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Praise for Speed & Scale

A comprehensive plan to tackle one of the most vexing challenges in human history.

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John Doerr is a man with a plan for our planet - and boy do we need one.

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The single best guide [is] in an excellent new book, "Speed & Scale: An Action Plan for Solving our Climate Crisis Now."

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With personal insight and visionary foresight, Doerr provides us with a practical guide for both public and private sector participation in decarbonizing the global economy.

- Christiana Figueres, former Executive Secretary of the UN Climate Change Convention

A clear, detailed, and comprehensive plan for climate action exactly when we need it most.

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The Speed & Scale Plan gets us to net-zero emissions by 2050-and halfway there by 2030.

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The time, with no hyperbole, is now.

About the Author

John Doerr

John is an engineer, venture capitalist, the chair of Kleiner Perkins, and the author of the number one best-seller Measure What Matters. For over 40 years, John has served entrepreneurs with ingenuity and optimism, helping them build bold teams and disruptive companies. He was an original investor and board member at Google and Amazon, helping to create more than a million jobs. A pioneer of Silicon Valley's cleantech movement, Doerr has invested in zero emissions technologies since 2006. Outside Kleiner Perkins, Doerr works with social entrepreneurs who are tackling systemic issues across climate, public health, and education.

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Ryan Panchadsaram

Ryan Panchadsaram is an engineer and investor focused on solving systemic societal challenges. At Kleiner Perkins, Ryan serves as technical advisor to John Doerr, where he invests in founders and technologies that aim to change the world. Ryan and John collaborated on Speed & Scale and number one bestseller Measure What Matters. Under President Obama, Ryan was Deputy Chief Technology Officer of the United States, where he championed entrepreneurship, innovation, and open data.

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An Action Plan for Solving Our Climate Crisis Now

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Order Now Order Now The Speed & Scale Plan gets us to net-zero emissions by 2050-and halfway there by 2030. Electrify transportation Decarbonize the grid Fix food Protect nature Clean up industry Remove carbon Win politics and policy Turn movements into action Innovate! Invest! Yes, send me the free poster Ok, great!

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On one of Portugal's most well-trodden coastlines, communities are working to preserve marine life and ensure vital food sources - such as octopus - are available long into the future.
Armação de Pêra, a former fishing village turned resort town in the Algarve on Portugal's southern coastline, is all but deserted in winter.

In the lull before summer, the wide sandy bay is empty, the cobbled streets are clear and the restaurants are serving regulars. But in only a few months time, the sea will bustle with boatloads of tour operators and fishermen, in search of one of the region's most prized delicacies - octopus.

Although sardines are usually synonymous with Portugal, the country consumes over 15,000 tonnes of octopus a year - the highest amount of any country in Europe. The common octopus is Portugal's most lucrative seafood product in value, with more than half of octopus landings occurring in the Algarve region.

"Octopus is the most important source of income for small-scale fishing communities in the Algarve," says Mafalda Rangel, a fisheries researcher at the University of Algarve. Over 90% of Algarve fishers use traps and pots to land octopus, which could earn them a significant €6.05 ($6,49, £5.11) per kg.

However, the journey from seafloor to plate is becoming increasingly fraught. Commercial fishing and tourism activities are putting pressure on the reef, and although the octopus trade is not officially endangered, there are concerns that if not protected catch may drop, as with sardines or tuna in the last two decades.

Across the Algarve, fishers are noticing that waters once teaming with marine life are thinning out. As their income and old way of life is jeopardised, fishers are taking steps to safeguard their resources for the future.

"As a 10-year-old, I would go to the water in shorts with a speargun and I would easily catch fish to eat - spider crabs, congers, moray eels, we had everything here," says Miguel Rodrigues, the former president of Armação de Pêra's Fishermen's Association.

At 45 years old, those days are a distant memory. Although fishers today use more sophisticated traps, as well as boats with engines, they are hauling up fewer octopus, says Rodrigues. "They have more fishing nets and more ways to catch fish, but there are no more fish," he says.

Rodrigues is one of the few fishermen who still catches octopus the traditional way, by lowering pots, known as alcatruz, into the sea. Octopuses crawl into the crevices of these red clay pots seeking shelter and are pulled back up to the surface.

Most modern fishers have traded this method out for plastic cylindrical pots, which can be manufactured cheaply at scale. Yet clay pots can act as a weather gauge - shattering in stormier weather and therefore warning fishers that conditions are too rough. "Some fishers say it can be a way to manage the fishery, by helping people to understand when they should go or not to the sea," says Rangel.

Data that indicates octopus numbers are dipping in Portugal is hard to find, unlike notable declines in other species, such as sardines. Octopus is not bound to the same regulations as other seafood - for example, they are excluded from European Union quotas. Therefore, populations are harder to monitor.

