According to the Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) (2006), fast food consumption is increasing among individuals. The rate of increase of fast food advertisements in Pakistan is 6.6% (DAWN Newspaper, 2012). As a result, consumers' expectations toward fast food have become a matter of concern for various parties, particularly food delivery services and advertisers because of the huge increase in the fast food market. Hence, no brand wants to pass up the chance to gain benefits from the expanding consumption of fast food. Therefore, it was essential to examine some potential factors in the development of this business sector. Subsequently, purchasing intentions regarding fast food were considered in an in-depth investigation of the reasons for the sector's development. The current examination is an examination that covers the impacts of two significant variables, uniqueness-seeking characteristics and knowledge of fast food.

Purchasing intentions toward an item (for example, fast food) have become a focal point for advertisers. A few scientists have stated that purchasing intentions reflect consumers' assessments of and positive reasoning toward an item or brand. Hsu et al. (1987) characterized purchasing intentions as shoppers' judgments of an item, which were dependent on assessments of various components. Individuals' purchasing expectations (as aims to buy fast food) remained the focal point of numerous researchers. Along these lines, in the current examination, we investigated the impacts of two significant variables on purchasing expectations toward fast food. A significant mediator called attitude toward fast food was included in the theoretical model, which mediated the connection between knowledge of fast food (KFF), uniqueness-seeking attributes (USA), and fast food purchasing intentions (FFPI). Family structure was considered a mediator of the relationship between attitudes toward fast food and fast food purchasing intentions. Family values impact the identities of their members and their basic leadership propensities and social aims. While one family framework may create hopeful, friendly, inventive, and uniqueness-seeking people, another may produce worriers, misers, and depressed people. Similarly, Lopata (1973) found that family frameworks do not simply create the identities of their members; they also impact their social expectations. Uniqueness-seeking qualities are identity characteristics and greatly influence consumers' attitudes and social aims. Thus, Gray (1987) concluded that a uniqueness-seeking demeanor is composed of a lot of characteristics that are reflected not only in responses to novel items or hazardous circumstances but also by the propensity to seek to purchase unusual objects. More precisely, uniqueness-seeking attributes guide an individual to purchase an item that is not quite the same as the rest. Similarly, knowledge of fast food encourages consumers to purchase it. As Erdem (1998) found, learning about new foods positively affects consumers' conduct and encourages them to purchase novel food items.

5.2. Research Implications

Current investigation has a noteworthy commitment from scholarly as well as authoritative points of view on account of the accompanying ramifications.

5.2.1. Academic Implications

The varied behaviors of consumers have created a lot of issues for marketers developing new strategies to promote their brands. Old strategies result in losses for fast food-producing companies, and using outdated manufacturing procedures to produce fast food results in failure. Consumers' purchasing expectations are their assessments/judgments of a product. Purchasing goals toward an item are dependent on shoppers' judgment of an item, which is dependent on an assessment of various elements (Hsu et al., 1987). Along these lines, a large portion of companies have undertaken activities to learn about and comprehend the various variables behind consumers' purchasing expectations with respect to various items. The reason for evaluating the variables behind consumers' fast food purchasing expectations is to improve fast food advertisements. Fast food marketers are expanding their work in Pakistan, but they are doing so incrementally. Therefore, it is necessary to discover the most influential factors behind consumers' fast food purchasing choices. This study contributes to the field in this regard by proposing some influential new variables and exploring their impact on the current fast food market. Through them, we can comprehend consumers' needs and meet them in most ideal manner. Fast food consumers are value-conscious. Some people also purchase fast food because they like its taste (BBC, 2013). Some other people purchase fast food for its health advantages (BFFF, 2013). Essentially, Young (2013) surveyed various groups' reasoning behind purchasing fast food, and he discovered that value was a significant variable. Nonetheless, besides these factors, knowledge of fast food and consumers' uniqueness-seeking qualities contribute a lot to the decision to buy fast food, as this investigation plainly shows. Knowledge has an impact on consumers' food purchasing intentions (Erdem, 1998). Furthermore, uniqueness-seeking qualities trigger individuals to purchase fast food, as they can satisfy their desire for change/uniqueness and fulfill their need to try new brands (Kivela, 2006). In this regard, the current study is a significant contribution to the knowledge of consumers' fast food purchasing intentions, and it is a valid study because the data were collected directly from shoppers at stores in large cities in Pakistan, including Multan. It became apparent through the writing of this paper that our previous ideas about knowledge of fast food and uniqueness-seeking attributes and their connection to fast food purchasing expectations were challenged. Consequently, in this investigation, we endeavored to fill this research gap.

5.2.2. Managerial Implications

This study provides useful insights for marketers to apply in practical decision-making processes, and the current study can point marketers in the right direction. As an SEM analysis either supports or invalidates a theory, similar results to those of previous studies were found in the current study. In this study, a clear direction was provided to help marketers understand fast food consumers' needs and design strategies according to them. Some of the most useful insights for marketing managers are discussed below.

In the study, we examined how fast food advertising should be targeted to consumers because this industry is not growing adequately in Pakistan, which is resulting in losses for stakeholders. Accordingly, by concentrating on consumers' knowledge of fast food and their uniqueness-seeking characteristics, marketers can create better systems to catch the attention of this expanding market and reap benefits. The pragmatic ramifications of basic leadership procedures also ought to be connected considering the fact that consumers' knowledge of an item plays a significant role in the decision to purchase an item. Essentially, consumers with uniqueness-seeking characteristics seek to purchase something novel or distinct from the ordinary. Moreover, managers, particularly promotion directors, must unmistakably comprehend that fast food is becoming another important form of sustenance for the general population of Multan and Pakistan overall. Thus, they must concentrate on consumers' knowledge of this novel kind of nourishment and the identity characteristics, such as uniqueness-seeking traits, that are common among fast food consumers. These two elements affect consumers' purchasing intentions, and thus they should become the focus of discussion of fast food marketing.

5.3. Limitations of the Study

As the examination was narrow, with only a couple of variables, it is possible that there are other endogenous variables that could have an impact on the dependent variable of fast food purchasing intentions. The existence of other possible variables or actors was ignored in the study, which could significantly affect the dependent variable of fast food purchasing intentions. In this study, the data indicating knowledge of fast food were gathered at selected locations from customers of fast food stores and from various outlets selling fast food in southern Punjab in Pakistan, specifically in a large city named Multan. Our understanding of the current research could be enhanced by collecting data from various locations within the country as well as from other countries. In this way, a detailed body of knowledge about the consumers of fast food could be obtained, as consumers from various countries could have different opinions. Another limitation of the study is the limited amount of data or the small size of the sample, which consisted of fewer than a few hundred respondents. By increasing the number of respondents, a deeper understanding could be achieved, and the reliability of the study could be increased. The study could also be enriched by including a mix of qualitative and quantitative research methods. Consumers from various types of households and those shopping at other types of stores could also be included to increase the study's validity. As Butler (1991) noted, the results related to similar concepts could be different in various circumstances.

In addition, new variables could be included in the model, including accommodation, cost, bundling, taste, and consumer well-being. Therefore, a longitudinal study could also provide a different result than this cross-sectional study because people tend to change their preferences with the passage of time. Due to time-related limitations, the data were collected from a specific age group, but other age groups were ignored. Therefore, additional age groups could yield different results. Children's responses could be collected, as they tend to like fast food more than their elders. Similarly, older people could be included to provide more varied responses. Hence, by changing the variables, data collection locations, and other demographic features, the study could be enriched.

5.4. Future Research Directions

This study was conducted according to a specific plan, and it provides direction and suggests other areas for research using advanced research tools. The suggestions provided for the future are as follows.

After replacing the constructs and increasing the complexity, a conceptual model could be developed. A study conducted for comparison with this one could be conducted by changing the sample set; it could be done on a cross-national or cross-country basis. In future studies, a probability sampling technique could also be used for the data collection process. We only analyzed the consumers of fast food in southern Punjab, but similar studies could be conducted in other regions of the country to identify whether the behaviors of consumers across the country are the same. Other variables that can affect the views of consumers toward fast food could be added in future studies, such as suitability, cost, packaging, taste, healthfulness, and so on. To achieve a better understanding of the influences on the goals of consumers of fast food, a longitudinal analysis could be done, as people's preferences tend to change over time.

Data Availability

The data used to support the findings of this study are included within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Acknowledgments

This study was funded by the new style think thank of Shaanxi universities: Research centre for auxiliary chemistry and new material development, and Shaanxi University of Science and Technology and grant number (ACNM-202202).

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Purchasing Intentions toward Fast Food: The Mediating Role of Consumer Attitudes toward Fast Food

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We highlight the role of fast food awareness and the features affecting the intentions of individuals buying it. The fast food industry is developing rapidly, opening new doors for various stakeholders.

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Fast Food Culture and Industrialization – Stanford Journal of Public Health: 

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Meena Chetty On my latest visit to India this past summer, I noticed at least one McDonald’s in every city, a Kentucky Fried Chicken at the airport, and most recently, the appearance of Starbucks f…

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What Food & Beverage Industry Segments Do You Have Experience In?

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What Food & Beverage Industry Segments Do You Have Experience In?

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What Food & Beverage Industry Segments Do You Have Experience In?

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Fast Food vs. Casual Dining: Key differences.

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Fast Food vs. Casual Dining: Key differences.

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Fast Casual vs Fast Food: What’s the Difference Between Them? ( article)

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Fast Casual vs Fast Food: What’s the Difference Between Them? ( article)

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If you've been pondering the fast casual vs fast food restaurant distinction, you're not alone. These two business models sound similar and operate similarly. However, there are key differences between them.

While customers count on fast food franchise titans like McDonald's and KFC for quick meals at incredibly low prices, customers opt for fast casual dining when they want the speed of a quick service restaurant (QSR), but the quality of a full service restaurant (FSR) meal.

However, the COVID-19 pandemic has blurred the lines between these two QSR models. Traditionally, fast food restaurants have been known for drive-thrus and fast casual for online ordering. Now these two QSR concepts are offering their customers both convenient options.

For those interested in opening a new QSR or making changes to an existing venue, you might be wondering: What are the distinctions between these QSR styles?

In this guide to fast casual vs fast food restaurants, you'll learn the differences, including:

An overview of the differences between fast casual and fast food establishments

Key characteristics of fast food restaurants

Key characteristics of fast casual dining

The technology required to run each kind of QSR

The benefits of both business models

Fast Casual vs Fast Food: An Overview

When you think of fast food restaurants, you probably think of big-name chains like McDonald's, Burger King, and Taco Bell. They emphasize off-premise dining and usually offer drive-thrus. They largely focus on value and speed over quality. Their menus are usually simple and not as customizable as those of fast casual restaurants.

On the other hand, Chipotle, Panera, and Sweetgreen are examples of fast casual restaurants. Their main distinctions are a higher price point in exchange for better quality food, more customizations, and an elevated on-premise dining experience.

Fast Food Restaurants

Now that we've covered the main differences between fast food and fast casual dining, let's dive into specifics.

First up in the fast casual vs fast food battle, we cover everything you need to know about what makes fast food restaurants unique.

Typical Characteristics of a Fast Food Restaurant

These are the key components of the fast food experience:

Self-service: The service at fast food restaurants is very simple - it's nearly all up to the customer. From placing the order, to picking it up, everything except cooking the actual food is done by fast food patrons.

Limited on-premise dining: The emphasis here is on taking the food out for off-premise dining, or eating it quickly, so fast food restaurants typically don't have large or heavily decorated dining rooms.

Simple menus: Fast food restaurants offer simple, easy-to-assemble foods always made the same way to increase speed.

Don't serve alcohol: Fast food establishments are less likely than fast casual restaurants to serve alcohol, although Taco Bell now offers booze at some locations.

Value: The average check size at a fast food restaurant is just $5 - a major draw for cost-conscious customers.

Drive-thru: Many fast food restaurants offer drive-thru ordering for added customer convenience.

Open late: Fast food spots are typically open very late, and sometimes even 24/7.

Consistency: Fast food spots aim to offer the same experience across all locations. For instance, a Big Mac in New York will taste the same as a Big Mac in Italy!

Those are just some of the features of fast food restaurants that make them appealing to customers and the restaurateurs who run them.

The Fast Food Restaurant Customer Experience

The counter service restaurant or fast food customer experience begins with one of several ordering touchpoints: a drive-thru, an in-store counter or self-ordering kiosk for in-person ordering, or a web browser or app for off-premise ordering.

For instance, at Heart Beet Kitchen, an independent fast food restaurant in Ocean City, NJ, customers order from the walk-up window or the interior counter. Alternatively, customers can place orders through the restaurant's online ordering platform. When orders are ready, staff members call out customers' names to hand off meals. Patrons can then enjoy their meals on- or off-site.

Technology in a Fast Food Restaurant

While each fast food restaurant is a little bit different, these are the technologies that fast food restaurants generally rely on:

POS: Fast food restaurants use point of sale (POS) systems for taking orders and sending them to the kitchen, managing inventory, processing payments, analyzing sales data, and so much more.

Online ordering and delivery: Online ordering technology has become increasingly popular at fast food restaurants since the onset of COVID-19, as consumers are looking for contactless ways to enjoy their favorite foods. This software lets restaurants accept orders directly through their own website or app for a seamless ordering experience. And when the online ordering software is integrated with your POS, the tickets go directly to the kitchen to make fulfilling orders quick and easy.

Loyalty: Loyalty programs are replacing punch cards and helping fast food restaurants drive repeat business in a big way. According to Harvard Business Review, increasing customer loyalty by just 5% can result in up to a 95% increase in profits.

Self-ordering kiosks: At some fast food establishments self-ordering kiosks have been added to help reduce labor costs and shorten queues. McDonald's, for example, is adding such machines to 4,000 stores annually. In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, self-ordering kiosks have become even more valuable for fast food restaurants because they reduce face-to-face contact during the ordering process.

Kitchen Display System (KDS): Fast food restaurants require a high-level of speed and efficiency in the kitchen. A KDS helps to keep things organized by displaying these orders for the back-of-house staff to prepare as soon as they are entered into the POS - no need to wait for front-of-house staff to bring back paper tickets.

These kinds of advanced technological solutions make it possible for fast food restaurants to offer customers consistent meals at unbeatable speeds and prices.

Benefits of Running a Fast Food Restaurant

Restaurateurs choose to open fast food concepts because of their many benefits, such as:

Cheaper food costs: Customers go to fast food restaurants because they want consistency, speed, and value. Quality isn't the main concern, so you can buy cheaper ingredients than if you ran a fast casual restaurant. If the average check size at a fast food joint is about $5 and the food cost percentage is about 30%, then the ingredients cost only $1.50. That's a 70% profit margin!

Convenience is a big draw for customers: Customers value satisfying their hunger without breaking the bank or running late to a meeting. Fast food restaurants are fine-tuned for speed and efficiency, making convenience a major selling point for customers.

Cheaper labor costs: The more in-depth the level of service, the more expensive the labor costs. Fast food restaurants typically spend less on labor than other types of restaurants because the level of service provided is relatively minimal.

Cheaper rent: Because customers don't often dine-in at fast food restaurants, these establishments usually require smaller footprints than fast casual restaurants. Fast food restaurants, therefore, don't have to spend as much on rent as other restaurants.

It's easy to find talent: Because much of fast food cooking involves heating ingredients and assembling simple dishes, you don't necessarily need highly specialized staff. In most cases, this makes it easier to find new talent.

These perks are why there are almost 200,000 fast food restaurants in the United States alone.

Fast Casual Restaurants

Now that you're an expert on fast food restaurants, let's cover what makes fast casual dining distinct in the fast casual vs fast food restaurant debate.

Typical Characteristics of a Fast Casual Restaurant

These are the key traits that you'll find at a fast casual establishment:

Limited service or self-service: While fast food restaurants only offer self-service, some fast casual restaurants also offer limited service, which involves bringing food directly to the customer's table.

Emphasis on dining in: While fast casual establishments offer food to go, their customers tend to dine in much more than fast food patrons. Fast casual restaurants, therefore, put more effort into the ambiance of their dining rooms. For example, most Chipotle dining rooms are decorated with wood-and-metal artworks inspired by Mayan iconography.

Better quality food: Fast casual restaurant customers expect higher quality ingredients and are willing to pay for them. A fast casual meal cost less than a meal at an FSR, but more than at a fast food restaurant. The average check size at a fast casual restaurant is $12, compared to $5 at a fast food place.

Customizable meal options: Customization is at the forefront of the fast casual movement. Restaurants like Chipotle and Sweetgreen bring the back of the house to the front of the house by displaying ingredients to customers in buffet-style serving cases. Customers can point to the ingredients they want in their dishes, or choose pre-made combinations from the menu.

Some serve alcohol: Fast casual spots are increasingly adding alcoholic beverages to their offerings. Chipotle, for example, serves margaritas in half of its stores.

Emphasis on design: Fast casual restaurants usually have upscale, unique, or highly developed decor. Branding and design are important because of the emphasis on on-premise dining.

Usually no drive-thru: Though there are some exceptions, fast casual restaurants usually don't have drive-thru windows like fast food restaurants do. However, more fast casual spots are adding drive-thru ordering systems due to some of the dining restrictions of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Not open as late as fast food restaurants: You typically won't find fast casual restaurants that are open 24/7.

While there are some exceptions to the above, these are some of the defining features that set casual dining apart in the fast casual vs fast food debate.

The Fast Casual Restaurant Customer Experience

The fast casual dining experience begins either at the restaurant or online.

If customers want to place an on-premise order, they do so with a staff member or through a self-ordering kiosk. At restaurants that offer make-your-own dish options, customers point to ingredients they want and staff build the order for them. Sometimes the meal is brought to the customer's table, and sometimes the customer picks it up after paying. In some cases, the restaurant may even have its own mobile app for seamless online ordering.

For example, at Honeygrow - a tech-savvy, independently-owned fast casual chain based in Philadelphia - walk-in customers place orders through self-ordering kiosks located in the restaurant. The kiosks let customers build their own stir fry dishes and salads, or choose from pre-selected combinations from the menu. Customers pay for their meals through the kiosks, and then collect when they are ready. Honeygrow's customers can also place orders online for pickup or delivery, throw a browser or through the restaurant's app.

Technology in a Fast Casual Restaurant

Most QSRs, including fast casual establishments, rely on these technologies to make operations efficient:

POS: The quick service POS system processes orders, collects business data, processes payments, tracks inventory, and more.

