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Geologically, abundant local materials such as limestone, sandstone and granite shaped the sturdy constructions.

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Greek architecture profoundly influenced European civilization, evolving through three key periods.

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Early Period (2700-700 BC): Minoan and Mycenaean architecture featured rough and massive structures, with notable sites like Knossos and Mycenae, including the Lion Gate and Treasury of Atreus.

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Hellenic Period (800-323 BC): This era saw the development of column-trabeate systems and city-states like Athens and Sparta, marked by religious structures such as temples. Alexander the Great's conquests expanded Greek cultural influence.

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Hellenistic Period (323-30 BC): Characterized by secular architecture focused on civic buildings, this period inspired Roman architectural styles.

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Ancient Greek architecture, flourishing from around 900 BC to the 1st century, was heavily influenced by geographical, geological, climate, religious, and social factors.

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The Greek civilization's expansion along the Mediterranean facilitated trade and cultural exchange. The rugged, rocky terrain and abundant marble resources significantly shaped their building methods, with techniques to refine marble surfaces for aesthetic precision.

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The Mediterranean climate, with its pleasant sun and occasional rains, encouraged open-air structures such as theaters and colonnades.

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Greek religion, focused on nature worship, involved local deities and public ceremonies, influencing temple designs.

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The Akkadians, led by Sargon the Great around 2350 B.C., unified Mesopotamia by conquering the Sumerians and established a new royal authority centered on loyalty to the king rather than city-state deities.

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1. The town featured courtyard houses and either organic or grid layouts.

2. The acropolis, a sacred high point, housed temples and artifacts.

3. The agora, a central gathering place, was the hub for social, commercial, and political activities, surrounded by colonnades and public buildings. Stoas, covered walkways with shops, bordered the agora.

4. Temples, the main architectural type, housed deity statues and featured colonnades.

5. Greek theaters, built into hillsides with exceptional acoustics, consisted of the cavea, orchestra, and skene. The Theater of Epidaurus is a notable example.

6. The bouleuterion was a council house for citizen assemblies in democratic city-states. This integrated approach balanced religious, social, and civic functions in urban design.

7.Houses,Palaces

8.Tombs.

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Egyptian dynastic architecture evolved significantly over time, spanning from the Early Dynastic Period through the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms. Pharaoh Menes (Narmer) unified Upper and Lower Egypt, establishing Memphis as the capital around 3000 B.C.

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During the Old Kingdom (2649–2150 BC), characterized by massive stone constructions, mastabas evolved into pyramids, culminating in the iconic pyramids of Giza. Memphis served as the capital, and innovations like square columns and step pyramids, exemplified by Djoser's step pyramid at Saqqara, emerged.

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The Middle Kingdom (2030–1640 BC) saw the rise of Thebes as the capital. Architecturally, this period featured the construction of the great temple of Ammon at Karnak and witnessed the development of more complex and elaborate tombs and temples. Columns evolved into various forms inspired by plants, such as papyrus and lotus columns, and the use of stone columns became prevalent.

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Socially, the absolute power of the pharaohs enabled massive structures with vast labor forces that often included slaves.

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After Hammurabi's death, the Assyrians (1350-612 B.C.) reunited Mesopotamia, forming the first true empire with a formidable iron-equipped army. They established key cities like Assur, Khorsabad, Nineveh, and Nimrud.

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Egyptian art and literature intertwined with architecture; temples and tombs were adorned with hieroglyphics, sculptures, and vibrant frescoes, depicting religious devotion, historical events, and daily life. Thus, ancient Egyptian architecture was a blend of natural resources, religious fervor, social organization, and artistic expression, creating some of history's most iconic structures.

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Ancient Egyptian architecture was deeply influenced by geographical, geological, climatic, religious social and artistic factors.

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Geographically, the placement of Egypt along the Nile provided fertile land and facilitated trade. The river’s floods enriched the soil, developed agriculture and supported a large workforce for monumental projects.

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Egypt’s dry climate preserved these ancient structures, and the lack of rain resulted in flat-roofed buildings with thick stone slabs, minimal windows to protect the interior from the desert sun.

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Religion played a major role, with architecture reflecting belief in gods such as Amun and Osiris and the concept of eternal life, leading to the construction of pyramids and continuous temples.

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Assyrian culture adapted Sumerian ziggurat and temple construction, enhancing them with facing stone and relief sculptures glorifying military power. Assyrian art featured murals, sculptures, and iconic winged bulls. Assyrian architecture used stone extensively, resulting in tall buildings.

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Ashur, an ancient religious capital, held continuous significance until its destruction in 614 B.C. Dur-Sharrukin, with its multi-colored ziggurat, and the Assur Temple exemplify Assyrian architectural and religious innovation.

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Khorsabad, built by Sargon II, and Nineveh, developed by Sennacherib, became prominent centers with impressive palaces and infrastructure.

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The Babylonian Dynasty, under Hammurabi (2000-1600 B.C.), marked significant cultural and scientific advancements, including the sexagesimal system, lunar calendar, and the Epic of Gilgamesh. Hammurabi's law code exemplified the separation of religious and secular authority.

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The Neo-Babylonian Empire (626-539 B.C.), under Nebuchadnezzar II, experienced a cultural renaissance, restoring ancient artworks and expanding Babylon with monumental structures like the Ishtar Gate and the Etemenanki Ziggurat, possibly inspiring the biblical Tower of Babel. Although famed for the Hanging Gardens, their existence remains unverified. The city's grandeur included vast walls, a stone bridge over the Euphrates, and extensive urban development.