"The octopus is a very particular species because it dies after breeding, so it has a very short lifespan," says Rangel. Most octopus only live between one to two years and are very susceptible to environmental changes in the larval phase, she adds.

In the Algarve, fishers, including Rodrigues, are working to establish a new model, which will empower communities to protect these ocean species they depend on. Two projects - a new Marine Protected Area (MPA) and a co-management committee - are giving fishers an equal say in their futures.

I depend a 100% on this reef. It's a gift - Miguel Rodrigues

The bay of Armação de Pêra is home to Portugal's largest rocky reef, a haven for around 70% of the region's indigenous species. This includes those with conservation status, such as seahorses and dusky grouper. However, the reef's rich biodiversity and ancient caves means it's a magnet for coastal tourism and commercial fishing.

"I depend a 100% on this reef," says Rodrigues. "After the second Ice Age, the water came inside and created this bay. It's a gift," he says.

Rodrigues wears multiple hats - he's the former president of the town's fishermen's association, a dive operator, a resident and a marine biologist. Usually, many competing interests would make conservation a difficult feat - but Rodrigues is a paragon for how multiple stakeholders are working together to create change.

In 2021, Portugal's first Marine Protected Area of Community Interest was created, which was visualised and designed by locals. Around 89 organisations - including local municipalities, scientists, fishing associations and the tourism and hospitality bodies - collaborated to form the Recife do Algarve Marine Natural Park - Pedra do Valado. This protects around 156 sq km (60.2 sq miles) of sea, with a 20km (12.4 miles) no-fishing zone to give wildlife a chance to replenish.

For Rodrigues, the MPA was a last ditch attempt to save the reef and its many inhabitants. "I love octopus, but the only way to get the community involved in this was to get a fishery that was sustainable," he says.

MPAs - sometimes called ocean sanctuaries, marine parks, or no-take zones - are designated areas of the ocean created to protect marine habitats and species. Despite being regarded as the "cornerstone" of global marine conservation efforts, they currently cover less than 10% of the ocean's surface. But cordoning off a section of the ocean can create conflict with local fisheries, which can make them controversial to enforce.

One example was an MPA created in 1998 in Sesimbra, a seaside town south of Lisbon, Portugal, which generated conflicts mostly with the local fishermen. The Marine Park Luiz Saldanha (MPLS) was formed using a top down approach - coming from governmental structures down. Reports suggest the restrictions left local fishers feeling resentful and alienated from the decision making process.

Conversely, a wave of community-based MPAs are making greater progress, from Kenya to the United States. One study reviewed 27 examples of MPAs across the world and found stakeholder engagement was the most important factor affecting MPA success, while its absence was their biggest downfall.

Further along the Algarve, in the Lagos Marina, a meeting is underway at Docapesca, a government licensed fish seller. Outside, octopus pots pile up and a few hopeful stray cats scavenge for scraps. Inside, over a dozen fishers are meeting with a marine biologist, to vote on whether a co-management committee should be established.

Although they are not part of the neighbouring MPA, the co-management approach is based on similar values - to give fishers an equal stake in how resources are managed. Portugal already has a series of rules in place to ensure that octopus do not become overfished. By law, fishers can not land octopus on weekends, and an octopus must be thrown back if it is under 750g (26.5oz).

"Co-management is an innovative model," says Rita Sá, who works at WWF Portugal and is supporting the project. "In the beginning [the fishers] were sceptical of co-management. Now we have fishermen exchanging ideas with scientists. They're understanding the rules, why we need to have limits in the fishery, and the biology of the resources," Sá adds.

In February 2024, the co-management model was approved with the support of more than 75% of licence holders, representing more than 700 fishermen in the Algarve.

André Dias is a fisher from the region who took over his father's octopus boats. He voted in favour of the committee in the hope that serious issues, such as octopus farming, will be faced as a collective. "Everyone has the right to raise an issue and everybody has to address it as a community," he says.

He believes the patchwork of community initiatives in the Algarve - from marine protected areas to co-management committees - can empower fishers. "With these two projects happening simultaneously, we're really doing something powerful in the way we deal and manage our resources," he says. "It's a very important achievement in Portugal, and for what people can do as a group with different interests."

Back in the Armação de Pêra, Rodrigues points out rows of weather-beaten huts, their wooden panels sagging and splintered. These are where fishermen store their gear, he says, although their decay symbolises the struggles of the small-scale fishing industry.

"Marine Protected Areas have to be for the local community. If politicians just draw a square on the map and say 'this is a reserve' it won't work," says Rodrigues.