Online ordering and delivery: Online ordering software enables customers to place orders for pickup or delivery directly from a restaurant's website. Some fast casual restaurants may also use third-party apps like Uber Eats and DoorDash to facilitate delivery orders.

Customer facing display systems: Some fast casual restaurants use customer displays to show customers their orders as the information is inputted into the POS. These displays reduce errors and highlight promotions to drive repeat business.

Loyalty: Loyalty programs reward customers for frequenting the restaurant and help to boost customer retention.

Among today's tech-savvy diners, operating a fast casual dining concept without these tools would prove difficult.

Benefits of Running a Fast Casual Restaurant

Considering opening a fast casual restaurant? These are some of the perks of running one:

Higher average check prices: The average check size for a fast casual meal is about $12 - that's seven dollars more than the price of a standard fast food check.

Appeal to choosy customers: Customers who are health-conscious, sustainability-conscious, or are following a certain diet are frequently drawn to fast casual restaurants, which usually emphasize health or sustainability over bargain prices. Fast casual restaurants tend to be more mindful of offering and highlighting vegan, vegetarian, gluten-free, or dairy-free options on their menus, which is a selling point for some customers. The inclusion of healthier menu alternatives also allows fast casuals to market themselves as better than fast food - and consumers are eating it up. According to reports, 73% of millennials and 62% of Gen Zers would pay more for higher quality, sustainable food.

An elevated level of service attracts customers: Fast casual restaurants offer an elevated level of service that fast food restaurants can't compete with. Panera, for example, gives their patrons the option of being served tableside. This elevated, hybrid service model appeals to customers who want that catered experience.

Increased revenue through off-premise sales: Fast casual restaurants are leading the way with mobile ordering solutions in the QSR sector. When you make it easy for customers to place orders from anywhere, you can serve more people than could queue up inside your restaurant, ultimately leading to more revenue coming in.

As you can gather from the above, there are plenty of good (and lucrative) reasons to run a fast casual restaurant.

Fast Casual vs Fast Food: The Bottom Line

The restaurant industry is constantly evolving and so are the different types of restaurants. While fast food restaurants may be the original QSR concept, fast casual spots are making inroads in this sector. Whichever service model you currently operate, or eventually choose to operate, you'll need technology to run your restaurant smoothly. Learn how TouchBistro can help you get there - book a live tour today.

by Alex Fainblum

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Fast Casual vs Fast Food: What's the Difference Between Them?

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This guide to fast casual vs fast food restaurants explains what sets these two segments apart, including different price points, menus, and customers.

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Fast food vs. fast casual: understanding the key differences ( articles)

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Fast food vs. fast casual: understanding the key differences ( articles)

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Restaurant Insiders Reveal The True Differences Between Fast Food and Fine Dining (visual style)

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Restaurant Insiders Reveal The True Differences Between Fast Food and Fine Dining (visual style)

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Restaurant Insiders Reveal The True Differences Between Fast Food and Fine Dining - Urbo

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The restaurant industry’s many layers contain a lot of differences, but they’re not all about the quality of the food.

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AN ANALYSIS OF FACTORS IMPACT ON CUSTOMER SATISFACTION IN VIETNAM RESTAURANTS: CASE OF FAST FOOD RESTAURANTS

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AN ANALYSIS OF FACTORS IMPACT ON CUSTOMER SATISFACTION IN VIETNAM RESTAURANTS: CASE OF FAST FOOD RESTAURANTS

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A RESEARCH STUDY ON THE DINESCAPE FACTORS DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LEADING FAST FOOD AND CASUAL DINING RESTAURANTS IN THE PHILIPPINES

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A RESEARCH STUDY ON THE DINESCAPE FACTORS DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LEADING FAST FOOD AND CASUAL DINING RESTAURANTS IN THE PHILIPPINES

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A RESEARCH STUDY ON THE DINESCAPE FACTORS DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LEADING FAST FOOD AND CASUAL DINING RESTAURANTS IN THE PHILIPPINES

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A RESEARCH STUDY ON THE DINESCAPE FACTORS DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LEADING FAST FOOD AND CASUAL DINING RESTAURANTS IN THE PHILIPPINES

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Chapter 1 - Introduction Food and Beverage Management

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Chapter 1 - Introduction Food and Beverage Management

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Chapter 1 - Introduction Food and Beverage Management

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Academia.edu is a platform for academics to share research papers.

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Fast Food, Street Food: Western Fast Food’s	Influence on Fast Service Food in China

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Fast Food, Street Food: Western Fast Food’s	Influence on Fast Service Food in China

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Glocalization and Localization on franchise and restaurant

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Glocalization and Localization on franchise and restaurant

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GLOCALIZATION IN FOOD BUSINESS: STRATEGIES OF ADAPTATION TO LOCAL NEEDS AND DEMANDS

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GLOCALIZATION IN FOOD BUSINESS: STRATEGIES OF ADAPTATION TO LOCAL NEEDS AND DEMANDS

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Glocalization in Food and Agribusiness: Strategies of Adaptation to Local Needs and Demands

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Glocalization in Food and Agribusiness: Strategies of Adaptation to Local Needs and Demands

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The dynamic between Advertising & Marketing, the Graphic Design industry, and the Food & Beverage (F&B) industry

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The dynamic between Advertising & Marketing, the Graphic Design industry, and the Food & Beverage (F&B) industry

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Graphic design industry & Fast food industry

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Graphic design industry & Fast food industry

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Companies have long used perceptual mapping to understand how consumers feel about their brands relative to competitors’, to find gaps in the marketplace, and to develop brand positions. But the business value of these maps is limited because they fail to link a brand’s market position to business p…

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Consumer Research Insights on Brands and Branding: A JCR Curation

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Consumer Research Insights on Brands and Branding: A JCR Curation

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Consumer Research Insights on Brands and Branding: A JCR Curation

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Brands are a fact of everyday life and an omnipresent reality for consumers. Understanding how consumers respond to brands—what they think and feel and how they

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Publication: Storytelling brand: an experience that creates a path for brand loyalty?

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Publication: Storytelling brand: an experience that creates a path for brand loyalty?

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Storytelling brand: an experience that creates a path for brand loyalty?

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Building brand identity in competitive markets: a conceptual model

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Building brand identity in competitive markets: a conceptual model

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Abstract

Purpose

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The purpose of this conceptual paper is to identify important elements of brand building based on a literature review and case studies of successful brands in India.

Design/methodology/approach

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This paper is based on a review of the literature and takes a case study approach. The paper suggests the framework for building brand identity in sequential order, namely, positioning the brand, communicating the brand message, delivering the brand performance, and leveraging the brand equity.

Findings

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Brand‐building effort has to be aligned with organizational processes that help deliver the promises to customers through all company departments, intermediaries, suppliers, etc., as all these play an important role in the experience customers have with the brand.

Originality/value

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The paper uses case studies of leading Indian brands to illustrate the importance of action elements in building brands in competitive markets.

Citation

Ghodeswar, B.M. (2008), "Building brand identity in competitive markets: a conceptual model", Journal of Product & Brand Management, Vol. 17 No. 1, pp. 4-12. https://doi.org/10.1108/10610420810856468

Publisher
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Emerald Group Publishing Limited

Copyright

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Building brand identity in competitive markets: a conceptual model

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Building brand identity in competitive markets: a conceptual model - Author: Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar

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A systematic review of international franchising

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A systematic review of international franchising

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Copyright

License

Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode

1. Introduction

Franchising is a business model where the franchisor extends business know-how, intellectual rights and the right to operate in the name of a brand for consideration (usually in the form of fees and royalties) to the franchisee. The globalization of franchising took off in the 1990s as a result of push factors (domestic market saturation and a highly competitive domestic market) and pull factors (opportunities to scale up in foreign markets because of pent-up demand and the opening of foreign markets, especially in developing countries). The diffusion of franchising worldwide occurred through imitation and through the internationalization of US franchisors ( Alon and McKee, 1999; Hoffman and Preble, 2004).

From the 1960s through the 1980s, large firms such as Hilton and McDonalds dominated international franchising ( Noyelle and Dutka, 1988). However, since the 1990s, the structure of the industry has changed, with many SMEs using franchising domestically and internationally. International franchising was used as a mode of entry, at arm's length, with a high level of externalization of both financial risk and operational control ( Alon et al., 2012; Grewal et al., 2011). Researchers in international business, entrepreneurship, marketing and management have investigated international franchising using various disciplinary foci ( Combs et al., 2004). Studies have explored franchising as a contractual mode of entry, which represents a hybrid between markets and hierarchies ( Hennart, 2010). The franchisor shares ownership of the brand's reputation and know-how with the franchisee in exchange for royalties established ex-ante through contractual arrangements ( Brouthers and Hennart, 2007).

In contrast to equity joint ventures (EJV), wholly-owned subsidiaries (WOS) and greenfield investments, the IB literature has largely ignored franchising as a contractual entry mode. International franchising can help with issues of declining employee motivation that lead to shirking and higher transaction costs in hierarchical entry modes ( Hennart, 1991). Franchising can also resolve equity costs and balance agency incentives because franchisees will work for their own profits, while simultaneously contributing to the profits of the parent company.

The largest international franchise brands are leading MNEs with a significant global presence. Examples include the hotel, restaurant and retail industries (e.g. Marriot, Hilton, McDonald's, KFC and Seven-Eleven) and general service industries (car rentals, cleaning and gasoline distribution). Franchising is especially suitable as an entry mode for these industries because the know-how is codifiable ( Brouthers and Hennart, 2007; Kogut and Zander, 1993), and the behavioral rules that determine outputs can be specified by contracts to guarantee uniform quality across outlets ( Fladmoe-Lindquist and Jacque, 1995; Hennart, 2010). In these industries, the trademark and know-how are easier to transact between business partners. Furthermore, the cost of controlling free-riding from franchisees is less than the cost of monitoring employees ( Brouthers and Hennart, 2007; Hennart, 2010). Franchising allows for the standardization and replication of proven concepts in service businesses ( Wang and Altinay, 2008), providing the benefits of economies of scale through globalization.

International franchising involves the flow of goods, trademarks, intellectual property and finances cross-nationally and is generally used in service-based industries ( Combs et al., 2004). In 2018, global trade in-services had a value of US$5.8tn ( Unctad, 2019). According to the World Trade Organization (2019), since 2005 trading in services has increased faster than trading in goods. Among the international service franchise firms in 2017, personal services had the fastest growth, followed by health care and medical services, business and cleaning services and retail ( Franchisetimes top 200+, 2018). Additionally, between 2005 and 2017, developing economies had US$3.4tn in world service exports resulting from economic transformations and diversification in these markets.

Franchising has had a significant effect on the development of service business worldwide ( Alon, 2004), but particularly in the USA where it had its commercial beginning. The US Government reported that the 780,000 American franchise businesses created 9 million jobs and contributed approximately $541bn or three percent, to the US gross domestic product (GDP) ( Internatinal Trade Administration, 2016). In addition, franchising impacts other business entities and helps provide 13.3 million jobs. Franchising has also diffused to other parts of the world. In Australia, franchise businesses use 472,000 people and the total sales revenue of all franchises is estimated at $146bn ( Franchise Council of Australia, T, 2017). Welsh et al. (2006) report that, since the 1980s, franchising has developed rapidly in emerging markets in response to pent up demand for Western goods and a rising middle class.

Franchising contributes $2.3tn per year to the global economy ( US Department of Commerce, International Trade Administration, 2016), with 19 million jobs in 2 million franchised firms worldwide ( Franchise New Zealand, 2019). According to the 2018 Franchise Direct report, among the top 100 strongest franchise brands are those originating in the UK, France, Spain, South Korea, Canada, Sweden and Germany ( Bailey, 2018).

The growth in the popularity of international franchising (IF) has attracted research interest, evident in the exponential increase in the literature. From 2009 to 2019, there was a more than tenfold increase in articles on the subject ( Table 1 and Figure 1). The number of citations of the IF literature has also increased rapidly. From the 131 articles about IF published between 1976 and 2016, there are 5,022 citations in total.

Our review makes three contributions. First, it connects international franchising to international business (IB) literature. There have been previous efforts to conduct systematic literature reviews of IF, but, they did not connect franchising to the already robust field of IB. IF has increased in other related fields, such as entrepreneurship and marketing. Second, our study is systematic and shows how the field has evolved over time, providing a more dynamic view of the discipline. We review the IF literature over a period of 42 years (1976-2016), and ask:

What research clusters or patterns exist in the bibliometrics of the international franchising literature?

Who and what are the main channels for international franchising knowledge?

What are the promising future research avenues?

Finally, through content analysis, we provide a conceptual model of IF and future recommendations for research.

The rest of the paper is organized as follows. We explain the bibliometric research tool and methodology in Section 2. In bibliometrics, the article is the unit of analysis. Section 3 discusses our findings and identifies the research clusters and the most influential articles, authors and journals. Section 4 provides the conceptual framework from the content analysis. Section 5 provides future research directions.

2. Research methods

We systematically examined all articles from 1970 to 2018 in the ISI Web of Science (WoS) that use international franchising (in the title, abstract or author keywords) and identified 131 articles, which formed the analytical database. For search boundaries, we chose only articles written in English. We selected articles in:

hospitality, leisure, sports and tourism;

operational research management science.

As franchising is an interdisciplinary subject. For the search terms, we used "international franchise" and all its variations (global, inter* and franc*). At least two authors read each abstract to ensure relevance and the full article when the abstract was unclear. Only articles with international franchising as a focus were included in a total of 131 articles. We searched for articles from 1945, but the oldest IF article was published in 1973 ( Walker and Etzel, 1973). Articles unrelated to business franchises were excluded.

We created a cluster map of the articles using a bibliometric method that demonstrates interconnections between the articles. Using the map, we can identify the research topics by examining the frequency of citations or co-citations. The use of the latter assumes that an article published in a scholarly journal is built on similar articles that have already been published ( Van Raan, 2012). Therefore, co-citation analysis can reveal similarity on a specific research topic, allowing the identification of key research streams and links among articles.

We used a bibliometric analysis tool, HistCite, a robust quantitative software program ( Zupic and Čater, 2015) that creates a visualization of the literature in a graphic format. It helps researchers understand collections of information in a diagram called historiography, based on the networks or the citation relationships among frequently cited articles. The analyzes identify the key articles, the chronology of publication events and their influence on one another. HistCite also provides information about important authors, articles, institutions (universities), regions and journal publishers in a research field, allowing the creation of a richer and more reliable map of IF research than manual and qualitative reviews.

Bibliometric analysis has some limitations. Some topics or research streams may appear to be more significant than others because they are more frequently cited. Despite the assumption that frequently cited papers are more impactful, citation patterns differ greatly among disciplines. Different fields of research were published at different rates. Sometimes, important articles may be discovered later. Citations can involve bias, as researchers may cite their own work or their colleagues' work or articles from journals in which they publish. Our exclusion of non-English language articles might have biased our results. Finally, we used the ISI Web of Knowledge database, whose articles are considered among the most prestigious. Despite these weaknesses, our article makes a singular contribution to organizing and understanding the research landscape of the IF literature.

3. Findings

3.1 Changes in the patterns of international franchising research

As Table 2 indicates, we divided the articles by publication date to identify changes in the:

The theories most often used in IF research in the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s and 2000s are agency theory, transactional cost theory, resource scarcity theory, resource-based view theory, OLI paradigm theory, signaling theory and institutional theory. Between 1970 and 1990, IF researchers largely used quantitative methods, using the survey approach ( Fladmoe-Lindquist, 1996; Preble, 1995). In the 2000s, qualitative methods started taking over ( Doherty, 2007, 2009; Doherty and Alexander, 2004). Many researchers use interviews, ethnographies and observations to study IF. Some studies also use mixed methods (quantitative and qualitative) (Petersen and Welch, 2000). At the end of the 1990s and the early 2000s, some literature reviews of IF were published ( Doherty, 2007; Elango and Fried, 1997; Welsh et al., 2006; Young et al., 2000).

3.2 Research clusters in international franchising

Using HistCite's visualization of the literature, four research clusters emerged that are consistent with the dominant theories and research streams in the IB literature:

1. selection of international markets and partners;

2. power, control and autonomy; and

Figure 2 illustrates our determination of the research clusters based on the proximity of the topic in each circle and the links between the articles. The numbers in parentheses in the discussions about these clusters refer to the circles in Figure 2.

3.2.1 Cluster 1: internationalization.

This cluster explores the factors that prompt a firm to internationalize via franchising. Hackett (1976) (1), one of the early international franchise researchers, argues that experience influences that decision. McIntyre and Huszagh (1995) (3) extend the resource scarcity and agency theory arguments to the international arena, including franchising operations and scale. Fladmoe-Lindquist and Jacque (1995) (5) examine the likelihood of choosing international franchising based on four factors, namely, monitoring costs, international experience, brand name and the host country's environmental uncertainty. Contractor and Kundu (1998a) (12) examine two factors, namely, internal factors related to a firm's strategy and characteristics and external factors related to the environment in the host country that affects franchising strategies. Contractor and Kundu (1998b) (9) suggest that a firm's international experience, the conditions in the host country and the firm's perceptual strategy affect its choice of a non-equity entry mode. Sashi and Prasad Karuppur (2002) (27) show that firms choose franchising as an entry mode when they want to learn about a new market. Altinay (2004) (30) emphasizes the role of entrepreneurs as organizational members in the operationalization of IF. Chen and Dimou (2005) (35) examine the selection of entry mode using two different theoretical frameworks - transaction cost theory and agency theory. Their study shows that the expansion strategy should be analyzed by examining the relevance of variables related to the firm and the host country. Doherty (2007) (43) argues that the combination of organizational and environmental factors, including a firm's experience, financial resources, managers and local markets, affects the motivation of retail firms to enter foreign markets. Dunning et al. (2007) (45) maintain that international franchisors select ownership based on their strategic intentions. Hotels use franchising strategies to expand its brand globally to reduce their risk. Alon et al. (2012) (77) use agency-based theory to investigate how organizational and market factors influence hotel firms to use franchising strategies when entering foreign markets. Cluster 1 provides a number of organizational and environmental variables influencing international franchising.