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The Tower of Babel narrative symbolizes human pride and rebellion against divine command, leading to the confusion of languages. Babylon, known for its idolatrous worship, became a legendary city of cultural and architectural achievements, deeply influencing subsequent civilizations and religious traditions.

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The Sumerian civilization emerged in southern Mesopotamia around 4000 BCE, marking the dawn of urban development. This civilization saw the rise of major cities like Eridu, Kish, Uruk, and Ur.

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Sumerian cities, notably Ur and Uruk, featured courtyard houses, monumental temples, and ziggurats as both religious and administrative centers. The White Temple at Uruk, oriented to cardinal points, exemplifies early ziggurat design, symbolizing a sacred axis mundi where the divine met the mundane, reflecting the Sumerians' theocratic political order.

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developed a social, economic, and intellectual foundation. Sumerians invented the wheel, built extensive irrigation systems, and developed cuneiform writing for recording business and other activities. Their architectural advancements included reinforced buildings with buttresses, thick walls of sun-dried mud brick, and the construction of ziggurats.

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Ancient Mesopotamian architecture, spanning from the 10th millennium BC to the 6th century BC, emerged in the region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (modern-day Iraq, eastern Syria, southwestern Iran, and southeastern Turkey).

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In the New Kingdom (1550–700 BC), Thebes remained a major city, with significant constructions like Queen Hatshepsut's terraced temple at Deir el-Bahri and Ramses II's projects, including the temple at Luxor and the rock temple at Abu Simbel.

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Old Stone Age (Paleolithic):

Humans were nomadic hunters and gatherers, using primitive tools made of stone, wood, and bones. Fire was crucial for protection, hunting, and cooking. They lived in temporary shelters, with no permanent architecture. Notable sites include Lascaux Cave with prehistoric drawings and Shanidar Cave with Neanderthal skeletons.

Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic):

Early settlements emerged near water sources. Temporary shelters made from tree trunks, leaves, grasses, and animal skins were common. Examples include huts, Lapp tents, and igloos, providing protection from weather and animals.

New Stone Age (Neolithic):

Agriculture led to permanent settlements and professions. Architecture evolved with mud, brick, and stone, forming villages and urban communities with high walls. Monumental constructions like dolmens and Stonehenge served religious and burial purposes.

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Ancient Greek city planning integrated architectural aesthetics with functional urban design, creating standard city plans with four key elements: the town, acropolis, agora, and stoa.

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The main purpose of history of architecture is :

1.to understand how architecture influences society and its culture.

2.to understand how and why each era since the beginning of time formed its own unique style.

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And we learn about the construction method of neolithic

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And we learn about the construction method of neolithic

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The construction methods of Neolithic monuments, like Egyptian pyramids, involved moving large stones. Dolmens,

such as Cueva de Menga in Spain, were tombs made of large stones topped with others and buried under artificial hills. Menhirs were single upright stones for religious purposes. Stonehenge featured carefully aligned stones, possibly for astronomical rituals.

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The huts

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Ur, a major trade center, showcased densely packed residential areas, narrow streets, and significant structures like the White Temple and the Great Ziggurat.

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 Factors that affected Mesopotamia architecture  

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 Factors that affected Mesopotamia architecture  

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It is recognized for pioneering urban planning, courtyard designs, and ziggurats. Mesopotamia, considered one of civilization's cradles, saw its first human settlements and the Agricultural Revolution. Despite lacking a formal architectural profession, scribes managed construction for elites. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers were crucial, fostering fertile lands that supported the growth of significant cities along their banks.

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Mesopotamian architecture was profoundly influenced by geography, The fertile land and abundant mud led to brick construction, while natural levees and canals facilitated irrigation.

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Egyptian architecture was characterized by massive structures with thick, sloping walls, flat roofs, and closely spaced columns. Funerary and cult temples became prominent, with obelisks and sphinxes serving as notable features. Houses in workers' villages and great houses for officials were constructed with mud bricks, wooden roofs, and arched doorways. These architectural advancements reflected the Egyptians' engineering prowess and religious devotion.

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Uruk, one of the earliest and most influential cities, was known for its massive population, innovative architectural work, and the development of the cylinder seal. The city was well-integrated with a canal system and played a crucial role in early urbanization.

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Classical orders (Doric, Ionic, Corinthian) defined Greek architecture, each with distinct columns and proportions. The Doric order was sturdy and simple, Ionic slender and elegant, and Corinthian ornate and decorative. These styles exemplified the Greeks' architectural ingenuity and aesthetic principles.

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Socially, Greece was divided into upper, middle, and lower classes, with a significant emphasis on arts, drama, sports, and public engagement. This complex interplay of factors fostered a distinctive architectural style marked by functionality, beauty, and harmony with the natural environment, leaving a lasting legacy on Western architectural traditions.

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Nimrud, strategically located near the Tigris, served as a political capital with numerous public buildings, underscoring the Assyrians' architectural and military prowess.

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The hot, dry climate with little rainfall resulted in introverted architectural designs, high walls, and narrow alleys for climate protection.

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Socially, the division into classes, including priests, kings, common people, and slaves, influenced building purposes, especially for temples and palaces.

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Religiously, the polytheistic beliefs with gods like Enlil and Ishtar shaped monumental structures. Mesopotamian civilization, from Sumerian to Persian periods, evolved significantly in architecture from 4500 BC to 330 BC.

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Akkadian art focused on royal portraiture, combining realistic human features with Sumerian stylistic elements.