When designing the MPA, some fishers took part in ' shared vision' exercises, to imagine different scenarios for the conservation of the reef. The participatory process was supported by Oceano Azul Foundation, an international organisation dedicated to preserving blue spaces.

Although the MPA is yet to come into force, for Rodrigues, the protection is a sign of hope. He says he would like there to be life in the sea for future fishers - his children and grandchildren. "I want my daughter to keep protecting the reef for other generations.".

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The octopus fishermen protecting Portugal's largest reef

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On one of Portugal's most well-trodden coastlines, communities are working to preserve marine life and ensure vital food sources - such as octopus - are available long into the future.

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Anya Freeman and her climate technology company are on a mission to create 3D printed sea walls that have environmental benefits. Traditionally, cities in the US have addressed rising sea levels by building sea walls made from concrete, which can be harmful to marine life. But the challenge for Anya's company, Kind Designs, was to come up with an alternative that is economical for communities and enhances the underwater ecosystem.

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Can 3D printed sea walls protect marine wildlife?

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One team is on a mission to create 3D printed sea walls with environmental benefits.

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Winged machines are 'flying' - or at least swimming - beneath the waters of the Faroe Islands in the North Atlantic. Known as 'sea dragons' or 'tidal kites', they look like aircraft, but are in fact high-tech tidal turbines, generating electricity from the power of the ocean. So, how does the technology work?

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Tidal kites: New technology harnessing ocean energy

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These mechanical creatures lurk beneath the water's surface and power homes in the Faroe Islands.

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Leaked methane is helping scientists map toxic threats to health.
At the very base of the United States, straddling the border between Texas and New Mexico, lies the Permian Basin. Formed around a billion years ago, the region's ancient deposits of organic matter have, in modern times, provided a vast reserve of oil and gas. But some say that for the communities drawn to the jobs and opportunities in this desert landscape, there is a high price to pay.

Jozee Dominguez Zuniga is a 22-year-old grass roots organiser who lives in Eddy County, New Mexico. Her family has no less than six gas pipelines running through the back of their property. There is also a fracking site "around two miles" down the road, Zuniga says, and active oil rigs are within sight of the local primary school, health clinic and senior centre. When she stands outside in the street at dusk, what appears to be a "huge fire" lines the horizon, she says: rows and rows of flares burning off excess gas from oil wells.

For Zuniga, living among all this fossil fuel infrastructure raises an urgent question: could it be making her and her community sick?

"I'm 22 and I don't want to have children," Zuniga says, adding that she feels she would be putting them at risk of poor health.

While it is difficult to answer that question for individuals living near pipelines or oil rigs, a range of studies suggest that pollutants from oil and gas production can indeed pose health risks.

According to researchers at the University of North Carolina, venting and flaring by the US oil and gas industry releases pollutants that lead to 710 premature deaths and 73,000 childhood asthma exacerbations each year - racking up a health bill of $7.4bn (£5.8bn). When this is extended to air pollution from other parts of the oil and gas lifecycle in the US - including production, transportation and storage, but not combustion or indoor gas-leaks - further research has calculated the total impact results in an estimated 7,500 excess deaths and a $77bn (£61bn) annual health bill.

Finding ways to identify high concentrations of air pollutants is an urgent concern for many in her community, Zuniga says. Local residents watch closely for local or state-wide news reports of emissions leaks from the surrounding infrastructure. They've also installed their own air monitors in numerous backyards to keep tabs on the air quality in relation to the l egal limits.

New technologies, however, could soon help worried communities like Zuniga's - by mapping outdoor gas leaks and showing more clearly where there may be exposure to harmful emissions.

Research suggests air pollution from various parts of the oil and gas lifecycle leads thousands of excess deaths (Credit: Getty Images)

Of the various chemicals found within natural gas, methane is the largest - making up around 70-90% of its composition. Although not in itself directly harmful to health, it results in the formation of ground level tropospheric ozone, a harmful air pollutant; and it is a relatively easily detectable indicator of gas emissions in general. This latter trait makes it particularly useful to those hoping to track toxic releases from the gas industry.

There is another crucial reason to measure methane leaks: methane is second only to CO2 in fuelling climate change. Methane abatement in the fossil fuel sector could prevent around one million premature deaths globally from ozone exposure through 2050, according to one estimate.

People can thus be exposed to harmful chemicals at various stages of the oil and gas life cycle, from production to consumption. Gas stoves - which are used in about 50 million US homes - can cause indoor concentrations of toxic chemicals to rise, while burning fuels in cars, power plants or for heating can lead to pollution outdoors. Large cities such as Chicago and New York record high outdoor concentrations of harmful nitrogen oxide and fine particulate matter, especially near heavily travelled roads.