In Cluster 1, the agency theory, transaction cost theory, resource scarcity theory, resource-based view and OLI paradigm are the main theories. Agency and transaction cost theories are among the most broadly used theories to explain the selection of franchising when franchisors enter foreign markets because it entails few agency problems and transaction costs ( Chen and Dimou, 2005; Contractor and Kundu, 1998a, 1998b; Fladmoe-Lindquist and Jacque, 1995; Sashi and Prasad Karuppur, 2002). Resource scarcity theory and the resource-based view are used to explain why IFisan attractive platform for franchisors to exploit scarce and important resources abroad ( Alon, 2004; Altinay, 2004). Studies use the OLI paradigm to explain the influence of three factors (ownership, location and internalization advantages) on the expansion of franchises outside their national boundaries ( Dunning et al., 2007).

3.2.2 Cluster 2: the selection of international markets and partners.

Cluster 2 consists of two sub-clusters: international market selection and international partner selection, both with their own external and internal factors.

3.2.3 Cluster 3: power, control and autonomy.

Cluster 3 highlights issues about power and control in the relationship between franchisors and franchisees. Shane (1996b) (6) explores franchisors' need to develop better capabilities to prevent the opportunistic behavior of their franchisees in foreign markets compared to domestic markets. Quinn (1999) (18) finds that franchisors generally use non-coercive power to influence and control franchisees' behavior. Quinn and Doherty (2000) (21) argue that cultural and geographic distance is important in explaining why it may not be feasible to apply non-coercive power in franchisee monitoring. Pizanti and Lerner (2003) (29) outline four factors that influence autonomy and control in the relationship with domestic and international franchisees, namely, the size of the chain, its age, the franchising concept and the length of the contract. Lafontaine and Oxley (2004) (31) explore cross-border franchising and find that American and Canadian franchise contracts in Mexico differ from those in their domestic markets. Paik and Choi (2007) (46) examine differences between the degree of control and autonomy exerted by domestic and international franchisors. They find that franchisees in foreign markets have more autonomy than those in domestic markets. They also determine that it is unlikely that experienced international franchisees will require autonomy, while experienced domestic franchisees tend to demand more autonomy. Collaboration also tends to develop between experienced international franchisors and franchisees as opposed to competition for control or autonomy when the parties are in a hardship situation. Brookes and Roper (2011) (67) show that social interaction and communication may be used to control international master franchise agreements and promote the development of relationships. In contrast, contractual controls may discourage the growth of relational norms and hamper the relationship between franchisor and franchisee.

Relational contracting theory, resource dependence theory, agency theory, institutional theory and marketing channel theory dominate this cluster. These theories are used to study the behavior of franchisors and franchisees as they attempt to find a balance regarding their management and performance. The relational contracting theory is used to analyze the role of trust and commitment in the partnership between franchisor and franchisee ( Leblebici and Shalley, 1996). Resource dependence theory is used to explain the inter-dependence between franchisor and franchisee regarding many aspects including knowledge and experience (Pak and Choi, 2007). Agency theory is used to examine the implementation of coercive sources of power to monitor the behavior of franchisees ( Quinn and Doherty, 2000; Shane, 1996b). Institutional theory confirms that the formal (regulatory) or informal (culture or norms) institutional context may affect the franchise relationship ( Doherty et al.2014). Marketing channel theory is used to study the use of non-coercive power such as training and other assistance, site visits and national advertisements by the franchisor to change and control the behavior of the franchisee (Paik and Choi, 2007; Quinn, 1999).

3.2.4 Cluster 4: mutual learning.

Cluster 4 examines issues about the learning process between franchisors and franchisees. Baucus et al. (1996) (7) explain the dynamics of franchise relationships. Franchisees may improve the franchisor's competitive advantage by providing insights into the local market and business operations. In return, the franchisor can give franchisees the chance to adopt their own product quality and standards. They find that cooperation between franchisors and franchisees is a vital element in long-term success. Fladmoe-Lindquist (1996) (8) argues that international franchisors and domestic franchisors need to have different capabilities. International franchisors need skills in administrative efficiency and managing the host country's risk. Wang and Altinay (2008) (48) investigate franchisors' engagement in exploratory and exploitative learning when selecting a franchise partner. The selection may lead to tension because explorative learning highlights the importance of adapting to local markets, whereas exploitative learning aligns with standardization and efficiencies. Doherty (2009) (60) writes that, before selecting a prospective franchise partner, a franchisor examines the economic and demographic conditions in the host country. Doherty (2009) also mentions that franchisors choose franchisees who possess knowledge about capital and local markets and with whom they have chemistry. Grewal et al. (2011) (69) discuss the entrepreneurial partnership between franchisors and franchisees and how it affects the expansion of the franchise into foreign markets.

The resource-based view, resource dependence theory, knowledge-based theory and dynamic capabilities theory are predominantly used in this cluster. The resource-based view emphasizes that the ability of firms to exploit resources (both tangible and intangible) can help them achieve a competitive advantage ( Grewal et al., 2011). Resource dependence theory is used to show how the franchisee depends on the franchisor's assistance, while the latter relies on the franchisee to expand the business, as well as on their knowledge about the local culture and markets ( Grewal et al., 2011). Knowledge-based theory confirms that the performance of the franchisee relies on the successful transfer of knowledge between franchisor and franchisee (Szulanski and Jensen, 2006). Dynamic capabilities theory affirms that organizational learning capabilities may determine the ability of the international franchise to exploit opportunities, expand the business and perform well (El-Akremi et al., 2015; Grewal et al., 2011).

3.3 Leading channels in the international franchising literature

3.3.1 Leading authors, articles and journals.

Table 3 lists the 10 authors who received the most total local citations (TLC) within the retrieved articles. Table 4 lists the articles that received the highest local citation scores (LCS), indicating whether the article received more citations recently.

To understand the influence of each journal we visualize the data by presenting it in a table ( Table 5) that shows the most influential journals. We create a proxy for journal output by examining how many articles are published in each journal (P AC) and calculate the total local citations received by the articles per year (TLC/t), which identifies the most influential journals. By calculating the mean values of the two variables (P AC Mean = 1.503 and TLC/t = 0.158), we can examine which journals have the largest number of publications and total local citations ( Table 5 and Figure 3).

From our 131 articles, we found 14 journals that fit these criteria:

Table 3 lists the 14 most influential journals in IF. Figure 3 illustrates the position of each journal in the quadrant matrix. Additionally, Table 6 shows the relative importance of IF in various disciplines calculated by the number of publications on the topic in each discipline.

4. Discussion

When a firm enters an international arena, it must transfer its resources and capabilities to its foreign market operations. The firm must select an effective entry mode to transfer assets from the home country to a host country without reducing the ability to create a competitive advantage ( Erramilli et al., 2002). Firms use franchising not only to acquire capital and expand at a rate that could be challenging when the firm uses only its own resources ( Combs et al., 2004; Oxenfeldt and Kelly, 1969) but also to ensure that it can maintain its competitive advantage by transferring its knowledge, reputation and other resources ( Lillis et al., 1976). This ability to use, transfer and internalize firm-specific advantages in new locations, balancing their capacity to coordinate their abilities in a new environment while internalizing new knowledge, allows firms to engage in foreign operations. This is one of the reasons why decision-makers need to select appropriate modes of entry into foreign markets (Bouthers and Henart, 2007; Dunning, 2007) because the choice will become a determinant of their performance.

Frequently, the IF literature discusses the choice between franchising and corporate-owned units as an entry mode. Therefore, in Table 7 we defined some of the general conditions for firms to choose between franchising contracts (hybrids) and wholly-owned subsidiaries (hierarchical entry mode) when entering foreign markets. These conditions are largely explained by overarching theories like the OLI paradigm ( Dunning et al., 2007). This framework combines the resource-based view, internalization theory and transaction cost theory ( Bouthers and Hennart, 2007). These theories together provide a more fine-grained explanation of entry mode decisions based on specific ownership, location and internalization assumptions.

4.1 Toward a conceptual model of international franchising

Based on our literature review, we propose a conceptual model for IF illustrated in Figure 4. The model consists of franchise ownership advantages, such as franchise resources and capabilities and location-specific characteristics, specifically, socioeconomic and political factors affecting the international franchise's strategic decisions and performance.

4.1.1 Franchise resources and capabilities: ownership advantages.

What capabilities does a firm need to franchise internationally? "Every firm is thought to be a bundle of resources and capabilities" ( Erramilli et al., 2002, p. 225). These firm-specific assets include the capacity to exploit resources efficiently and effectively ( Barney, 1991). Ownership advantages in international business are the assets of the firm that generate income and allow it to operate overseas ( Dunning, 2001). These advantages are the resources and capabilities that are the intangible, spatially transferable assets of the firm ( Dunning, 2001). Shane (1996b) argues that the capabilities required for a firm to expand internationally differ from those needed domestically. Before a firm enters a foreign market, it needs to combine its existing capabilities and capacity to absorb and develop new knowledge and skills according to what Fladmoe-Lindquist (1996) calls the dynamic capabilities perspective of the resource-based theory. As the author continues, a firm faces a fundamental problem with how to balance demands and constraints. It may lack the entrepreneurial ability, time and experience to acquire needed capabilities, especially if it is a young small firm or in the early stages of growth ( Oxenfeldt and Kelly, 1969). Resource scarcity drives a firm to seek access to human capital and managerial resources ( Combs et al., 2004).

Valuable, scarce and inimitable resources help create a competitive advantage ( Grant, 1991). The value driver for competitive advantage is the integration of resources, including intangible assets and distinctive skills, as well as the absence of entry barriers that limit competition ( Barney, 1991; Peteraf, 1993). As Dunning (2001) notes, looking at the firm as the only source of intellectual capital is not sustainable. Instead, the film plays the role of an organizer of created assets that can be generated both internally and through cooperative relationships with other entities. These relationships can take the form of non-equity alliances, such as franchise agreements.

In franchise agreements, franchisors supply their franchises with intangible assets such as the brand, know-how, intellectual property, operating routines and other ongoing support services. In return, franchisees pay franchise fees and royalties and provide knowledge about local market conditions ( Alon, 2004; Gillis et al., 2020). The trademark is one of the most important aspects of international franchising. It is a decisive element for franchise expansion because it is an essential element in increasing market share and awareness when entering foreign markets. Brand recognition is a catalyst for a firm's growth in foreign markets ( Brookes, 2014). When choosing the right firm to work with, the franchisor uses reputation as a criterion for selecting a partner ( Brookes, 2014).

In the case of international hotel chains, the brand is the most important aspect when deciding between management contracts and franchising expansion strategies. Hotels prefer management contracts when the brand has greater value specificity, as it allows them to retain more control and ensure the quality standards of the brand to maintain its reputation (Kruesy and Zamborsky, 2016). Hotel chains with more stars also prefer this format, because it allows them to guarantee the required service delivery associated with the brand. Moreover, for hotel managers and potential franchisees in China, the most important aspects when deciding to become part of a hotel chain are strong brand awareness, the franchise fee and return on investment ( Xiao et al., 2008).

4.1.2 Political and socioeconomic environments: location.

A firm's domestic success will not necessarily translate into an international success, because the host country may have unique risks, a different culture, new contacts and new knowledge ( Madhok, 1997). There are characteristics inherent to the production site both domestically and overseas that influence the value-added activities of the firm. Location-specific advantages are the non-transferable or immobile characteristics of a location that affect the productivity of the firm ( Dunning, 2001). Among these characteristics, economic, demographic, social and political factors strongly influence the expansion of IF ( Alon and McKee, 1999). Economic factors include GDP per capita, GDP growth and the level of urbanization. Demographic factors fall into three categories, namely, the size of the middle class, population growth and the rate of female labor participation. Among the distance, factors are physical distance and cultural distance (in Hofstede's terms, power distance, individualism/collectivism, masculinity and uncertainty avoidance). The political dimension consists of internal political risks (red tape, political stability, government regulations and policies, level of bribery and ownership restrictions) and external political risks (import restrictions and foreign exchange controls). Alon and McKee (1999) suggest that, when entering foreign markets with unfavorable environments, international franchisors use master franchising, a method with little involvement or risk and low costs.

Cultural distance may affect franchising decisions ( Hoffman et al., 2008), the negotiation process ( Weiss, 1996), business format transfers and operating system compatibility ( Justis and Judd, 1989). Eroglu (1992) studies the effect of cultural distance on an organization's intention to internationalize its franchise system, suggesting that cultural distance involving differing perceptions and ways of doing business may increase the risks of internationalization. The franchise concept and its managerial and operating system are extensions of the franchisor's cultural values and routines in the home country ( Huszagh et al., 1992). Franchisors may want the standardization they built to apply to their outlets in foreign markets ( Aydin and Kacker, 1990).

Contractor and Kundu (1998a) argue that franchisees in developed countries are more capable than those in developing countries because they generally have greater absorptive capacities that may enhance knowledge transfer. Higher-income countries usually provide a better institutional environment by offering better protection and enforcement of intellectual property laws. Political risks emerge when government policies in the host country create a disadvantageous environment for franchisors, including restrictions on franchising, limits on repatriation at the micro-level, corruption, political turmoil and restrictions on foreign investors ( Fladmoe-Lindquist and Jacque, 1995). When the host market is developed, and intellectual property laws exist and are enforced, franchising is more likely to take root ( Erramilli et al., 2002) and has a greater chance of success ( Rosado-Serrano et al., 2018). Intellectual property protection and hospitable rules for service businesses may also encourage the emergence of franchising ( Fladmoe-Lindquist, 1996; Lafili and Van Ranst, 1990).

Hackett (1976) examines the factors that drive a franchisor to enter a foreign market. The author claims that having a saturated domestic market plays a major role in motivating franchisors to pursue alternate markets. IF spread first to developed economies that are culturally and linguistically similar to the US (the UK, Canada and Australia), then to other developed economies with more cultural distance (Japan) and finally to emerging markets that are economically less developed and are culturally distant ( Welch, 1989). Hackett (1976) also suggests that franchising follows a product's life cycle. Welsh et al. (2006) argue that emerging markets offer franchisors a number of opportunities: an unsaturated and liberalized market, a growing middle class that demands products and services that meet international quality standards, free-trade zones and relatively friendly business laws.

4.1.3 International franchise strategic decisions: internalization.

As previously explained, socioeconomic, political and demographic factors influence decisions about how to enter and operate in foreign markets ( Alon and McKee, 1999). These choices depend not only on how the MNEs' location-bound resources and capabilities affect their costs but also on how they influence their capacity to exploit assets related to partner firms ( Dunning, 2001; Fladmoe-Lindquist and Jacque, 1995; Hennart, 2010).

Internalization (I) advantages include the benefits of coordinating the use of firm-specific advantages and generating new resources and capabilities (O) in new locations (L) ( Dunning, 2001). The costs and benefits of internalizing new assets explain why firms choose certain entry modes, where they use their own advantages and internalize others, instead of obtaining assets from another organization in new markets, through different business configurations ( Brouthers and Hennart, 2007; Dunning, 2001; Hennart, 2010). The internalization, location and ownership advantages explain why the firm decides to operate abroad and are crucial when deciding whether franchising or wholly-owned subsidiaries are the most suitable entry mode ( Dunning, 2001). When the asset specificity of the business and its reputation are not compromised by contractual partnerships, companies will choose to franchise. It is also preferred when the costs of reducing opportunistic behavior from franchisees are less than the costs of monitoring employees and shirking. Internalization advantages determine if a firm should choose a hierarchical entry mode or share ownership of the trademark through franchise contracts ( Brouthers and Hennart, 2007; Dunning et al., 2007).

Furthermore, researchers have studied the relationship between franchisors and franchisees and how organizational and external factors affect it, particularly regarding the dynamics of power in franchise alliances ( Alon, 2006). To prevent free-riding and opportunistic behavior by franchisees, monitoring instruments are essential ( Shane, 1996b). In addition to monitoring, control and advice are needed in the initial stages of franchising, because franchisees have less knowledge than franchisors ( Baucus et al., 1996). However, as franchisees learn more about the local markets and develop their entrepreneurial initiative, the franchisors allow them more autonomy. The franchising concept, and the size and age of the chain influence the degree of control and autonomy. Large chains tend to provide greater autonomy to their franchisees ( Pizanti and Lerner, 2003). Quinn (1999) finds that the use of non-coercive power as a control mechanism is more effective for influencing the behavior of franchisees. Quinn and Doherty (2000) explore the disadvantages of using non-coercive power to control franchisees, stating that the mechanism is costly due to geographic distance and difficulty in implementation. However, in an environment where the brand is well-defined, strong, coercive power may be effective. In an environment where such conditions are absent, non-coercive power may be used. Furthermore, the authors argue that the development of franchising, as well as the size of the firm, may influence the nature of the power and control between franchisors and franchisees.

Other scholars emphasize more tacit features, such as the role of personal feelings, chemistry or intuition when selecting markets and franchise partners ( Doherty, 2009). Moreover, organizational learning is an important factor when selecting partners, as franchisors need to learn from their franchisees and local markets to improve their adaptability and responsiveness ( Doherty, 2009; López-Fernández and López-Bayón, 2017). Grewal et al. (2011) argue that the nature of the partnership between franchisors and franchisees is entrepreneurial and the quality of this partnership affects the pace, size and scope of franchise expansion into foreign markets.

4.1.4 International franchise performance.

The performance of the franchise is another important area of study. Among the aspects that influence this performance are the relationship between franchisees and franchisors and the mechanisms governing the franchise. One of the most important factors influencing such relationships is trust. Calderon-Monge and Pastor-Sanz (2017) report that using contracts as the only governance mechanism is associated with poor performance. Thus, contracts should be customized to each franchise form. Additionally, they found that for single-unit franchisees, it is more profitable to have relational governance mechanisms that strengthen the relationship with the franchisor.

In their study of the financial performance of international and domestic US hotels, Lee et al. (2014) document that the financial performance of international US hotels is better than that of hotels that have only domestic operations. They infer that internationalization has a positive effect on the financial health of hotels. One of the reasons for this positive outcome is the franchising strategy that hotel firms use. It reduces agency costs due to the franchisees' familiarity with and knowledge about the new market and their understanding of local customers. These factors limit the risks involved in operating in a foreign business environment and leverage the franchisees' motivation to maximize profits ( Lee et al., 2014). Moreover, among hotel chains that have internationalized, they identify a turning point in the degree of internationalization. As the total hotel property operations increase, the financial performance starts improving and the benefits outweigh the costs. Thus, they document a U-shaped relationship between internationalization and performance. Table 8 summarizes the constructs of the international franchising model with the main theoretical approaches used for analysis, suggestions for operationalization and a list of authors that have previously studied the variables listed.

5. Future research agenda

A more holistic explanation of international franchising may combine several theoretical perspectives with differing levels of analysis. International franchising across countries might be profitably investigated with an institutional theory where the economic, political and social environments affect the variation and diffusion of franchising across different parts of the world. Using multi-country data would help generalize the findings on how these national and environmental moderators affect the internationalization decisions of franchise networks ( Baena, 2018). The use of multilevel data and methods will enable researchers to estimate with greater accuracy the moderating or interactive effect of national-level data on the firm and the individual consumer. Consistent with host country factors, economic growth and economic uncertainty impact the desire of franchisors to internationalize ( Madanoglu et al., 2017). More research is needed on how political risk and culture affect the selection of international franchising markets ( Kruesi et al., 2017; Madanoglu, 2018; Madanoglu et al., 2017), and how protectionist measures affect international franchising in host countries. Furthermore, location characteristics such as cultural and geographic distance affect the transfer of firm-specific advantages from parent multinationals and influence the adaptation of local subsidiaries ( Verbeke and Yuan, 2016). Therefore, a recommendation for further research is to investigate location characteristics, specific institutions, institutional distance, psychic distance and other distance variables that explain the expansion and diffusion of international franchising ( Ghantous et al., 2018). Herz et al. (2016) find that trust enables knowledge transfer and improves performance. Future research should test both subjective and objective measures of trust in international franchising at the individual, organizational or institutional levels.

The integration of international and local resources and capabilities within the network improves the competitiveness of the firm ( Lee et al., 2008). The engagement of foreign subsidiaries in innovation-related activities directly impacts technological capabilities and indirectly influences other organizations to increase their innovation efforts ( Cantwell, 2017). More research is necessary to shed light on the importance of international franchising, including its plural form, as an orchestrator of innovation, technological, social and economic development.

Although there are studies analyzing the performance of international franchise firms ( Grewal et al., 2011; Lee et al., 2014; Wang and Altinay, 2008) and multinationals operating in advanced and developing economies ( Hansen and Gwozdz, 2015), there is more room for research to further investigate location advantages and their implications for the performance of franchise firms operating in global markets ( Lee et al., 2014) and in different business settings and industry sectors. Similarly, another fruitful research avenue would be to analyze to what extent the different forms of international franchising (master franchising, multiple unit franchising, area franchising, single-unit franchising, cross-franchising) moderate or influence firm performance, relative to management contracts or wholly-owned subsidiaries.

Increasing research on the impact of franchising in emerging economies would provide further insight into the dynamics and effects of franchising on the social and economic development in the host countries in different regions of the world. There is a need for more academic attention to complement our current knowledge about international franchising in Latin America ( Baena, 2015), Asia and other emerging markets. Future studies should emphasize different markets to expand the geographic scope of the existing franchising literature, which focuses almost exclusively on franchise companies from the USA ( Madanoglu et al., 2017; Michael, 2014). There is a lack of franchising research on emerging markets from Asia other than China and India, and countries in Latin America other than Mexico and Brazil.

A significant investigation of franchising into and from Africa is sorely needed. Social and micro-franchising are business strategies that have developed on the African continent as a form of entrepreneurship ( Alon, 2014; Christensen et al., 2010). Nevertheless, many firms are also using franchising as a means of company expansion, not only as a form of social entrepreneurship, without having a social mission at their core but mainly as profit-oriented firms. Moreover, many international companies have internationalized toward African countries because of its great market potential.

Traditionally, IF research concentrates on industry sectors that have a strong service component. Franchising is a method of distribution that can connect products to consumers in various industries and facilitate the international expansion of the firms ( Combs et al., 2004). Researchers could examine the relationship between franchisee and franchisor in industries other than the service sector ( Calderon-Monge and Pastor-Sanz, 2017; Yeung et al., 2016). New types of franchising, micro-franchising and social franchising ( Alon, 2014) are also internationalizing but might have different trajectories, as well as cause-and-effect pathologies that are worth researching.

Strategic marketing management in international franchising is an area that deserves more attention from franchising, marketing and management scholars. As Perrigot et al., 2013; Brookes (2014) and Kruesy and Zamborsy (2016) note, the brand is one of the most important elements of the franchise business format. The analysis of the marketing strategies with which international franchise brands can be strengthened, promoted and designed and the ways in which they can increase awareness of the brands, deserves further investigation. Additionally, the reputation management activities of international franchise brands across different markets is an area that can benefit from further consideration. Another of the specific areas that is ripe for research is the decision about whether to adapt or standardize in international franchising ( Baena, 2018; Jean et al., 2016; Welsh et al., 2006).

Questions related to the adaptation process over time (Jean et al., 2016; Maalouf et al., 2020) and to what areas of the firm should be standardized or adapted in international markets, in addition to other related questions, provide an important area for research. Furthermore, the study of standardization-adaptation marketing strategies and branding decisions in international franchise firms can be a potential arena for cross-disciplinary research. Given that one of the most important characteristics of franchising firms is a high degree of standardization, international marketing scholars and entrepreneurship researchers could benefit from studies in this area. Franchising is one of the substantive research domains of marketing channels. Despite the fact that franchises face particular marketing channel issues, the international franchising context can provide important avenues for studying specific marketing channel problems ( Watson et al., 2015) Furthermore, there are important cross-disciplinary research opportunities in the analysis of franchising in the context of international business, entrepreneurship, marketing, economics and strategic management.

There is a need for more longitudinal data on franchising ( Maalouf et al., 2020), originating beyond the US ( Perrigot et al., 2013). Moreover, the majority of IF studies assume the franchisor's perspective, in spite of the current availability of international franchising studies from the franchisee's perspective ( Xiao et al., 2008; Yeung et al., 2016). Further consideration should be given to the point of view of the franchisees, including their selection of international franchisors and how firm and home country factors play a role in this decision.

6. Conclusions

International franchising scholars have made significant progress in understanding franchising and its internationalization. While in international business, franchising has been studied as a mode of entry, it has also been examined in other disciplines such as management, marketing and entrepreneurship using different theoretical lenses and different variables of interest, including internationalization.

This paper contributes to the IF research by using bibliometrics to identify and examine the leading channels, key articles, leading authors and journals and the four major research streams in the field. We also created a conceptual model for IF research development that accounts for the ownership, location and internalization advantages relevant to franchise internalization. The configuration of these advantages is useful for understanding the benefits of exploiting existing assets and generating new ones in foreign markets relative to other alternates such as contractual alliances (e.g. franchising) and hierarchies (e.g. wholly-owned subsidiaries) ( Dunning, 2001). According to Dunning (2001), the OLI paradigm initially designed to explain the choice between markets and hierarchies in international production needs to be reconsidered to include emerging forms of business alliances and inter-firm cooperative relationships, a call to which this paper aims to contribute. Furthermore, we explain the general entry mode conditions for franchising and wholly-owned subsidiaries. Additionally, this study serves as a bridge between the IF and IB literature. Based on previous literature on IF, we identify the factors that influence the decision to internationalize through franchising: the firm's resources and capabilities, the host country's characteristics and the firm's international performance. We conclude by indicating the areas where international franchising research can make additional contributions.

References

(2018), "2018 Top 100 franchises report: International franchising",

(2000), "The international society of franchising proceedings: a thirteen-year review", Proceedings of the International Society of Franchising.

Further reading

Corresponding author

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A systematic review of international franchising

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A systematic review of international franchising - Author: Ilan Alon, Indri Dwi Apriliyanti, Massiel Carolina Henríquez Parodi

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The global fast food market is projected to grow from USD 972.74 billion in 2021 to USD 1,467.04 billion by 2028 at a CAGR of 6.05% during forecast period... Read More at:-  https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/fast-food-market-106482

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The global fast food market is projected to grow from USD 972.74 billion in 2021 to USD 1,467.04 billion by 2028 at a CAGR of 6.05% during forecast period... Read More at:-  https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/fast-food-market-106482

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Fast Food Market Size, Share, Trends & Growth [2021-2028]

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The global fast food market is projected to grow from USD 972.74 billion in 2021 to USD 1,467.04 billion by 2028 at a CAGR of 6.05% during forecast period

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The relationship between design and marketing in the fashion industry

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The relationship between design and marketing in the fashion industry

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The relationship between design and marketing in the fashion industry

Article Type: Guest editorial From: Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, Volume 20, Issue 3.

This special issue investigates key factors in the relationship between designers and marketers in management roles. Several previous studies have investigated the nature of the relationship between marketing and design, viewing them as existing within different cultures and modes of thinking. For example, Roberts-Lombard and Holland (2011) identified key differences in approaches to working practice, in that designers in their study were innovative and creative via design, as well as non-profit-orientated, in contrast to marketers whose creativity was more profit-orientated, driven by the requirements of target customers. Similarly, Beverland and Farrelly (2011) refer to stereotypical views of designers as "impractical idealists" concentrating on the shape of products and looking to the future, whereas marketers can be perceived as lacking imagination and focusing mainly on how products fit with consumer needs at the present time. As a result of their research, Beverland and Farrelly (2011) proposed that improved relations between marketers and designers via the deployment of "cultural intelligence" should contribute to improvements in new product development. Similarly Svengren Holm and Johansson (2005) identified differences in the mindsets of designers and marketers and identified five key factors of co-operation between the two specialisms: attitude towards the product; professional identity; attitudes towards corporate identity; relation to value creation; and approach to consumer and market research. Other researchers have proposed practical solutions to integrate design and marketing effectively, e.g. by locating these departments in close proximity and conducting cross-functional reviews (Leenders and Wierenga, 2002). However, previous research in this field has concentrated largely on product design, rather than fashion, with limited reference to design in relation to other aspects of the marketing mix, hence the requirement for a journal issue on this topic.

An emerging interest in creativity and creative organisations during the 1990s turned managers towards design and its contribution to business innovation. Design thinking offered ways to develop new concepts, methodology and practices in products, services and experiences. These were evident in complex, "wicked" problem-solving capabilities, abductive approaches and design tool-kits. Distinctive designs were seen to provide margin-enhancing solutions to commodification and cost-driven marketing mixes. Consequently the two disciplines of design and marketing closed in on similar fields of research at times integrating but also competing, notably in branding where design and marketing-led approaches offer similar contributions to management practice and academic research. Broadly, designers and marketers have the same aims to maintain or improve the performance of the organisation in which they are employed. However, their objectives towards achieving this aim can differ and lead to potential organisational dissonance. In this context the first workshops were hosted by Professor Tony Kent, Professor T.C. Melewar and Professor Charles Dennis at the University of the Arts and Brunel University. Subsequently the International Colloquium on Design, Branding and Marketing was conceived by the founders, who launched their first colloquium in 2011, with the aim of developing new insights and knowledge of points of difference and convergence.

This special issue largely derives from the second colloquium in 2014, which offered a focus for design and marketing, with a strong contribution from fashion marketing academics. These disciplines are particularly interesting to researchers in consumption, identity and branding, and in recent years, luxury, as evidenced by the current popularity of articles on luxury fashion in JFMM. Moreover the fast fashion system provides further research challenges in the complexity of its supply chains and markets, dynamics and global reach. Fashion has a fundamental relationship with design. It distinguishes the designer, the label and the brand with a consistent and recognisable identity. Branding has become an essential component of marketing, in attracting and retaining customers and brand equity is a major concern in valuing fashion businesses (Johansson and Svengren Holm, 2004), intersecting between the design and marketing functions.

The changing functions of design and marketing

The relationship between design, marketing and branding is increasingly complex in the interweaving of products, services and experiences. Design has become progressively more significant in business-to-consumer markets in recent years, with increasingly design-led products, retail environments and promotion now being the norm, in differentiating retailers from their competitors in a volatile financial climate. Meroni and Sangiorgi (2011) distinguish twenty-first century design from the previous century by its complexity and movement away from the design of simple objects. The designing process and outcomes now hinge on unpredictable factors, characterised by a social economy with a variety of actors and motivations and the dynamics of social innovation. The designing process concerns entities in the making, whose final characteristics will emerge only in the complex dynamics of the real world. In one sense, design as "embracing any innovative activity" is a generic approach, where "everyone designs who devises courses of action aimed at changing existing situations into preferred ones" according to Simon (1996, p. 236). Design therefore encompasses all creative professions that modify their environment.

Design is a crucial component of fashion businesses, since it enables consumers to select and construct their own identities and in conjunction with marketing, has a pivotal function in shaping consumption. Design thinking is now seen as an enabler helping to unlock latent creativity, developing solutions to problems and shaping the future (Cooper, 2012). A design mind-set does not worry about constraints: it always sees ways round them (Martin, 2009). In so doing, the designer has moved from a lone problem solver, engaged in the processes and outputs of design, to a facilitator and navigator of interdisciplinary teams. Marketers can benefit from design thinking when approaching creative tasks and equally, designers can gain valuable insights from marketers' consumer-orientated approach to business, largely via market research into customers and competitors.

The literature indicates that organisations have generally moved away from a production orientation towards a more market-orientated approach, where customer needs predominate and production issues have become secondary. Lusch and Vargo (2006) have taken this a step further by introducing their service-dominant logic (S-D Logic) concept, proposing that organisations of all types are primarily service-based. However, whilst S-D Logic has proven to be a popular concept in the marketing field, it could have the potential to create tension between designers and marketers, since it steers design away from its existing focus on products to one of engagement, participation and co-creation.

The location of design and marketing in the fashion industry

The designer, the fashion label and brand are influenced, albeit in varying degrees, by their location: the places where designers work, present their collections and communicate through the media (Kent, 2016). Within the organisation several key issues have emerged. First and most importantly, there is a direct link between design and marketing management in this industry; clearly design can be central to key roles in the organisation. In some cases this leads to a profoundly "hands on" approach. Second, access to the most senior levels of design management in fashion retailers is contingent upon formal design training and extensive experience (Miller and Moultrie, 2011). Within fashion companies, design and marketing functions are often located separately, depending on the scale of the company thus placing unnecessary restraints on opportunities for interaction between these two creative fields.

Outside the organisation, the place of design in fashion has become more nuanced. Fast fashion enables consumers to create their own identity and multiple identities. Its eclecticism provides access to new ideas and products, and focuses on availability and affordability. Consequently design is driven by speed and accuracy of interpretation for specific consumer markets, and originality can be defined by interpretation and personalisation. Indeed multiple media enable fashion to be disseminated so quickly and with so many interpretations that looks and styles follow fast on each: designer collection is replaced by consumer "mash up". This level of co-creation forms an important element in the papers presented in this edition.

Organisational responses to changes in consumption and consumer identity and the ascendancy of services and experiences, have, in part been realised by customisation. As Skov (2002) demonstrates, the emergence of mass customised designer labels in the 1990s would have been difficult to achieve without access to global manufacturing networks. Such changes allow fashion designers the means to respond to new ideas and creative directions, while fuelling the dynamics of fast fashion and the micromarket of the individual. The speed of change means that effective and rapid communication between designers and marketers has become increasingly significant, facilitated by the development of more sophisticated methods of interacting digitally. The rapid development of online connectivity, versatility and computing power has generally extended the opportunities for personalisation to meet customers' very specific needs at their request, thus addressing both design and marketing issues simultaneously, whilst making consumers central to the process.

Addressing sustainability in the fashion business

Consumers, brands and retailers have reacted to the prevalence of fast fashion, evident in the emergence of more sustainable ranges of clothing. After a stalled start in the 1990s, sustainability has gained more of a foothold in recent years, to the extent that it has been trialled by many mainstream retailers. This is another example of an area where the relationship between designers and marketers is important, since sustainable design requires information on the requirements of consumers that can be provided by the marketing function.

An alternative view of fashion design sees consumers as users, in which the designer takes a different, more market-orientated role. Co-design defines this collective creativity across the whole span of a design process. Broadly it refers to the creativity of designers and people not trained in design working. Slow fashion has embraced small-scale production, traditional craft techniques, local materials and markets, which challenge growth fashion's obsession with mass-production and globalised style. It emphasises making and maintaining actual material garments, and re-finding earlier experiences of fashion linked to active making rather than watching (Fletcher, 2010). The slow approach presents some alternative ways of addressing issues of fashion design and sustainability at a relatively local level by activating the potential for personal connection to garments to increase their longevity. It offers collaborations that challenge existing hierarchies of "designer", "producer", "marketer" and "consumer". The development of more sustainable fashion products facilitates collaboration between designers and marketers on common ground, where they can jointly learn about and respond to the emergence of sustainability issues.

Industry perspectives on the relationship between design and marketing

To provide a fully rounded perspective on the topic of this special issue, the two keynote speakers from ICDBM 2104 were invited to offer their views on the relationship between design and marketing, based on their own experiences in industry. Fiona Lambert, former Vice-President of George Clothing, and Brand Design Business Development Consultant Martin Knox, were asked firstly for their opinions on the advantages of collaboration between marketers and designers. Both of our speakers advocated close interaction between these two key business functions. Fiona stated:

Ultimately the end goal of a designer is to sell their product to the consumer. The close relationship and understanding between the marketer and the designer means that the designer's vision and DNA can be translated into a campaign that represents what they have created and can be put to the customer in a desirable way.

Martin also considered collaboration to be essential for designers and marketers:

Increasingly, collaborations are happening with unusual disciplines coming together to solve new problems. When people collaborate things get done, siloes are broken down and you can develop a common language and understanding of how each other's discipline works. Other advantages are solving problems and facing challenges jointly. The role of the marketer and the role of the designer are becoming increasingly nebulous; the traditional designer and marketer are dying out. People who are creative and open are able to work with people from other disciplines. Titles are anachronistic, they're meaningless now, they come from a bygone age. I'd give them a course title and have a definition of what you mean by that, its purpose, provenance and practicalities. Marketing is so nebulous a term it's so difficult for a marketer to economically justify what they do; they don't make anything and cannot possibly guarantee any particular outcome. They're working in the future so they need to be prepared to make themselves aware of everything that's going to impact their future. The product is going to take six months to a year to bring to market and things are going to change massively in that time. Marketing departments are increasingly becoming operational and reactive. I think marketing is taught as a science and it's been turned into something that's a rational, ordered process.

However, in Martin's experience in industry, designers and marketers frequently did not work together effectively and he questioned whether students were taught enough about relationships between disciplines to prepare them for the "real world", due to the relatively narrow focus of their studies:

There's a mutual disrespect and mutual lack of understanding. For collaborations to work there has to be at least mutual respect and making a bit of space for mutual understanding and identifying synergies, because often a marketer is a frustrated designer.