Yet further upstream parts of the oil and gas life cycle, including pollution from transmission in pipelines, also play a part. "The highest concentrations of these non-methane hydrocarbons are in gas at wellheads, which also have the highest emission rates," says Amy Townsend-Small, a professor and climate scientist at the University of Cincinnati in Ohio, who has researched pollution in Fort Worth, Texas.

Researchers at PSE Healthy Energy, an independent research institute, collect measurements of methane and hazardous air pollutants (Credit: PSE Healthy Energy)

"Most people in the world are going to be exposed through gas distribution systems and through their household gas appliances, and in some places people are exposed to all sources," says Seth Shonkoff, executive director at PSE Healthy Energy, an independent research institute. "The entire oil and gas supply chain is present among people's homes," he notes of parts of Los Angeles, Texas, and other oil and gas producing regions.

Methane is the easiest substance to detect within gas's many compounds, says Shonkoff: if you map the release of methane, you'll nearly always catch the other chemicals, too. However, methane monitoring is not a given: "we don't accurately know how much methane is leaking, either in the US or globally," says Jeni Miller, executive director of the Global Climate and Health Alliance. New technology is helping to map this threat.

On the ground, FLIR optical gas imaging cameras use infrared to spot leaks of methane that are invisible to the naked eye. Above the Earth's atmosphere, satellites are using emerging sensing technology to alert leaks on an ever more detailed scale: in March, the Environmental Defense Fund launched MethaneSat, which experts say will aid data collection on methane emissions from the fossil fuel industry.

Together, these advances in detection should support the development of improved assessments and solutions to leaky infrastructure - from repair to replacement - says Miller.

At PSE Healthy Energy, Shonkoff's team have also been aiding this mapping effort by collecting natural gas samples from pipeline systems throughout the world and measuring their toxicity. Later this year, they will roll-out a Methane Risk Map. This interactive, online resource will show the various compositions of natural gas in different locations, and so help people estimate their exposure to toxic leaks, Shonkoff explains.

PSE Healthy Energy researchers deploy an array of air monitoring technologies (Credit: PSE Healthy Energy)

"If there's a methane leak observed in the middle of the Permian basin in Texas, or the middle of downtown LA, or the middle of London - we will know what that gas is made out of in these places," Shonkoff says. The resulting air quality model their map will produce will show each plume of gas as it moves across a landscape, and not only share its concentration of methane and benzene, but also who is at risk of exposure.

"One of the interesting things about natural gas leakage is that it's not a single pollutant regulated by a single agency," Shonkoff adds, noting that, so far, methane has primarily been regarded as a climate issue. "But one of the impacts our tool is likely to bring is to make clear to air quality agencies and regulators that they now have skin in the game; that they need to get to address these leaks and the people breathing degraded air because of them."

Phasing out fossil fuels is the surest way to reduce natural gas's toxic threat, Miller and others say. But the transition to 100% clean energy sources will take time. So numerous groups are also pressing for facilities near neighbourhoods and communities to be removed, and for the energy sector to rapidly reduce methane emissions from existing production, something that can be done quickly and at low or no net cost, says Miller.

Back in Eddy Country, New Mexico, Zuniga says she is so worried that she would like to leave her town, but is staying for the sake of her family. She is not hopeful that things will change.

On a global level, there are signs that the international community is taking steps to reduce methane emissions from existing fossil fuel production and use (as well as other sectors): 155 countries are now signed up to the 2021 Global Methane Pledge, which commits to collectively reducing methane emissions 30% by 2030 (relative to 2020 levels).

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The health impact of living near a fossil gas leak

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Leaked methane is helping scientists map toxic threats to health.

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Gmail is email that's intuitive, efficient, and useful. 15 GB of storage, less spam, and mobile access.

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By Laura Bush

1:45 AM on March 14th, 2021

It's easy for every Texan to help ensure birds migrate safely.

Each year, nearly 2 billion birds migrate through Texas in one of the planet's great wildlife spectacles.

Birds have intrigued me since I was a little girl. My mother was a knowledgeable, self-taught naturalist who was passionate about birds. Her fascination with bird-watching began when I was 10. She volunteered to be my Girl Scout leader, which involved helping us earn our bird badge. We would sit outside for hours with our binoculars and wait for birds, such as painted buntings and yellow warblers, to flit past. We would admire their beauty, their songs, and their freedom as they soared across Midland.

The sky in Midland was a flawless dome. The land didn't pitch or rise but remained perfectly flat without buildings or bright lights to obscure birds' flight, or our view. For as far back as I can remember, on spectacular summer nights, Mother would grab a blanket and we would go outside to lie on the ground and gaze at the sky. And as we lay together on the hard grass, she would say, "Look up. Laura, look up." And it was then, as a bright-eyed girl, that I began to look up to not miss the beauty of the world around me.