When asked for her views on specific problems between design and marketing, Fiona replied:

Communication and being able to paint a picture of what you want the customer to see about your design/brand and why it's important. In launching the new George Home range in 2014, I was successful in generating an understanding that the driver to purchase Home products start with design, colour co-ordination, print and textiles and the marketing plan focussed on these. The pricing was put on pack versus on shelf to generate a trust in the price and taken to a low-key black and white, smaller font together with beautiful photography creating true value. Having worked in the Supermarket sector of Clothing and Home, there is a challenging dynamic where marketing's main focus is food, where price is key, and clothing where value is key. It can lead to the wrong representation of what are the key selling points of what has been created.

To encourage designers and marketers to work together effectively in practice, Martin recommends that the two functions should be open with each other and willing to share their knowledge, showing each other the processes they go through, in order to build mutual understanding:

Marketing is about system and process, design is about ideas but there's system and process involved in creating a design and there are ideas and creativity involved in the marketing process. The two disciplines have been about stages in a process, so someone makes a product, gives it to a marketer, the marketer strategises and the designer designs the product and the packaging for it to go in. Each stage is separate, but this doesn't work anymore. The root cause is ownership, so the designers want ownership of what they do and the marketers want ownership of what they do [...] but the new economy that's emerging is about collaboration and creative commons and sustainability. The designer must consider far more than the aesthetics. It is critical for a designer to fully understand the discipline that he or she works in, that includes how to conceive as well as how to make and realise something. There's a massive shortage of technical skills in the UK and the Universities are perfectly positioned to set up centres of manufacture or prototyping. The educators have a big responsibility. It's their job to get people out into the world with the skillsets to be able to deal with the challenges that they're going to face. I'll throw open a challenge to come up with relevant and pertinent definitions of design, marketing and sustainability.

Interest in the emerging field of collaboration between design and marketing is evidenced by the issues raised in this introductory article and the growing attendance rate at ICDBM. The various topics discussed here demonstrate the scope for positive collaboration between designers and marketers in the context of the contemporary fashion industry, many elements of which were explored at the 2014 colloquium, from which an edited selection of papers features in this special issue.

Bethan Alexander and Luis Contreras's article considers the motivations of luxury fashion brands to enter into inter-industry creative collaborations, as well as the attitudes of consumers towards such collaborations and the consumer-based brand equity effects thereof. The luxury fashion sector encompasses some of the world's most influential brands and is characterised by a high level of creativity as well as powerful marketing. This study explores four types of collaboration, involving composite branding, dual branding, ingredient branding and experiential marketing. Adopting a multiple case study approach with primary data collected from industry and consumer sources, the outcome of the study is a conceptual framework connecting the motivations, elements and effects of inter-industry creative collaborations in luxury fashion. The study highlights the importance of close alignment between design and marketing functions for success in the dynamic luxury fashion sector.

Karla Straker and Cara Wrigley's article addresses the intersection between design and marketing in the context of digital channels, by exploring how consumer emotions are evoked through digital channel experiences. The study adopted a single revelatory case approach and analyses the customer experience of five Burberry digital campaigns from 2009 to 2014. The outcome of the study is a conceptualisation of the digital engagement emotion loop, based on Damasio's (1994) somatic feedback theory, outlining the process of how consumers process and respond to brand stimuli, which then informs their attitude or behaviour towards the brand. Since consumer emotions affect attitude and behaviour towards brands, appropriate design of engaging digital channel experiences is critical for forming successful brand-consumer relationships and retaining consumers.

Ana Roncha and Natascha Radclyffe-Thomas's article considers the use of social media platform Instagram in co-creating value between a fashion brand and its consumers. The study adopts a qualitative single case study approach, with data collected from industry and consumer sources, to explore TOMS 2015 marketing communication campaign #withoutshoes. Data were analysed against the five processes of sharing, co-developing, socialising, advocating and learning in Brodie et al.'s (2013) framework of online engagement. The authors conclude that design of brand-consumers interactions should incorporate specific tasks, platforms, tools and media. Leveraging the power of social media facilitates the ability of consumers to co-create value with the brand, which raises the effectiveness of the marketing communication campaign and supports relationship building.

Jennifer Millspaugh and Tony Kent's article takes a broader view of co-creation in the marketplace and considers the influence of not only consumers, but also the wider fashion system in the international development process of entrepreneurial designer fashion brands. Adopting a qualitative grounded theory approach, primary data were collected from designer fashion enterprises and the wider community of industry stakeholders. Data analysis revealed that brand identity is developed over time through the interactive process of presenting ideas, interpreting experiences and reacting to learning. Whilst brand identity may be initially born out of the aesthetic innovation of the designer's collections, the ongoing development of brand identity is guided by interactions with stakeholders in the fashion system, representing a combination of design and marketing-led forces.

Mirsini Trigoni's study explores the use of visual elements in magazines to differentiate a brand, increase brand loyalty and target different market segments. The study adopts a visual research methodology to explore the design features of three home interior magazines from 1997 to 2006, according to Rose's (2001) key components of content, colour, spatial organisation and light. Data analysis of image features suggests that design and marketing techniques are manipulated according to target market segment and can strengthen the relationship between the reader and the magazine, thus enhancing brand loyalty. Visual research methodologies may also be used to analyse fashion imagery in the context of editorial, advertising, brand websites and social media platforms.

Helen Goworek - School of Management, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK

Patsy Perry - School of Materials, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK

Anthony Kent - School of Art & Design, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK

Acknowledgements

The guest editors would like to thank the Editor-in-Chief for the Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, Steven George Hayes, for his assistance with the organisation of this special issue. They also extend their thanks to all contributors and anonymous reviewers for their valuable contributions, as well as participants at ICDBM 2014 and the ICDBM workshop in 2015, whose feedback helped to shape these papers. Further updates on ICDBM events are available on Twitter @ICDBM2017.

References

Beverland, M.B. and Farrelly, F.J. (2011), "Designers and marketers: towards a shared understanding", Design Management Review, Vol. 22 No. 3, pp. 62-70.

Brodie, R.J., Ilic, A., Juric, B. and Hooebeek, L. (2013), "Consumer engagement in a virtual brand community: an exploratory analysis", Journal of Business Research, Vol. 66 No. 1, pp. 105-114.

Cooper, R.D. (2012), "Design leadership in a vortex of change", Design Management Journal, Vol. 7 No. 4, pp. 3-5.

Damasio, A. (1994), Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain, Putnam, New York, NY.

Fletcher, K. (2010), "Slow fashion: an invitation for systems change", Fashion Practice, Vol. 2 No. 2, pp. 259-266.

Johansson, U. and Svengren Holm, L. (2004), "The relationship between the discourses of brand management and design management", working paper, Stockholm University School of Business, Stockholm, 13 May.

Kent, A.M. (2016), "Personalisation in fashion design", in Fisher, T. and Kuksa, I. (Eds), Design for Personalisation, Gower, Aldershot.

Leenders, M.A. and Wierenga, B. (2002), "The effectiveness of different mechanisms for integrating marketing and R&D", Journal of Product Innovation Management, Vol. 19 No. 4, pp. 305-317.

Lusch, R.F. and Vargo, S.L. (Eds) (2006), The Service-Dominant Logic of Marketing: Dialog, Debate and Directions, M.E. Sharpe, Armonk, NY.

Martin, R. (2009), The Design of Business, Harvard Business School Publishing, Boston, MA.

Meroni, A. and Sangiorgi, D. (2011), Design for Services, Gower, London.

Miller, K. and Moultrie, J. (2011), "Old industry, new thinking: towards a model of design management in the fashion retail industry", The Proceedings of the Cambridge Academic Design Management Conference, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, September.

Roberts-Lombard, M. and Holland, R. (2011), "Is there a case to be made for the integration of design and marketing?", First Global Design, Branding and Marketing Colloquium, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, December.

Rose, G. (2001), Visual Methodologies: An Introduction to the Interpretation of Visual Materials, Sage Publications, London.

Simon, H. (1996), The Sciences of the Artificial, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.

Skov, L. (2002), "Hong Kong fashion designers as cultural intermediaries: out of global garment production", Cultural Studies, Vol. 16 No. 4, pp. 553-569.

Svengren Holm, L. and Johansson, U. (2005), "Marketing and design: rivals or partners?", Design Management Review, Vol. 16 No. 2, pp. 36-41.

Further reading

Rose, G. (2012), Visual Methodologies: An Introduction to Researching with Visual Materials, Sage Publications, London.

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The relationship between design and marketing in the fashion industry

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The relationship between design and marketing in the fashion industry - Author: Helen Goworek, Patsy Perry, Anthony Kent

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 Cultural Adaptation and Commercialization of Traditional Foods for Global Consumption.

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 Cultural Adaptation and Commercialization of Traditional Foods for Global Consumption.

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 Vietnamese Cultural Identity in the Face of Cultural Globalization.

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 Vietnamese Cultural Identity in the Face of Cultural Globalization.

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Consumers' cultural identity under glocalization: Vietnamese consumers' global and national identities and their cross-cultural consumption

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Consumers' cultural identity under glocalization: Vietnamese consumers' global and national identities and their cross-cultural consumption

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Abstract

Purpose

This study aims to investigate the influences of two facets of Vietnamese consumers' cultural identities (i.e. global and national) on their intent to consume Korean lifestyle products and services via attitudes toward Korea. The difference between generations (Generation Z vs. X) is examined.

Design/methodology/approach

Data are collected through an online survey firm. The participants are Vietnamese consumers residing in Vietnam, varying in age from teens to those in their 50s ( n = 500). The collected data are analyzed by SPSS 21.0 for the descriptive statistics, frequency analysis, and reliability analysis. AMOS 21.0 is employed for confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis.

Findings

This study reveals that global identity affects Vietnamese consumers' attitudes toward Korea and their intent to consume Korean lifestyle products and services. Results show that only global identity affects attitudes and behavioral intention toward Korea among generation Xers, while national identity has no effect. For Generation Z (Gen Z), both global and national identities have a positive effect on attitudes toward Korea, which also increases the intent to consume Korean lifestyle products and services.

Practical implications

Measuring individuals' global and national identities will allow brands and retailers to better understand international consumers of various generations and develop global marketing strategies.

Originality/value

This study bridges gaps in the literature on globalized consumption in a non-Western context by identifying how consumers in emerging markets become involved in cross-cultural consumption.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Korea and the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF-2020S1A5A2A03042980).

Citation

Choo, H.J., Lee, H.K. and Xie, J. (2023), "Consumers' cultural identity under glocalization: Vietnamese consumers' global and national identities and their cross-cultural consumption", Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, Vol. 35 No. 5, pp. 1052-1074. https://doi.org/10.1108/APJML-10-2021-0740

Publisher
:
Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright

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Consumers' cultural identity under glocalization: Vietnamese consumers' global and national identities and their cross-cultural consumption

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Consumers' cultural identity under glocalization: Vietnamese consumers' global and national identities and their cross-cultural consumption - Author: Ho Jung Choo, Ha Kyung Lee, Jiali Xie

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What is a traditional food? Conceptual evolution from four dimensions

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What is a traditional food? Conceptual evolution from four dimensions

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The study of traditional foods is very old. In the results obtained, the oldest article dates back to 1975, considering that the search included "traditional food" in the title of the documents. In addition, it is observed that for a couple of decades, from globalization, these foods have gained interest due to the cultural, sensorial and nutritional properties that they possess, so in the academic environment diverse studies have been developed around them, likewise the development of the concept has been strengthened.

The conceptual part has been developed mainly in Europe, since 90% of the documents that contain a definition refer to countries in this region, unlike Latin American literature, where it was difficult to find a definition, although it is indisputable that interest in these foods has also been present in this region for some time.

This difference may be due to the focus that each region has on these foods. For Europe, setting up protection schemes has been a key factor in enhancing the value of these products, and in order to develop these schemes, it was essential to conceptualize "traditional food," unlike Latin America, that, although it has some protection schemes, it has not been essential to define this fact from the academic point of view, but rather from an organic or institutional point of view, or from the protection schemes mentioned above.

Another reason may be related to the linguistic aspect, since the search was developed with "traditional food," a common term for these foods in the English literature; however, it is not the only concept associated with this range of foods, and those found are widely used in the Latin region: "artisanal food," "typical food" and "regional food," which differ somewhat from the concept sought, and therefore, it is believed to be a factor that influences the conceptual development of the term. Therefore, the evolution of the concept is outlined mainly from European works; however, some important considerations from Latin American literature are rescued.

Historical conceptualization of the "traditional food"

Before getting into the subject, it is important to specify what traditional means. According to the Royal Spanish Academy Dictionary [ 12], traditional means "that which follows the ideas, norms or past customs"; and it is relative to tradition (from Latin traditio and this in turn from tradere, meaning "to transmit," "to deliver") and refers mainly to the "transmission of news, literary compositions, doctrines, rites, customs, etc., made from generation to generation." In other words, it suggests the idea of transmitting or delivering something, which can be knowledge, theory and practice, behavior, attitudes to ensure continuity between generations [ 13]. Nora [ 14] describes tradition as "a remembrance having become historically conscious of itself" [ 15]. Hervieu-Léger [ 16] referred by Quaranta and Salvia [ 13] defines tradition as "the combination of representations, concepts, theoretical and practical know-how, behavior, attitudes, etc. that a group or a society accepts to ensure the continuity between past and present." Therefore, the essence of tradition is generational transmission.

For a greater spatial-temporal location of the evolution of the concept "traditional food," the results are identified and grouped into three stages: Origin (1991-2000), development (2001-2010) and consolidation (2011-2020) (Fig. 1).

Timeline of the evolution of the concept "traditional food" in the last twenty years

Origin (1991-2000)

It is considered from the emergence of the first European legislation (Regulation 2081/92 and 2082/92 of 14 July 1992 that applies to the protection of geographical indications and designations of origin of agricultural products; and to certificates of specific character of agricultural products and foodstuffs, respectively [ 2, 17]) to the first formal definitions found on a traditional food.

Up until the year 2000, few studies addressed a definition as such, somehow the term was used, but no description of what it meant was found, even in these legislations there was no precise definition specifying what was considered traditional, which caused a lot of confusion and resulted in an inability to guarantee exclusive registration of traditional foods [ 2].

Some of the first definitions can be found in Ribeiro and Martins [ 18] referred by Zuin and Zuin [ 19]; Kuhnlein [ 20] which refer to a traditional food emphasizing the generational transmission of knowledge, as well as the use of local raw materials and the fact that these can have denominations of origin and a strong link to the territory.

The first description used in the legal field is also included at this stage. It should be said that, although regulations already existed to protect traditional foods, this is the only definition found in the European Union, and it specified what was then considered as "a traditional food". It was prepared by the Ministry of Agriculture [ 21], in Italy, and it is stated as: "Agrifood products whose methods of processing, storage and ripening are consolidated with time according to uniform and constant local use" [ 3, 7, 22, 23, 24, 25].

A sociological nuance contained in Bertozzi's definition in 1998 is distinguished at this stage: "A traditional food product is a representation of a group, it belongs to a defined space, and it is part of a culture that implies the cooperation of the individuals operating in that territory" [ 7, 22, 23, 26, 27]. The same is true of Jordana [ 27], who emphasizes that "to be traditional, a product must be linked to a territory and it must also be part of a set of traditions, which will necessarily ensure its continuity over time" [ 7, 22, 25, 28, 29]. Both definitions are widely referenced.

Basically, the initiative in this stage is developed to form a definition that unifies the formulated ideas of traditional food and that is of legal use for the protection schemes established in the European Union. The AGROCERT working group is formed and, according to Trichopoulou et al. [ 2, 3], formed a scientific committee that established the following criteria to define a traditional food as: traditional raw material, traditional formulation and traditional type of production and/or processing.

If we analyze the definitions mentioned above, from that stage the dimensions proposed by Amilien and Hegnes [ 30] are visualized: temporal, spatial, knowledge and cultural meaning. However, over time these dimensions take shape and acquire specific descriptions.

Development (2001-2010)

Legally, regulation 509/06 is established (which specifies what is considered a traditional food for the purposes of the Traditional Guaranteed Foods (TSG) protection schemes in the European Union and is applied by the European Parliament and the Council on quality systems for agricultural and food products), in this regulation it is considered: " <Traditional> means proven use in the Community Market during a period of time that shows transmission between generations; this period of time should be what is generally attributed as one human generation, at least 25 years'' [ 7, 22, 23, 24, 25, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36].

Working groups are formed in institutions and research projects such as TRUEFOOD and EuroFIR. Research in the conceptual field begins to be developed, due to the lack of a term that specifies which foods are susceptible to be included in European certifications.

The European project "TRUEFOOD" introduced a definition focused on changes over time and partnership with the place [ 30]. This project resulted in a definition of four aspects (1) Food product, mainly of local, regional, or national production. (2) Available for purchase by the public, for at least 50 years. (3) Authentic, own (4). And with a "gastronomic heritage [ 30, 38].

Within the framework of the EuroFIR project, Trichopoulou et al. [ 3] prepared one of the most relevant works at the conceptual and operational level, which establishes that the time frame that distinguishes these foods refers to the practice developed before World War II, that is, before mass production and the introduction of technological innovations that substantially altered food production processes, that period when populations still applied simple and traditional approaches [ 6, 7, 22, 23, 25, 31, 35, 36, 39]. They also develop the aspects established by AGROCERT:

Local ingredients (raw material or primary product). Raw material (species and/or varieties) or primary product, either alone or as an ingredient, that has been used in identifiable geographical areas and it is still in use (taking into account cases where it was abandoned for a while and then re-established) and its characteristics are in accordance with the current specifications of national and EU legislation.

Own composition. It is identified as unique (in terms of ingredients), was first established before World War II and was passed down from generation to generation by word of mouth or other means.

Specific type of production and/or processing. It is the production and/or processing of a food that has been transmitted from generation to generation through oral tradition or other means, always under the condition that its production and/or processing remains in line with the methods originally used and that the intrinsic characteristics of the food, such as physical, chemical, microbiological or organoleptic ones, are maintained [ 6, 7, 22, 23, 32, 35, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43].

In the same year, Padilla et al. [ 44] emphasize in her definition the naturalness of traditional foods ".... In the same way, the production of these products is characterized by the use of natural raw materials, a low level of industrialization and a low presence of chemical additives in the final product."

Gellynck and Kühne [ 45] extended the time frame of traditional foods to twice the time of regulation 509/2006, in its definition: "Traditional food products are products where (a) key production steps are performed in a given area at national, regional or local level, (b) they are authentic in their recipe (mix of ingredients), origin of raw material, and/or production process, (c) they are commercially available for approximately 50 years, and (d) they are part of the gastronomic heritage" [ 46, 47].

In 2009, the most relevant research at the conceptual level was carried out, sponsored by the TRUEFOOD project and entitled "Consumer-driven definition of traditional food products and innovation in traditional foods. A qualitative cross-cultural study" by Guerrero et al. [ 22], where for the first time the definition was established from the perspective of consumers as: "...A product frequently consumed or associated with specific celebrations and/or seasons, normally transmitted from one generation to another, made accurately in a specific way according to the gastronomic heritage, with little or no processing/manipulation, distinguished and known because of its sensory properties and associated with a certain local area, region or country," and which is, so far, one of the most referenced definitions (Fig. 2) [ 5, 7, 8, 22, 23, 24, 28, 29, 31, 38, 40, 41, 43, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52]. A validation of the definition of Guerrero et al. [ 22] can be clearly seen when considered by 20 later works.

Citation Network. Scheme that shows the interaction between authors regarding the conceptualization of "traditional food." Darker knots refer to a higher degree of input (Authors more referred by others). Larger nodes refer to a higher degree of output (Authors who have a greater number of references in their research).*Note. Some of the citations that make up the graph and that are not mentioned in the document are as follows: Cayot [ 53], Cotillon et al. [ 54], Guerrero et al. [ 55], Hidalgo-Milpa et al. [ 56], Tajkarimi et al. [ 57] and Vlontzos et al. [ 58]

The network is interpreted as those authors who have referred to others who mention the definition of traditional food. It was developed through the SNA from the 45 documents in which the definition was found. A network size of 63 nodes and 104 links was obtained. The density was calculated (2.69% SD = 0.1633), which indicates that there is not much interaction in the network, which may be due to the fact that the work carried out includes only 1 or 2 citations of what is a traditional food, so there is little interaction.

Likewise, it is observed that the centralization of the network is 14.2%, so the quotes are located in few authors such as Guerrero et al. [ 22], Trichopoulou et al. [ 3] and Council Regulation [ 33]. Other works of the most cited are as follows: Council Regulation [ 59], Jordana [ 27], Ministero Agricoltura [ 21] and Vanhonacker, Lengard, et al. [ 51]; it can be said that these authors have a greater degree of input. On the other hand, the papers that include more definitions of traditional foods (greater degree of output) are those that are shown with a larger circle: Guerrero et al. [ 22, 23], Pieniak et al. [ 7], and Verbeke et al. [ 25], and are mainly reviews or papers that conceptually address traditional foods.

This research by Guerrero [ 22] was a breaking point in the theme, since then several works have been carried out from the perspective of European consumers in various countries. Some of these are those of Almli et al. [ 60], Cacciolatti et al. [ 61], Contini et al. [ 62], Dilis et al. [ 40], Feldmann and Hamm [ 63], Guerrero et al. [ 8], Rudawska [ 64], Zecca and Rastorgueva [ 29]. In addition, the work of Vanhonacker et al. [ 51] reassure what has been proposed in the field of consumers.

At this stage, the main definitions used in the legal and scientific fields emerge. Important descriptions are established both from the operational side and developed theoretically (EuroFIR, Trichopoulpou, 2007), and from the consumer's perspective and formulated empirically (TRUEFOOD, Guerrero, 2009). The aforementioned dimensions are specified when establishing time frames (generational), spatial (local, regional, national) and knowledge of processes (practices before World War II) to differentiate traditional foods from the rest; in addition, the cultural meaning is validated by recognizing that these foods are mainly consumed on special dates and/or celebrations.

Consolidation (2011-2020)

In the legal field, the time frame is extended to thirty years with the regulation 1151/12 that replaces the 509/06, another modification of the rule is that the place has been changed from "community market" to "domestic" [ 24, 34, 40, 47, 52, 59].

For this stage, the main characteristics that correspond to the traditional food are already established. In this sense, one of the most relevant works is "The dimensions of 'traditional food' in reflexive modernity: Norway as a case study" by Amilien and Hegnes [ 30], who establish the important aspects of these foods in four dimensions: time, place, know-how and cultural meaning and to which it is expected to contribute in the following section.

It is important to mention that although there are already well-established definitions, in recent years (2015-2019), new definitions have appeared such as that of Caputo et al. [ 5], Galli [ 47], Honfoga et al. [ 65], Hossain and Rahman [ 24] and Lee [ 66] which are essentially governed by the same dimensions, but it is highlighted attributes related to diet, cooking habits, customs linked to indigenous cultures.

Likewise, the only definition found in Latin America for the case of these foods, recovered from the book " Nuestros Alimentos Tradicionales" (2015), elaborated under the project "Revaluing our traditional foods" by the Ministry of Social Development and Culture of Argentina [ 67], and which states the following:

"Traditional foods are those strongly linked to a territory, a historical depth and constellation of associated knowledge, meanings, values and practices. These foods can be indigenous or introduced from ancient times, but dynamically integrated into the local agricultural system and regional food culture; this implies accepting and understanding their variability and particularity within a given historical context and process."

So the idea of traditional food in Latin America is not far from the vision provided by Europe. However, it is important to outstand that for this region, the definitions of "artisanal food" [ 68, 69], "typical food" [ 70, 71] and "emblematic food" [ 72] are promoted more at the conceptual level, but are not detailed in depth since the aim was to specify the traditional food.

Finally, at this point, the conceptual development of the term has already been explored and to some extent established, so new questions arise around the issue. Some of these questions refer to the distinction of the now recognized "traditional foods," with another type of similar nuance, such as the typical, artisanal, local, ethnic, regional, emblematic of origin, although they share certain characteristics and in some cases are used as synonyms, there are also elements that differentiate them, and in future research, it will be interesting to clarify these aspects.

Dimensions of "traditional food"

Up to this point, the traditional food was discussed with emphasis on the concept of "traditional," but it is also important to specify what food is. According to Gross et al. [ 73], it is any substance that people eat and/or drink to maintain life and growth. Therefore, both solid products with or without processing, as well as beverages, can be considered. In this sense, three main groups of traditional foods can already be distinguished.

As it was already mentioned, it is a very broad and dynamic concept from which it is difficult to establish a definition. However, it is possible to identify characters that distinguish them and are common to them; Amilien y Hegnes [ 30] called four dimensions: place, time, know-how and cultural meaning, which are elements frequently mentioned in the definitions found, although they vary in detail, and they are discussed below.

Place

For a food to be considered traditional, it must have a defined place, whether it is local, regional or national, which is why many of them are granted designations of origin or geographical indications. The importance of this dimension can be seen in those that carry the name of some region, such as prosciutto di Parma, Champagne, Brie cheese, among others. In addition, it is for this aspect that many are also called: local, regional or origin foods.

In this physical space, the relations between territory-culture-society converge, so the complexity of this dynamic makes it difficult to delimit the place, since we are societies in movement. That is why there are usually problems in the spatial delimitation, since the food producing culture is not always organized in a geopolitical way, which sometimes makes it difficult to clearly distinguish the territorial limits.

Time

This is one of the most important aspects because alluding to the definition of tradition (transmission of something from generation to generation) it must take a long time for this process to take place. According to the literature reviewed, at least 25 years or one human generation is considered necessary for the transmission of knowledge to be considered traditional. This is certainly not a problem, since many of the foods are usually inherited from ancestral times; that is, they have been produced and transmitted from the first societies, so they are part of the emblem of these cultures.

Know-how

Theoretical and practical knowledge transmitted from generation to generation and involved in the elaboration of these foods are basic, since they define the What? (raw material to be used), How? (production techniques and processes), and Who? (person in charge of elaboration). Therefore, some of the traditional foods are also called artisanal, because their elaboration is generally manual or with little use of machinery. The problem is that in recent times, especially since food industrialization, these practices and techniques are not very well regarded, because they are considered to be unsafe due to the lack of production protocols and standards, so many of them have been slightly modified.

Cultural meaning

Another relevant aspect that gives great meaning to these foods is their ritual and symbolic character, which is intimately linked to the essence of each culture. This part is mentioned in the definition of Guerrero [ 22] as a product that is consumed or associated with specific celebrations and/or seasons. This indicates that they are consumed not only for a nutritional motive, but also that they contribute a symbolic value related to the customs, ideas and uses of the cultural complex in which they are located, so this cultural charge gives meaning to traditional food. Therefore, this aspect is a clear distinction that must be considered in the differentiation of traditional foods.

From these dimensions, traditional foods can be distinguished from the rest. It is visible to find in the literature a discussion about the degree of tradition. Amilien and Hegnes [ 30] discuss these three discourses that appeal to the way of being of traditional foods: the conservative (foods should be as they have always been), the moderator (they can be what they have been and at the same time be renewed), and the innovative (they should be a renewal of food traditions).

In the end, the innovative discourse (which is currently considered far from tradition from a conservative perspective), could be considered, in the not-too-distant future, as a reality for some of the traditional foods, generating a new traditionality. The same happens with the conservative discourse, as these processes are in a dynamic, they cannot always be as they have been, so some of the practices, techniques and materials have had to be adapted because they do not adjust to the new requirements or the materials used have even disappeared. On the other hand, the moderator's discourse covers most of the dimensions and characteristics proposed by the definitions found and is therefore considered to be the most akin to traditional food.

Finally, it is important to emphasize that it is a dynamic, living concept, which is expressed through the culture that produces it, so each of these defines it, and therefore, it cannot be universally delimited, since it would be imprecise to establish a clear and inclusive definition of all these products. However, it is practical to establish a general term for commercial or political purposes, and as it was noted in the review, it is well known that a traditional food has dimensions that have been pointed out.

Thus, traditional foods are considered to be those that have been handed down from one generation to the next in terms of knowledge, techniques or practices used in their preparation or in the choice and use of the raw material, which is generally local, as well as the culture that produces it. Likewise, they carry a symbolic significance that gives them meaning and these in turn to the culture that produces them, as they identify them with it.

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What is a traditional food? Conceptual evolution from four dimensions - Journal of Ethnic Foods

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The purpose was to specify the concept of traditional food and the dimensions that make it up, identifying: definitions, authors and research projects; as well as to determine what is known and possible topics for future research. A literature review of traditional foods was conducted that examined the conceptual development of the term.

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Planning a Vietnamese Lunch Buffet Menu for a Finnish Restaurant: Case Sulo Restaurant

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Planning a Vietnamese Lunch Buffet Menu for a Finnish Restaurant: Case Sulo Restaurant

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LOCALIZATION IN FAST FOOD INDUSTRY: A CASE STUDY ON MCDONALD'S STRATEGY IN INDIA

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LOCALIZATION IN FAST FOOD INDUSTRY: A CASE STUDY ON MCDONALD'S STRATEGY IN INDIA

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As the multinational fast food ventures are going into various markets, key partnerships between local food companies and multinational food companies undertakings have additionally expanded in the current past years. The expanding globalization practice has changed the universal focused succession in the food industry. At the point when multinational fast food ventures need to get to another market far from the local market, the ventures have the choice of choosing two fundamental strategies of marketing their products and services either to follow a similar strategy as the one applied in their domestic market or to change it to fit in with the host nation. The objective of this study is to explore the marketing strategy of multinational fast food in Indian market and the impact of adopted strategy. This study uses McDonald's case to investigate the strategy adopted by the McDonald in Indian market and the impact of that strategy on maintaining its competitive position in the market. The finding reveals that the product localization plays a crucial role in McDonalds's success in maintaining its competitive position in Indian market.

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LOCALIZATION IN FAST FOOD INDUSTRY: A CASE STUDY ON MCDONALD'S STRATEGY IN INDIA

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As the multinational fast food ventures are going into various markets, key partnerships between local food companies and multinational food companies undertakings have additionally expanded in the current past years. The expanding globalization

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Cultural adaptation pattern analysis of McDonald’s and KFC 

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Cultural adaptation pattern analysis of McDonald’s and KFC 

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Understanding traditional and modern eating: the TEP10 framework

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Understanding traditional and modern eating: the TEP10 framework

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Understanding traditional and modern eating: the TEP10 framework - BMC Public Health

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Across the world, there has been a movement from traditional to modern eating, including a movement of traditional eating patterns from their origin culture to new cultures, and the emergence of new foods and eating behaviors. This trend toward modern eating is of particular significance because traditional eating has been related to positive health outcomes and sustainability. Yet, there is no consensus on what constitutes traditional and modern eating. The present study provides a comprehensive compilation of the various facets that seem to make up traditional and modern eating. Specifically, 106 facets were mentioned in the previous literature and expert discussions, combining international and interdisciplinary perspectives. The present study provides a framework (the TEP10 framework) systematizing these 106 facets into two major dimensions, what and how people eat, and 12 subdimensions. Hence, focusing only on single facets of traditional and modern eating is an oversimplification of this complex phenomenon. Instead, the multidimensionality and interplay between different facets should be considered to gain a comprehensive understanding of the trends, consequences, and underlying factors of traditional and modern eating.

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cultural appropriation and cultural appreciation in the fast food industry

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cultural appropriation and cultural appreciation in the fast food industry

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Food Cultural Appreciation vs. Appropriation

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Food Cultural Appreciation vs. Appropriation

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Within the food industry, there is always controversy over what is considered cultural appropriation and appreciation. First, I will give fundamental definitions of the terms I will use in this article.

What is "appropriation"? How does it apply to food?

Appropriation, by definition, is the action of taking something for one's use, typically without the owner's permission. When it comes to food and we are engaging with other cultures, we should not pretend they are our own.

For example, a white woman goes to an Indian restaurant and tries a new dish that she loves- let's say it is a masala dosa. If she goes home and prepares her own masala dosa with new spices and ingredients and claims it as her own, this is clearly problematic.

Additionally, the same idea is present when it comes to preparing a dish and claiming that it is better than the original dish. In both of these scenarios, the person is appropriating the culture behind the dish itself and is being ignorant by not acknowledging that. For the most part, Westerners are actively benefiting from these experiences, but may not be respecting these cultures in the process.

What is "appreciation"? How does it apply to food?

Appreciation, by definition, is the recognition and enjoyment of the good qualities of someone or something or a complete understanding of something. Primarily, frequently appropriated foods come from countries of typically less power. Over time this has changed, and some of these countries have risen to power, but the problem is still prevalent.

In the same example as presented earlier, another white woman goes to an Indian restaurant and tries the same dosa. If she goes home and prepares her dosa and does research on the history and culture that it came from, this is appreciation.

She acknowledges that the food she tried and loved is indeed not her own. Suppose that, she posts on a blog or Instagram about this dish while referencing the culture, restaurant, and history. This is an example of how she shows her appreciation for the dish and the cultural practices that accompany it.

What is the difference?

The colonizer (the person participating in publicizing the food) is educated on the culture and history of the food enough to portray or engage with it accurately; cultural food colonialism is not morally problematic. The main difference between the two is the intent of the "colonizer." Additionally, learning about the cultures behind the food itself can make the ignorance of appropriation into appreciation. The purpose behind the gesture is what matters and differentiates between appropriation and appreciation. If the intention is to educate and learn about the culture and practices and successfully portray that to another audience- food or other practices- then it can be viewed as appreciation. On the other hand, if the intention is to one-up or be better than the original practices, then there is a moral disconnect, and it is appropriation.

The main difference between the two is the intent of the "colonizer." Additionally, learning about the cultures behind the food itself can make the ignorance of appropriation into appreciation. The purpose behind the gesture is what matters and differentiates between appropriation and appreciation. If the intention is to educate and learn about the culture and practices and successfully portray that to another audience- food or other practices- then it can be viewed as appreciation. On the other hand, if the intention is to one-up or be better than the original practices, then there is a moral disconnect, and it is appropriation.

How can I prevent the appropriation of food?

On the other hand, if the intention is to one-up or be better than the original practices, then there is a moral disconnect, and it is appropriation.

If you have made these mistakes, do not worry. As long as you educate yourself and others on the cultural practices behind the foods you are publicizing, you are not in the wrong. Next time you go to a restaurant and try food from a culture that is not your own, try to learn about it! Dive into the history of the food and how it came to be. Being open to and trying new foods is a way to educate oneself, so you can't adventure food without learning about its cultural context.

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Food Cultural Appreciation vs. Appropriation

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Cultural appropriation is prevalent within the food industry, especially as ethnic foods are becoming popularized. Many "foodies" don't know the history behind the food that they are enjoying and publicizing.

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Local versus global food consumption: the role of brand authenticity

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Local versus global food consumption: the role of brand authenticity

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Copyright

Introduction

After decades of food globalization, consumer markets have witnessed an increasing demand for locally grown and processed food and beverages over the past years. This development reflects a general consumer trend toward preferring local products over non-local alternatives as observed worldwide ( Zeugner-Roth et al., 2015). While this trend affects industries to differing degrees, its relevance is particularly pronounced in the food and beverage industries. Empirical literature not only reports a heightened relevance of local origin in consumers' purchase decisions but also higher willingness to pay (WTP) levels for local food as compared to non-local alternatives ( Feldmann and Hamm, 2015).

The literature discusses this global phenomenon of food localization from multiple angles. Approaching the phenomenon from an altruism perspective, consumers increasingly opt for local products for the benefit of society. These societal motives are typically either environmental, i.e. minimizing food's ecological footprint ( Tobler et al., 2011), or economic, i.e. supporting local producers, which is a consumer tendency well-established in the consumer ethnocentrism literature ( Shimp and Sharma, 1987). Approaching the phenomenon from a self-centric perspective, consumers consume local food products for their personal benefit. This benefit may be functional or symbolic. Functional benefits relate to the quality of food and beverages, which consumers typically perceive to be highest for local food. Irrespective of consumers' country of origin, consumers tend to judge domestic foods as healthier and as more natural than food from anywhere else ( Gineikiene et al., 2016). Symbolic benefits relate to consuming authentic food with tradition and integrity ( Ikerd, 2011).

While the above motives are all relevant and integral to the local food movement, this paper specifically focuses on the role of authenticity as a motive for consumers' local food choices. As consumers associate local brands with authenticity because of their limited size ( Holt, 2002) and their perceived linkage to place and heritage ( Özsomer, 2012), the movements toward authenticity and localism are strongly entwined. Consumer culture theory views the pronounced relevance of brand authenticity as consumers' response to decades of increased globalization, homogenization and deterritorialization of consumer goods ( Rose and Wood, 2005). Specifically, the alienation of consumers from global food production chains has resulted in a consumer longing for experiencing genuine and real food consumption ( Autio et al., 2013; Morhart et al., 2015). Authenticity perception may be evoked, among other things, by products' origin, craft production, heritage and tradition ( Napoli et al., 2013; Bryla, 2015). Empirical evidence shows consumers to value authentic brands for which they are willing to pay higher prices and to spread positive words, among other things ( Morhart et al., 2015; Newman and Dhar, 2014).