As first lady of the United States, I highlighted our country's national parks and focused on conservation initiatives. When I returned to Texas from Washington, D.C., I helped found Texan By Nature with a group of friends and committed conservationists. We believe that our health and prosperity are dependent upon our natural resources, and we hope every Texan will join us in caring for the land, water, skies and wildlife that make our state special.

Protecting migratory birds is an easy way to take care of Texas. U.S. bird populations are declining rapidly, with devastation to common and rare species across every ecosystem. Due to urban sprawl, tall buildings, highly reflective glass windows and bright lights, an estimated 1 billion U.S. birds die every year solely from collisions with buildings and structures.

But the good news is, there's an easy fix. Every Texan can participate in protecting our feathered friends by simply turning off their lights at night. During Texas' peak spring bird migration period April 19 to May 7, Texans should turn off all nonessential lights from 11 p.m. to 6 a.m. Each night, each light turned out helps save migrating birds. And as an added bonus, turning off nonessential lights also saves energy for cities, local businesses and homeowners.

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Laura Bush: Texans, turn out the lights at night to help migratory birds

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It's easy for every Texan to help ensure birds migrate safely.

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Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics (MRLC) Consortium | Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics (MRLC) Consortium

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The Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics (MRLC) consortium is a group of federal agencies who coordinate and generate consistent and relevant land cover information at the national scale for a wide variety of environmental, land management, and modeling applications. The creation of this consortium has resulted in the mapping of the lower 48 United States, Hawaii, Alaska and Puerto Rico into a comprehensive land cover product termed, the National Land Cover Database (NLCD), from decadal Landsat satellite imagery and other supplementary datasets.

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Skip to main content

Official websites use .gov
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Secure .gov websites use HTTPS
A lock () or https:// means you've safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites.

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Skip to main content Official websites use .gov A.gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. Secure .gov websites use HTTPS A lock () or https:// means you've safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites.

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EcoSchools U.S. offers a certification program for elementary through secondary schools that nurtures environmental learning and climate action. Our award-winning, curriculum-linked framework supports school communities as they assess, track, benchmark, and celebrate environmental excellence. We are the exclusive national operator of the EcoSchools program in the United States, and a member of the international network of EcoSchools, coordinated by the Foundation for Environmental Education.

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National Wildlife Federation's EcoSchools U.S. collaborates with communities to provide K-12 education responsive to and supporting leadership and equitable solutions to build a more ecologically and socially just world.

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Columns are categories, see header for the topic. The headers are color coded.

Subcategories are green

Purple Categories - General World/Solution/Situation Topics, includes the related and related evidence, systems, and ideas

Blue - Organizations

Yellow - Tools or resources

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The National Seed Strategy is a collaborative effort of 12 federal agencies.
Cover image by the Plant Conservation Alliance

In the past, before the infrastructure law intersected with the National Seed Strategy which fosters interagency collaboration, the bulk of landscape restoration and revegetation work in parks and on other public lands occurred as part of individual construction projects, in response to disastrous weather events in a specific area, in response to fire, usually in smaller areas that affected a single park or part of a national forest, and in one-off projects to manage invasive plant populations.

Projects seemed to be on figurative islands - of parks within the NPS, of other public lands managed by other Interior agencies like the Bureau of Land Management, the US Fish and Wildlife Service, the Bureau of Reclamation, on lands managed by the Forest Service. There was a feeling among restoration specialists of never quite catching up. And there was always a concern over the lack of locally appropriate, native seed stocks.

Makarick said few U.S. native plant species are available commercially in the quantity, diversity, and quality necessary to restore resilient habitats. In most areas of the country, native plants and seeds of local origin are rarely available. It is vitally important for federal land management agencies to work together to meet nationwide revegetation and restoration needs to ensure we have healthy and productive native plant communities in America's iconic landscapes.

"We have a vision with the National Seed Strategy. We want to get the right seed in the right place at the right time. It's kind of our refrain." said Katie VinZant, an NPS restoration ecologist and coordinator for NPS native seed projects funded by the infrastructure law. "The infrastructure law is a game changer. We benefit from financial resources and from the direction for coordinated efforts between federal agencies and involvement with partners and private companies."

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Bipartisan Infrastructure Law powers growth of native seed stocks for landscape restoration (U.S. National Park Service)

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In the past, before the infrastructure law intersected with the National Seed Strategy which fosters interagency collaboration, the bulk of landscape restoration and revegetation work in parks and on other public lands occurred as part of individual construction projects, in response to disastrous weather events in a specific area, in response to fire, usually in smaller areas that affected a single park or part of a national forest, and in one-off projects to manage invasive plant populations.