These movements toward local as well as authentic food products have strategic implications. Emphasizing regional origin in brand communication has turned into a differentiation strategy for local food and beverage companies. As an exemplary illustration, the juice brand Granny's prominently stressed the use of local apples and the non-use of any exotic ingredients in their communication campaigns. Global brands, by contrast, face a competitive disadvantage with regard to brand authenticity perceptions because of their size and global omnipresence ( Thompson and Arsel, 2004). To counteract this disadvantage, these companies increasingly integrate brand authenticity claims into their brand communication. As such, Starbucks informs consumers about its founding story on its paper cups, and Heineken stresses the brewery's adherence to the traditional recipe from 1873.

Conceptually, the worldwide availability of global brands might counteract authentic perceptions as the latter semantically relates to scarce objects ( Moulard et al., 2016). According to this view, the scarcity of objects or brands is a shaping factor of brand authenticity. Accordingly, local brands are often seen as the prototypes of authentic brands ( Özsomer, 2012). This perspective is, however, in sheer contrast to the managerial practice of creating authenticity for global brands on the one hand, and academic authenticity research using global brands as the context for researching authenticity effects ( Hartmann and Ostberg, 2013; Schallehn et al., 2014; Visconti, 2010), on the other. Indeed, these studies show consumers to respond positively to global brands portraying their brand authenticity in their brand communication. These conflicting perspectives describe the unclear role of brand globalness for the effectiveness of brand authenticity. As such, it remains an untapped question of whether global brands benefit similarly (or less) from authentic brand positioning compared to non-global brands. Further, whether incorporating brand authenticity into the global brand positioning as done by brands such as Starbucks is effective in competing with local challengers is another empirically untapped question. Given that brand authenticity might shape today's competitive landscape of global and local players competing for consumer preference, this question appears critical for both local and global brand management.

Against this background, this paper aims to contribute to the marketing literature by addressing the outlined research gaps. For this purpose, it first investigates whether the effectiveness of brand authenticity is contextualized by brand globalness. Second, the paper examines how authenticity claims in brand communication impact consumers' choice between local and global alternatives.

In a series of three experiments, the paper shows brand globalness and brand authenticity attributes to independently affect perceived brand value (WTP) for beverage brands. Further, it demonstrates the usefulness of authentic brand positioning for global beverage brands when competing with local beverage brands to overcome the liability of globalness. Consequently, local brands are recommended to build up a broader set of positive consumer perceptions in addition to brand authenticity.

The paper is structured as follows. It first discusses the concept of brand authenticity and its positive downstream effects on consumer response variables. It then develops the hypotheses by delineating the role of brand authenticity in the context of brand globalness and the direct competition of global and local brands. Based on this theoretical background, the paper subsequently presents the three experimental studies. After discussing the empirical findings, the paper highlights managerial implications as well as avenues for future research.

Conceptual background

The concept of brand authenticity

Authenticity is a concept with a long history in multiple disciplines including philosophy, anthropology and sociology ( Benjamin, 1936; MacCannell, 1973). Despite differences in conceptual definitions across disciplines, authenticity consistently relates to aspects of being historically grounded and rooted in tradition and heritage.

In the marketing literature, interest in the concept of brand authenticity arose in early 2000. Translating authenticity to the branding context, an authentic brand is in essence perceived as a brand that is real and sincere ( Gilmore and Pine, 2007) while motivated by genuine passion ( Beverland et al., 2008). This academic interest in brand authenticity developed in parallel with a contemporary focus on authenticity by companies' brand management. Companies have recognized brand authenticity as a viable attribute for differentiation. Some commentators even assume this development to be a major change in the history of marketing, commenting that "[q]uality no longer differentiates; authenticity does" ( Gilmore and Pine, 2007, p. 23).

Consumers' longing for authenticity is not a new discovery but has existed for hundreds of years ( Grayson and Martinec, 2004). Commercialization, standardized mass-manufacturing and the homogenization of products, however, have revitalized today's particular meaning of brand authenticity ( Rose and Wood, 2005). In today's global and hyper-competitive marketplace, consumers increasingly use products to reconnect to places, history, culture and one another ( Napoli et al., 2013). This revitalized meaning of authenticity can also be understood as a response to times of change and uncertainty when individuals search for something to rely on that offers them continuity ( Turner and Mannig, 1988).

Conceptually, literature agrees with brand authenticity to be a socially constructed concept ( Leigh et al., 2006). The assessment of authenticity primarily bases upon individuals' perceptions while not necessarily on the inherent properties of an object ( Rose and Wood, 2005). Hence, consumer perceptions are critical for brand authenticity. Drawing upon attribution theory ( Kelley, 1973; Moulard et al., 2016) propose three conditions under which individuals perceive human brands (i.e. artists) as authentic, namely:

the behavior is perceived as unique to that person;

the behavior is similar over time; and

the behavior is similar across different stimuli or entities.

The first aspect relates to the differentiation potential as suggested in the branding literature. The other two aspects relate to the continuity argument that is central to authenticity. Despite differences in the number and scope of dimensions (including, among others, sincerity, quality commitment or craftsmanship), the numerous attempts to conceptualize brand authenticity mainly agree on this consistency aspect ( Beverland, 2005; Napoli et al., 2014; Morhart et al., 2015).

Forms of brand authenticity

The large body of authenticity literature has followed Grayson and Martinec's (2004) distinction of indexical and iconic authenticity. Indexical authenticity bases upon the idea of identifying a real object (e.g. painting or historical site) from its copy or counterfeit. In the context of commodities, it has translated into factual or spatiotemporal connections between a brand and a point of reference such as places, historical events or recipes ( Fritz et al., 2017). Iconic authenticity relates to a more symbolic representation, which portrays an idea of how something should be. It is an aura of objects that is of experiential nature and provides a basis for self-authentication ( Kozinets, 2002).

Brand communication of brand authenticity

Branding literature has recognized the potential of brand authenticity as a positioning tool ( Beverland et al., 2008; Beverland and Farrelly, 2010). Brands portraying themselves as authentic frequently refer to indexical cues ( Guèvremont, 2018), which consumers use to deduce brand authenticity ( Dwivedi and McDonald, 2018). Beverland (2005) guides brand communication for building authentic perceptions by using dimensions such as heritage, consistency and style.

Heritage is particularly prominent in authentic brand communication linking brands to the longevity of a brand, its historical practices or its spatial places of production and craftsmanship. The longevity of a brand, frequently transported as "since [year]" in brand communication, denotes the extent to which consumers perceive the brand as having existed for a long period of time ( Moulard et al., 2016). As such, a brand's longevity may serve as an indication of the brand management's conviction and passion, which, as such, consumers perceive as indicative for a genuine and real interest in the product or service. Empirical research supports this assumption demonstrating heritage cues effectively evoke consumer perceptions of brand authenticity ( Morhart et al., 2015; Fritz et al., 2017).

Consumer response to brand authenticity

Consumers' desire for authentic products, brands and experiences, hence, arises in today's market context characterized by standardization and homogenization ( Arnould and Price, 2000). Conceptual literature proposes consumers to value brand authenticity as an intangible benefit ( Beverland, 2009) reflecting continuity from the past to the present ( Guèvremont and Grohmann, 2018). In an effort to understand the contemporary meaning of authenticity to individuals, consumer research has studied brand authenticity in multiple contexts including luxury wines ( Beverland, 2006), retro brands ( Leigh et al., 2006), fast moving consumer goods ( Dwivedi and McDonald, 2018), green products ( Ewing et al., 2012), restaurants ( Phung et al., 2019; Moulard et al., 2016), tourism sites ( Grayson and Martinec, 2004), reality shows ( Rose and Wood, 2005), human brands ( Moulard et al., 2015), etc.

With regard to positive downstream effects of perceived brand authenticity, empirical literature provides evidence for positive consumer response on a set of relevant psychological, as well as behavioral variables. Sorting these findings according to the hierarchy of effects ( Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980), first, studies show a positive effect of brand authenticity on brand attitude ( Ewing et al., 2012; Spiggle et al., 2018). Second, perceived brand authenticity raises quality expectations ( Moulard et al., 2016). Third, brand authenticity increases purchase intentions (Napoli et al., 2014; Fritz et al., 2017), choice likelihood and positive word of mouth ( Morhart et al., 2015). Finally, brand authenticity increases consumers' WTP a price premium ( Fritz et al., 2017; Guèvremont and Grohmann, 2018), which is in line with the above perspective on brand authenticity to represent an intangible brand value. A number of studies further document the positive relationship of brand authenticity to consumers' brand trust ( Eggers et al., 2013; Portal, Abratt and Bendixen, 2018), as well as brand attachment ( Morhart et al., 2015).

As empirical literature on brand authenticity has grown over the past years, it has moved from examining direct consequences of consumer authenticity to investigating a more nuanced picture on moderating and mediating effects related to brand authenticity. For example, Guèvremont and Grohmann (2018) reveal a mitigating effect of brand authenticity on consumer response to brand scandals, while Portal et al. (2018) show brand warmth and brand competence to mediate effects from brand authenticity to brand trust.

Research gap

Overall, conceptual as well as empirical literature on brand authenticity has steadily grown in the marketing literature over the past decade. It is well documented that consumers value brand authenticity so that the latter is a valuable source of differentiation for brands. However, literature has not yet tapped two critical aspects.

First, the role of brand globalness versus brand localness appears relevant in the effectiveness of brand authentication. As will be elaborated in the following, scarcity is one shaping factor of brand authenticity, which corresponds more to local than global brands. Still, many global brands make considerable efforts in authenticating themselves to counteract perceptions of soullessness caused by their global presence, which shows to be successful in many cases. Against this background, this paper will investigate whether the effectiveness of brand authenticity is contextualized by brand globalness.

Second, despite the frequent argument of brand authenticity to represent a tool for differentiating brands in the marketplace, the context of local versus global brand nature has not yet been addressed by this stream of literature. Given that local brands are inherently linked to a place and limited in reach, they may be seen to represent prototypes of authentic brands, which might assist them in competing with global brands. To better understand the role of brand authenticity in the competition of local and global brands, the paper will examine how brand authenticity impacts consumers' choice between global and local market offers.

Hypotheses development

Consumer response to global brand authenticity

The opening examples of Starbucks and Heineken referring to their brand heritage in their brand communication are two of many. In light of the contemporary relevance of brand authenticity to consumers, many global brands currently engage in authentic brand communication. The global authentic 100 ranking by Cohn and Wolfe, in which consumers rank 1,400 brands based on their authenticity ( www.authentic100.com/), is one measure that demonstrates the concept's managerial importance. Judging upon its conceptual roots, however, authenticity may be perceived as being associated with scarcity ( Holt, 2002). Moulard et al. (2016, p. 425) conceptualize scarcity, which is "the extent to which consumers perceive that the brand's goods or service outlets are not widely available or accessible", as a main prerequisite of authenticity perceptions. According to their argument, brand scarcity gives consumers the impression that the brand is not solely focused on aggressive growth but instead takes pride in and is committed to its craft. Consequently, one may view growth strategies and strong market presence to dilute brand authenticity ( Thompson and Arsel, 2004; Özsomer, 2012).

This perspective is, however, in sheer contrast to the managerial relevance of authentic global brands on the one hand, and academic authenticity research using global brands as the context for researching authenticity effects ( Visconti, 2010; Schallehn et al., 2014), on the other. Judging upon the fact that consumers are willing to construct authentic meaning around global brands with worldwide and highly standardized presence, it seems that the scarcity argument may not be crucial in the development and effectiveness of brand authenticity.

To shed more light on these inconsistent perspectives, it appears relevant to empirically pinpoint the effect of perceived brand globalness on brand authenticity effects. For this purpose, we test the model shown in Figure 1. In line with the reviewed literature, we expect indexical cues of brand heritage to increase perceptions of brand authenticity ( Fritz et al., 2017) for both global and non-global brands. We further expect to replicate a positive relationship from brand authenticity perceptions to WTP ( Fritz et al., 2017; Guèvremont and Grohmann, 2018). The focal relationship is the potential moderating effect of perceived brand globalness for the positive relationship of brand authenticity perceptions to WTP, which depicts consumers' value perceptions. Based upon the scarcity argument, portraying brands as both authentic and global might dampen the effectiveness of the authenticity claim. To test whether this moderation exists, we formally hypothesize:

H1.

Brand globalness moderates the positive relationship of brand authenticity to consumers' WTP, so that the relationship is weaker for global brands compared to non-global brands.

Brand authenticity in the competition of global and local food brands

Local brands are brands that consumers perceive to be "only available in a specific geographical region" ( Dimofte et al., 2008, p. 118). Because of their close linkage to place and heritage ( Özsomer, 2012), consumers perceive local brands as highly authentic. Local brands often represent local icons, characterized by uniqueness, originality and local culture ( Özsomer, 2012). In a similar vein, cultural proximity ( Fritz et al., 2017) and psychological proximity ( Guèvremont, 2018) are proposed to be relevant drivers of perceived brand authenticity. Such attributions may become particularly salient in a comparative context between global and local brands. At a strategic level, local brands use this mental association of small size and authenticity and compete with global players on the basis of emphasizing a brand image related to craft production, heritage and tradition ( Napoli et al., 2013).

Global brands, for numerous decades, tended to purse a global culture positioning ( Alden et al., 1999) because globalness evokes favorable consumer associations of modernity, innovation and success ( Steenkamp et al., 2003). In the current competitive climate, however, global brands engaging in a global positioning strategy stressing their worldwide success might nourish their competitive disadvantage of inauthenticity. Therefore, alternative strategies are warranted to challenge the local food movement in consumer markets.

One established strategy of brands to overcome resistance toward globalness and attract more consumer groups is the strategy of glocalization ( Robertson, 1995). At the cost of global standardization, brands aim to combine positive associations with both globalness and localness by adapting to local tastes, engaging in local communities and sourcing locally ( Rigby and Vishwanath, 2006). These so-called glocal brands attempt to become meaningful to consumers by taking part in their cultural life and gapping distance with proximity. Ultimately, glocal brands attempt to compete with local brands on the latter's inherent attribute of being local.

Brand authentication might represent an alternative strategy for global food brands to compete against local food brands, which enjoy competitive advantages in terms of high levels of perceived authenticity. Pursuing this strategy, global brands may safeguard favorable associations of brand globalness such as innovativeness ( Steenkamp et al., 2003) while highlighting the brand's relationship to time, heritage or place to nourish consumers' demand for genuine. Whether such as strategy, which we label as glothentic ( global and au thentic), is effective in attracting consumers in localizing markets is empirically not yet tested.

In light of the above, the paper investigates the effectiveness of brand authenticity claims of global and local brands in a competitive context. In particular, the paper hypothesizes that:

H2.

Brand authenticity positioning affects consumer choice between local and global brands.

Empirical studies

A series of three experimental studies empirically investigates H1 and H2. In detail, Studies 1 and 2 focus on H1 using apple juice as the focal product category. This category represents a conservative research context because of its traditional local meaning. Study 3 uses packaged coffee drinks as a focal category, which is deliberately different from apple juice because of its inherently global supply chains. This category thus allows examining H2 while extending empirical evidence on H1.

Study 1

Study 1 aimed at testing the moderating effect of brand globalness on consumer response ( H1) devising a 2 (low/high authentic) × 2 (low/high globalness) between-subjects design. We recruited a sample of 220 students (62 per cent female, average age 22.6 (SD = 3.1) years) at an Austrian university in a lab study.

Stimuli. We chose packaging as a useful experimental stimulus because of its relevance to brand communication and consumers' assessment of brand authenticity ( Beverland, 2005). For this purpose, we manipulated bottle labels for apple juice. To rule out potential brand-related confounds referring to brand knowledge and authentic positioning ( Morhart et al., 2015), we used a fictitious brand, which ensured the use of extrinsic product cues for affective and evaluative judgments ( Magnusson et al., 2011). The label included product information such as ingredients, nutrient content and quantity. For the high-authentic treatments, we added indexical cues of time and heritage ("tradition and quality since 1789" and "traditional processing") in line with Morhart et al. (2015). To manipulate perceived brand globalness, we added a verbal cue for global availability ("popular in more than 100 countries"), an international trademark sign and an international website address to the high-globalness conditions. The labels were pre-tested using 40 consumers.

Procedure. Respondents were randomly assigned to one of the four treatments. Based on the juice label, respondents indicated their WTP ( How much would you be willing to pay for this 1 l bottle of juice?). After WTP, we measured respondents' product category involvement ( Zaichkowsky, 1985), price sensitivity (based on Wakefield and Inman, 2003) and situational need ( Wertenbroch and Skiera, 2002) as control variables. Finally, we assessed perceived brand authenticity (based on Morhart et al., 2015), perceived brand globalness ( Steenkamp et al., 2003) and relevant demographic variables (gender, age, nationality and income). All scales (listed in the Appendix) were measured on seven-points and reached Cronbach's alpha values above 0.7.

Manipulation checks. Table I shows that perceived authenticity was higher in those conditions with authentic labels than in the other conditions ( t(220) = −5.28, p < 0.01). Similarly, perceived globalness was higher for those bottle labels which included global aspects than for those which did not ( t(220) = −6.57, p < 0.01). The manipulation was thus successful.

Results. In the global juice conditions, the authenticity cues significantly increased authenticity perceptions ( t(110) = −3.09, p < 0.01), which supports the compatibility of authenticity and globalness cues from a consumer perspective. On average, consumers were willing to pay a premium of 22 per cent for brand authenticity. The high authentic/low globalness condition yielded the highest WTP levels, whereas the low authentic/low globalness condition yielded the lowest levels ( Figure 2).

With regard to H1, an ANOVA based upon a log transformation of WTP showed a positive and significant main effect of brand authenticity on WTP for juice ( F(1, 1.53) = 8.35, p < 0.01), a non-significant main effect of brand globalness ( F(1, 0.02) = 0.65, p > 0.10), and a non-significant interaction term of globalness and authenticity ( F(1, 0.13) = 0.73, p > 0.05). The inclusion of control variables did not change these results. Against the reasoning of globalness and authenticity to interact, this finding hints to a value-adding main effect of brand authenticity independent of a food brand's perceived globalness.

Study 2

Study 2 aimed at validating findings from Study 1 while increasing external validity by using an incentive competitive WTP measurement [Becker-DeGroot-Marschak (BDM) lottery] and collecting data from a consumer sample. We recruited 184 consumers in a street collection (response rate: 5.72 per cent). Of these, 182 consumers (52.2 per cent female, average age 34.3 [SD = 11.4]) completed the study. As in Study 1, we devised a 2 (low/high authentic) × 2 (low/high globalness) between-subjects design. For the manipulation, we used the same bottle labels as in Study 1 and attached them to one-liter apple juice bottles. The most important change to Study 1 concerned the WTP measurement using a BDM lottery. All remaining scales were identical to those used in Study 1.

BDM lottery. The BDM lottery ( Becker et al., 1964) is a non-hypothetical and incentive compatible method. In brief, each respondent is asked to submit a bid (i.e. state the maximum price at which (s)he would be willing to purchase the product). After the bid, a sale price is randomly drawn from an urn, which contains unit prices following real market price distributions ( Wertenbroch and Skiera, 2002). Importantly, the price range in the urn is not revealed to participants to avoid anchoring effects ( Bohm et al., 1997). In case of a bid higher than or equal to the drawn price, the respondent is obliged to purchase the product at the drawn price. Alternatively, in case of a bid lower than drawn price, the participant is not allowed to purchase. BDM is acknowledged for producing more accurate WTP estimates than many other methods, and thus increasing external validity ( Miller et al., 2012).

After ensuring that respondents correctly understood the BDM mechanism, we exposed respondents to a randomly selected one-liter juice bottle. Respondents subsequently indicated their WTP (in EUR), drew a price from the urn and were - depending on the outcome of the BDM - obliged or denied to purchase the bottle for the drawn price. The price range in the urn was based on retail prices for juice (€0.99-3.29). Importantly, participants were not endowed but paid from their own money. Subsequently, respondents completed the same questionnaire as in Study 1.

Manipulation checks. As for Study 1, the high-authentic labels scored significantly higher on perceived authenticity ( t(180) = −5.57, p < 0.01) than the low-authentic labels, while the high-globalness labels scored significantly higher on perceived brand globalness ( t(180) = −4.44, p < 0.01) than the low-globalness labels ( Table I). The manipulation was thus successful.

Results. As in Study 1, consumers were willing to pay the highest prices for the juice in the high authentic/low globalness condition, whereas the low authentic/low globalness condition yielded the lowest level ( Figure 3). Overall, the WTP across conditions was higher in Study 2 than in Study 1 despite using a non-hypothetical measurement in Study 2. This difference is potentially explained by the lower income of the student sample in Study 1.

An ANOVA showed a positive and significant main effect of brand authenticity on WTP for juice ( F(1, 1.53) = 8.35, p < 0.01), whereas the main effect of brand globalness ( F(1, 0.01) = 0.06, p > 0.10) and their interaction term ( F(1, 0.13) = 7.32, p > 0.10) were both again non-significant. Including control variables did not change these results. Again, the moderating effect of brand globalness postulated in H1 was empirically not supported.

Discussion. In line with extant literature, Studies 1 and 2 showed brand authenticity to increase WTP for the juice brand. The hypothesized moderating effect in H1 was not supported suggesting that authenticity affects WTP independent of perceived brand globalness. Hence, against the scarcity argument ( Holt, 2002; Thompson and Arsel, 2004), findings propose global brands benefit from authentic claims in their brand communication to a similar extent as non-global brands do. In this light, strategies of authenticating global brands appear sensitive to raise perceived consumer value.

The above findings, however, were yielded in an isolated context, i.e. in the absence of a local alternative. To dig deeper into the usefulness of brand authenticity as a strategy to compete with local brands, Study 3 includes both a global and a local beverage brand in a choice set.

Study 3

The aim of Study 3 was two-fold. First, it aimed to further validate findings on H1 by changing the product category. Coffee is one of the most popular beverages worldwide with a steady increase in per capita consumption in most countries ( Samoggia and Riedel, 2018). Second, it aimed to examine H2, which related to the role of brand authenticity in a competitive context between local and global brands. For this purpose, we devised a 2 (local/global coffee brand) × 2 (low/high authentic brand story) mixed experimental design. In an online study, we recruited 198 consumers (51 per cent female, average age 25.1 [SD = 3.23]).

Stimuli. For the stimuli, we selected real brands to account for two shortcomings of using fictitious brands in the previous two studies, i.e. low brand familiarity, which represents an unrealistic assumption for many established food brands; and the manipulation of brand globalness based on worldwide availability only. Although the latter is a common and useful manipulation, consumers might have broader associations with global brands than only availability ( Steenkamp et al., 2003).

For the global coffee brand, we selected Starbucks, which was repeatedly used as a brand sparking the global vs local discourse ( Thompson and Arsel, 2004). For the local competitor, we selected an established and well-known brand in Austria (NOEM). Both brands were pre-tested with regard to brand familiarity and perceived globalness. We changed the manipulation of brand authenticity from packaging cues to brand narrative (vignettes) to further validate results ( Beverland, 2009).

Procedure. We randomly assigned participants to conditions. After assessing brand familiarities for both brands, we exposed respondents to two brand narratives, i.e. one (low or high authentic) for the local brand and one (low or high authentic) for the global brand. The sequence of global and local brands was counterbalanced to avoid order effects. We then measured brand choice holding price constant ( Assuming that both products had the same price, which one would you choose?) and self-reported WTP ( How much are you willing to pay for this product?). For the control variables, we measured category involvement ( Zaichkowsky, 1985), consumer ethnocentrism (based on Verlegh, 2007) to control for potential home bias confounds in favor of the local brand, as well as consumer animosity toward the USA (based on Riefler and Diamantopoulos, 2007) to exclude alternative explanations of country-specific resentments. Finally, we assessed perceived brand globalness and brand authenticity using the same measures as in Study 1. All scales reached Cronbach's alpha values above 0.7.

Manipulation checks. For the local brand, the high-authentic vignette (M = 4.57, SD = 1.39) scored higher on authenticity than the low-authentic vignette (M = 3.90, SD = 1.36; t(196) = 3.43, p < 0.01). Similarly, for the global coffee brand, the high-authentic vignette (M = 3.96, SD = 1.74) scored higher on authenticity than the low-authentic vignette (M = 3.03, SD = 0.92; t(196) = 4.56, p < 0.01). In the low-authentic treatments, the local coffee brand was perceived significantly more authentic than the global coffee brand ( t(194) = 5.22, p < 0.01), which is line with extant literature of associations between localness and authenticity ( Özsomer, 2012).

Results. With regard to H1, an ANOVA showed a positive and significant main effect of brand authenticity on WTP for the coffee drink ( F(1) = 6.74, p < 0.01), whereas the main effect of brand globalness ( F(1) = 0.65, p > 0.10) and their interaction term ( F(1) = 0.80, p > 0.10) were both again non-significant. For the control variables, we found brand familiarity ( F(1) = 8.79, p < 0.01) and consumer ethnocentrism ( F(1) = 0.02, p < 0.01) to significantly impact WTP.

With regard to H2, Table II shows choice patterns for the local and global coffee brands across conditions. In Condition 1, slightly more consumers opted for the local brand than the global brand. Comparing it with Condition 2, the authentic communication strategy of the local food brand did not affect choice patterns. Comparing Conditions 3 and 4, by contrast, the implementation of authentic cues into the global brand story resulted in a significant shift of consumer preference from the local to the global coffee brand ( χ ²(3) = 16.6, p < 0.01; effect size phi = 0.29).

A binary logistic regression ( Table III) on brand choice (0 = local and 1 = global) including the authenticity of the global food brand narrative (0/1) and the authenticity of the local food brand narrative (0/1) as independent variables, and brand familiarities of both brands as covariates, revealed a significant effect of the authentic global brand narrative ( exp (B) = 4.16; 95 per cent CI: −2.17 to −0.83). The implementation of authentic elements in the global brand narrative thus increased likelihood of choosing the global coffee brand, which supports H2. The authenticity of the local brand narrative, in contrast, did not significantly impact brand choice.

Discussion. Findings from Study 3 support the assumption of the underlying role of perceived brand authenticity for consumer choice between local and global beverage brands. Increasing the perceived authenticity of the global brand induced a preference shift toward the global coffee brand. The deliberate use of authentic brand cues in the local brand communication did not affect choice patterns, which suggests a ceiling effect of brand authenticity. Taken together, Study 3 empirically supports our argument that global brands can benefit from inducing brand authenticity perceptions in a competitive context to counteract local competition.

Overall discussion and implications

In a series of three experiments, the paper shows global beverage brands benefit from highlighting brand authenticity in its communication. Independent of brand globalness, brand authenticity positively affected perceived value. In a direct choice experiment, we further demonstrate that the use of both global and authentic attributes increased consumer preferences in favor of the global beverage brand.

Relating these findings to the paper's first research question, i.e. whether brand globalness affects the relationship of brand authenticity to positive consumer response, the conceptual and qualitative literature proposed divergent perspectives on the compatibility of global mass production and brand authenticity ( Moulard et al., 2016). The scarcity perspective suggests that global brands may not be authentic as they are not rare but omnipresent. From a consumer lens, the empirical findings show that global brands can effectively leverage authenticity perceptions to value creation. This insight suggests global availability does not counteract authenticity-evoked value perceptions in a branding context. These results support managerial practice to use authentic elements in global brand communication to fuel favorable brand perceptions and consumer behavior.

With regard to the paper's second objective, i.e. examining the role of brand authenticity in the competition of local and global brands, the empirical findings support the idea that brand authenticity plays a pivotal role. Extant conceptual and qualitative literature ( Holt, 2002; Thompson and Arsel, 2004) painted a picture of global brands, being perceived as alienated because of size, as facing a disadvantageous competitive situation compared to revitalized, authentic local competition. Adding to the extant literature, our findings give a fresh perspective on this role of brand authenticity. Against common assumptions, the paper provides first empirical evidence for the potential usefulness of strategically using brand authenticity for global brands to compete in local consumer markets. Portraying the global brand as one with heritage and pedigree, thereby raising perceived brand authenticity, the global brand gained in relative consumer preference. In this vein, an authentication strategy may positively influence consumer decisions guided by brand authenticity considerations.

For local brands, contrarily, these findings suggest the local movement may be counteracted from non-local companies on the grounds of iconic brand authenticity. In other words, global competitors cannot only evoke brand authenticity perceptions among consumers, but they may also strategically use them to address local competition. Consequently, this finding suggests for local brands brand authenticity alone might not suffice to compete with global players. Strategically, local companies should benefit from the current favorable consumer climate by building up brand images beyond localness and authenticity. Such brand development might simultaneously ensure differentiation from other local companies as consumer markets recently observe a multiplication of small and local food and beverage initiatives intensifying also competition among local companies. Consequently, the potential for differentiation based upon attributes of localness and authenticity is likely to diminish over time.

Conclusion and directions for future research

For decades, food and beverages from all over the world echoed consumers' desire for the exotic and the new. In the past years, however, consumer preferences have experienced a reversal in favor of local products over global brands. While local brands might fulfill a variety of criteria decisive to contemporary consumers - such as supporting the local economy or reducing the ecological footprint - this paper approached this phenomenon from the angle of consumers' revitalized taste for brand authenticity ( Grayson and Martinec, 2004; Rose and Wood, 2005).

Integrating literature streams of brand authenticity and global branding, this paper adds to the marketing literature by empirically investigating two relevant aspects of brand authenticity in the context of local and global competition. First, against the argument of scarcity being incremental to authenticity perceptions, the paper shows brand globalness to not mitigate the effectiveness of brand authenticity on positive consumer response. This finding supports the notion that global brands may sustain authenticity perceptions by maintaining original designs, features or traditional manufacturing procedures despite high levels of standardization and commodification ( Cohen, 1988). This finding also provides empirical evidence for related conceptual claims on the necessity of brand authenticity for global brand credibility ( Özsomer and Altaras, 2008).

Second, the paper experimentally shows that brand authenticity impacts consumer choice of global versus local brands. Against extant assumptions, it provides empirical evidence that brand communication inducing consumer authenticity perceptions might be effective in guiding brand preference for global rather than local brands. In our study the local brand, being naturally perceived as authentic by consumers, was not successful in attracting more consumers by stressing its authenticity in its market communication. By contrast, the global brand addressing this competitive advantage of the local brand attracted more consumers by adding brand authenticity to its brand communication. For local brand management, this finding proposes a necessity to expand local brand image beyond localness and authenticity in globalized markets.

While this paper addresses the effectiveness of brand authenticity from multiple angles, it also builds a starting point for future research. First, the paper's focus on indexical authenticity cues in brand communication does not account for the constructivist perspective of authenticity. The latter perspective approaches authenticity as a self-authenticating act by consumers who appropriate personal meanings to brands or co-create authentic meaning ( Grayson and Martinec, 2004). Although indexical and iconic authenticity are seen to be interrelated ( Morhart et al., 2015), experimental research on the effect of such iconic elements on consumer response variables represents a fruitful direction for further research.

Second, Study 3 showed a preference shift for the global brand induced by a authentication strategy. Because of the study design, these findings are agnostic on whether non-users can be attracted by this strategy, which is a managerial question that should be tapped in future studies. Relatedly, the literature on preference reversals ( Hsee, 1996) documents that consumer preferences may differ between joint and separate evaluations of two options. In the context of Study 3, future research might investigate whether such reversals are observable between local authentic and global authentic brands when presented separately versus jointly.

Finally, the studies were conducted in a highly developed market. In emerging markets, where global brands symbolize prestige ( Alden et al., 2013), positioning these brands on brand authenticity might differ in its effectiveness. Further studies investigating boundary conditions on the effectiveness of authentication including market and consumer characteristics should be conducted to gain a better understanding of its usefulness in different markets and consumer segments.

Self-reported WTP (Study 1)

BDM-elicited WTP (Study 2)

Appendix. Measurement items

1. Situational need (based on Wertenbroch and Skiera, 2002):

I am not at all thirsty right now/I am very thirsty right now.

2. Brand familiarity:

I am not at all familiar with this brand/I am highly familiar with this brand.

3. Price sensitivity (based on Wakefield and Inman, 2003):

I always buy the fruit juice with the lowest price, even when it is not the brand I actually wanted to buy.

4. Product category involvement ( Zaichkowsky, 1985):

I am interested in [product category]/I am not interested in [product category].

5. Perceived brand globalness (based on Steenkamp et al., 2003):

The brand is sold only in [country]/The brand is sold globally.

This is a global brand/local brand.

6. Perceived brand authenticity (adapted from Morhart et al., 2015):

The brand builds on long-held traditions.

The brand is proud of its heritage.

Tradition is safeguarded in the manufacture of this brand.

The brand is built upon a history.

7. Consumer Ethnocentrism (based on Verlegh, 2007):

[Country] people should not buy foreign products because this hurts [Country] business and causes unemployment.

It is not right to purchase foreign products because this puts [Country] people out of jobs.

A real [Country] should always buy [Country] products.

I always prefer [Country] products over foreign products.

We should purchase products manufactured in [Country], instead of letting other countries get rich off us.

All scales used seven-point (semantic or Likert) answer scales with 1 = strongly disagree and 7 = strongly agree.

The authors thanks Dijana Suljkanovic and Johannes Zwinger for their assistance in the emprical studies.

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Local versus global food consumption: the role of brand authenticity | Emerald Insight

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Local versus global food consumption: the role of brand authenticity - Author: Petra Riefler

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GLOCALIZATION IN FOOD BUSINESS: STRATEGIES OF ADAPTATION TO LOCAL NEEDS AND DEMANDS

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GLOCALIZATION IN FOOD BUSINESS: STRATEGIES OF ADAPTATION TO LOCAL NEEDS AND DEMANDS

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The Five Best Examples of Localisation: What Do Big Brands Do?

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The Five Best Examples of Localisation: What Do Big Brands Do?

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The Five Best Examples of Localisation: What Do Big Brands Do?

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Do you know what localisation is? How do you localise your brand? Let's take a look at 5 international brands who did a great job localising.

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Should You Localize Your Product for the Chinese Market?

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Should You Localize Your Product for the Chinese Market?

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While there are a number of factors that determine whether a company will be successful when attempting to enter a new market, the product itself is a key component. Especially when it comes to the Chinese market, many multinational companies have invested heavily in localizing their product offerings to align more closely with customers' expectations. However, new research based on a series of over 100 interviews with executives and managers suggests that localization isn't always effective - and in some cases, it can seriously backfire. Why is this? Many brands' main selling point in the Chinese market is their sense of foreignness, and so product strategies in which foreign elements are replaced with more familiar features often end up eliminating the very thing that customers appreciated about the product. Furthermore, while a localization strategy can be effective in some cases, it's critical to carefully consider which components of the business will benefit most from localization - whether that's a specific product feature, a customer service policy, or even a sales structure - and which would be more marketable and/or cost-effective to leave as a global standard.

As China's consumer base grows larger and more enticing to international brands, many global companies have begun investing heavily in localizing their products to meet the needs of the Chinese market. KFCs in China sell soy milk, fried dough sticks, and congee; Volkswagen launched a whole series of new models designed specifically for China; Starbucks added several types of teas to their menu to better serve Chinese customers, many of whom don't drink coffee. This strategy is understandable, and often effective - but in some cases, it can seriously backfire.

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Should You Localize Your Product for the Chinese Market?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
While there are a number of factors that determine whether a company will be successful when attempting to enter a new market, the product itself is a key component. Especially when it comes to the Chinese market, many multinational companies have invested heavily in localizing their product offerings to align more closely with customers' expectations.

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Concepts: The concept of "commercializing traditional food for mass consumption" involves taking traditional food item and adapting them for widespread consumption. But in context of commercializing Vietnamese food.

keywords:
-Traditional Vietnamese Food
-Martekting strategy
-Brand story
-Localization
-Globalization
-Branding Visual

Diffusion of Innovations Theory: This theory explores how new ideas or products, such as traditional food, are adopted and spread through society.

Cultural Appropriation: Examining the issues and implications when traditional foods from one culture are adopted and commercialized by another culture.

Gaps:o what extent do we embrace alterations of traditional dishes to cater to global palates?

Disagreements: Culinary fusion and cross-cultural exchange in the context of fast food are not considered cultural appropriation because they promote understanding, collaboration, and the blending of culinary traditions, fostering appreciation rather than appropriation.