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Habitat Management/ General Habitat And Biodiversity/ Conservation

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Habitat Management/ General Habitat And Biodiversity/ Conservation

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We're celebrating 25 years of conserving wild birds and their habitats throughout the Americas! We're proud of all we have accomplished for birds. But the need is great. Many birds are experiencing major population declines and need our help more than ever. Please join us and start making a difference for birds today.

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American Bird Conservancy: 25 Years of Bird Conservation Results

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We're celebrating 25 years of conserving wild birds and their habitats throughout the Americas! We're proud of all we have accomplished for birds. But the need is great. Many birds are experiencing major population declines and need our help more than ever. Please join us and start making a difference for birds today.

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The global contribution of invasive vertebrate eradication as a key island restoration tool - Scientific Reports

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Islands are global hotspots for biodiversity and extinction, representing ~ 5% of Earth's land area alongside 40% of globally threatened vertebrates and 61% of global extinctions since the 1500s. Invasive species are the primary driver of native biodiversity loss on islands, though eradication of invasive species from islands has been effective at halting or reversing these trends.

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Data in the database focuses on invasive terrestrial vertebrate species eradications from islands. Fish eradications are not included. Each species has a unique ID code linked to a common name, scientific name, family, and nominate animal type (e.g., rodent, ungulate, dog, cat, reptile, etc.). Invasive species populations were classified as either feral, domestic, feral and domestic, semi-feral, semi-feral and domestic. We defined semi-feral animals as those that are unfenced but receive food and care (primarily ungulates). We also note the year of introduction to the island where available.

Each island is allocated a unique identification from the Global Islands Database (GID), produced by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre ( http://www.globalislands.net/about/gid_functions.php ). We also use the GID to determine island size and identify a centralized location (latitude and longitude). Locations and island sizes are verified using satellite imagery (e.g. Google Earth) and/or literature sources and are corrected where needed. For islands not in the GID we allocated our own ID number and determined location and area in ESRI's ArcGIS. Country/territory are based on International Standards Organization 3166-1 alpha-2 codes ( http://www.iso.org/iso/country_codes.htm ). Island names are standardized to be the common use within the larger country / territory and exclude common words for 'island' (e.g. islets, rocks, etc.). Human population sizes are based on ordinal categories of none, 1-10, 11-100, 101-1000, 1001-10000, >10000 or unknown and data sources represent available census data in government reports, websites and other sources.

Each eradication event in the database is an attempt to eradicate (i.e. completely remove) an invasive vertebrate population from an island. Where multiple invasive species are eradicated from an island these are considered separate eradication events, even if the same technique was used.

Since 2014 we assessed all eradication attempts for data quality based on definitions in Table 1. We expect any data summary or analysis to be restricted to only good or satisfactory data quality. We retain events of poor quality in the online database in the hope others can help us further qualify or remove these events. To update an eradication record, please contact us: science@islandconservation.org.

Eradication start and end date are reported for years only and represent years of operational activities on the ground where the eradication end date is the year that the eradication operations ceased. This typically coincided with the end of confirmation of eradication for hunting / trapping for ungulates and predators, or the end of toxicant application (or other methods) for rodent projects. Note that confirmation of eradications can occur some years after the end of operations, particularly for rodents which most often occurs two years after the eradication operation has ended.

We document the status of each eradication activity, based on definitions in Table 2. An eradication operation that successfully removed the invasive population is considered a successful eradication. Because reinvasions can follow a successful eradication, for the purposes of this online database, we added the option to view successful eradications within the context of a reinvasion status (See Table 2). We consider an eradication failure to be an operational failure, i.e. the project did not successfully remove the targeted invasive species from the island. This is different from a reinvasion event, which is only considered when the invasive species has re-established on the island, following a successful eradication. While reinvasions can be misdiagnosed as failures and vice versa, we erred on the side of caution and when it was unclear, defaulted to the operation as being failed. In these cases, data quality was considered poor. Note, the database also includes trial or research eradications that were used to inform larger operations.

Island eradication type ( Table 3) refers to whether the operation required treatment of the entire island ( whole island), or only part of the island ( restricted range) to remove the invasive population from the island. Note, incursion responses are also included in the dataset, representing operations to remove a population prior to their establishment across the entire island.

Data on the primary and secondary method of the eradication are collected, including disease, hunting, trapping, toxicant, other, unknown, none (secondary method only). Where toxicant was used, the baiting method was noted as either aerial broadcast, bait station, hand broadcast, bait piles, unknown, other, or not applicable. The toxicant compound was identified where applicable.

References that cite part or all of these eradication events are provided, including a link if this is online.

References that cite part or all of these eradication events are provided. Contact details and organization of expert practitioners working on eradication projects are provided where they have been made available. Note some contact details have been withheld at the request of practitioners. Should you not see any contact details please contact science@islandconservation.org and we are happy to share the knowledge we do have.

Data Quality

Definition

Good

We can verify the attempt; we have a copy of the primary reference that details the effort

Satisfactory

An expert practitioner has verified the event and/or we have limited information about an eradication, but what we do have came from a verifiable source (e.g. email from a reputable practitioner or cited in a review paper), and we can identify all of the following attributes: the island, end year (if applicable), invasive species type, eradication status, and primary eradication method.

Poor

We cannot verify the attempt (conflicting information or unverifiable resource) and/or we lack evidence for at least one of the following parameters: island, end year (if applicable), invasive animal type, eradication status, or primary eradication method.

Unknown

Data quality has not been assessed yet

Eradication Status

Definition

Successful

The operation to eradicate the invasive was successful and confirmed (i.e. the invasive species is no longer present on the island and to the best of our knowledge at the time of reporting, the invasive species has not reinvaded).

Successful (reinvaded)

Operation was successful, but invasive subsequently reinvaded island

Failed

The eradication operation was completed (there is an end date) yet it failed to remove the entire invasive population. Operational failure (as opposed to reinvasion). For rodent eradications, if there was uncertainty about why the invasive population remained (failure versus reinvasion), we assumed operational failure and classified data quality as poor.

To be confirmed

Eradication operation is complete, but the operation has yet to be "confirmed" as successful or failed. This stage is typical for rodent eradication operations, with confirmation monitoring occurring 1 - 2 years after the eradication operation has ended.

In progress

Eradication currently in progress at time of reporting.

Planned

Eradication operation is being planned at time of reporting. Operation end year will likely be unknown.

Incomplete

Eradication operation was started, but not followed through to completion.

Trial or research only

Eradication operation was undertaken for trial or research purposes only with goal of gathering information, not to eradicate invasive species.

Unknown pre-status

Eradication operation was undertaken but status of invasive was unclear beforehand. Typically undertaken for precautionary measures for rodent eradications.

Unknown

Unknown outcome.

Island Eradication Type

Definition

Whole island

The whole island was treated to achieve eradication of the invasive species.

Restricted range

The invasive only occurred on part of the island, and thus only part of the island was treated to achieve a whole island eradication.

Incursion response

A response to an invasion in progress. Note: if an invasion results in a species recolonizing an island this requires a whole island eradication.

Unknown

Eradication type unknown. Also use where the cause of the extirpation of the invasive species is unknown.

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Database of Island Invasive Species Eradications

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Data in the database focuses on invasive terrestrial vertebrate species eradications from islands. Fish eradications are not included. Each species has a unique ID code linked to a common name, scientific name, family, and nominate animal type (e.g., rodent, ungulate, dog, cat, reptile, etc.).

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Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG)

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The Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) is a global network of scientific and policy experts on invasive species, organized under the auspices of the Species Survival Commission (SSC) of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

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We're proud to report on the gains we make in bird conservation in the Americas each year, made possible by our members and donors.

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Bird Conservation is published three times a year and mailed to members; you can read current and back issues here. Also, see our latest bird conservation Bird Conservation magazine is published three times a year and mailed to members. You can read the current and back issues here.

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Aeroplanes have become bigger and faster but their impact on the climate has also increased.

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Skoll | Social Entrepreneurs Driving Large-scale Change

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The Skoll Foundation catalyzes transformational social change by investing in, connecting, and championing social entrepreneurs and other social innovators who together advance bold and equitable solutions to the world’s most pressing problems.

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Government documents in microfiche formats.

The government documents collection includes current serial publications of U.S. federal, state, and local governments, foreign governments, and international organizations. The Serial and Government Publications Division is a selective Federal Depository Library and holds depository materials for the most recent ten years. The collections also include the Federal Advisory Committee Collection, 1972-present, and the complete United Nations documents collection, 1945-present. Government documents are held in print, microfiche, and digital formats.

Access: Fill out a call slip at the circulation desk to request print and microfiche documents. Indicate the title of the document or publication, date or issue number, and the SuDoc classification number. Delivery time is generally within 30 minutes. Access subscription databases at the public computer terminals or through the Library's Wifi on your own device.
Government documents are also found in the General Collections and the Law Library. Reference staff can help determine which reading room will serve the materials you need.
For more detailed information about the reading room's government documents collections, please see the following research guide:

This guide provides information about the United States government documents collection in the Newspaper and Current Periodical Reading Room of the Library of Congress.

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Government Documents | Collections | Newspaper and Current Periodical Reading Room | Research Centers | Library of Congress

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The government documents collection includes current serial publications of U.S. federal, state, and local governments, foreign governments, and international organizations. The Serial and Government Publications Division is a selective Federal Depository Library and holds depository materials for the most recent ten years.

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You can purchase Bird Friendly® certified coffee around the world and protect wildlife and habitat with every cup. Find a store or café near you, or better yet, have it shipped to your door when you order online.

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You can purchase Bird Friendly® certified coffee around the world and protect wildlife and habitat with every cup. Find a store or café near you, or better yet, have it shipped to your door when you order online.

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Pacific Rim Conservation's mission is to maintain and restore native bird diversity, populations, and habitats in Hawaii and across the Pacific region. Founded in 2006, we work together with local communities, government agencies, and other conservation organizations to achieve these goals. Throughout all of our work, we strive to use a science-based approach to management, using research to improve our methods and inform future conservation actions.

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Pacific Rim Conservation's mission is to maintain and restore native bird diversity, populations, and habitats in Hawaii and across the Pacific region. Founded in 2006, we work together with local communities, government agencies, and other conservation organizations to achieve these goals.

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Section 5: Texas Administrative Code for Utility Accommodation

Texas Administrative Code §21.38

Title 43, Texas Administrative Code, §21.38, was adopted to be effective March 17, 2005.

In general, all utility companies and utility contractors will comply with the rules of the Texas Administrative Code and Pruning Guidelines listed in this chapter before any construction or maintenance will commence on state rights of way.

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Roadside Vegetation Management Manual: Texas Administrative Code for Utility Accommodation

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Executive Order 1-92 states: The department will maintain highway vegetation in an environmentally sensitive and uniform manner consistent with the special conditions presented by local climate, topography, vegetation, and level of urbanization.

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Free best practice | Project Management for Wildlife Conservation | WildTeam

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Download your free copy of this best practice for managing any type of conservation project from start to finish.

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WE HELP CONSERVATIONISTS CARRY OUT THEIR BEST IDEAS TO PROTECT ENDANGERED WILDLIFE

WCN's mission is to protect endangered wildlife by supporting conservationists who ensure wildlife and people coexist and thrive.

Our Promise to You

We help make every dollar you donate count for wildlife. We respect the trust and financial investments our donors make in us, and always strive for transparency and accountability.

A Wise Investment

If your heart wants to change the world and your head wants a sound investment, we can help.

Financial Efficiency

100% of designated donations go directly to partners in the field, with zero overhead taken out.

100% Rating

Charity Navigator is America's leading independent charity evaluator, and rates over 8,000 charities on their Financial Health and Accountability & Transparency.

A Wise Investment

If your heart wants to change the world and your head wants a sound investment, we can help.

Financial Efficiency

100% of designated donations go directly to partners in the field, with zero overhead taken out.

100% Rating

Charity Navigator is America's leading independent charity evaluator, and rates over 8,000 charities on their Financial Health and Accountability & Transparency.

By identifying and rigorously vetting exceptional conservationists, we can make every dollar you donate count. We provide a valuable service, helping donors know how their money will have the greatest impact and acting as a bridge between donors' best intentions and our Conservation Partners' biggest needs.

Our donation model allows 100% of any donation designated for a specific species to go directly to partners in the field, with zero overhead taken out by WCN. This is possible thanks to visionary donors who help support WCN's operating costs. Additionally, of all donations made to WCN, we use 92% to support conservationists in our Network.

WCN is proud to maintain the highest possible 100% 4-star rating through Charity Navigator. This means that you can donate with confidence knowing that your gift will have the maximum impact for wildlife conservation.

Our Strategies to Protect Wildlife

Conservation Partners

We find the best entrepreneurial organizations and invite them to receive in-depth, ongoing support by joining our Network of Conservation Partners. We provide our Partners with the financial resources, tools, and services they need to effectively protect wildlife. As all organizations in our Network go through a rigorous vetting process, donors can invest in them with confidence.
Learn More

Wildlife Funds

Our Wildlife Funds offer flexible grants to projects in order to protect a threatened species across its entire habitat. The Wildlife Funds invest in effective projects from a wide range of organizations, kickstarting new approaches and bolstering tried and true conservation efforts. Each fund amplifies donor support by combining contributions, allowing for the biggest impact possible.
Learn More

Rising Wildlife Leaders

WCN helps local conservationists grow and thrive so that they have the support they need to protect wildlife. We invest in these brave women and men to strengthen their skills, build their organizations, and advance their careers in conservation. Through scholarships and grants, we provide support to the local people who are shaping conservation in their home countries, ensuring we have a greater and more sustainable impact for wildlife.
Learn More

Ensuring Conservationists Have Resources to Succeed

FUNDING AND RESOURCES
We offer fiscal sponsorship and help partners to fundraise, but we do so much more. Whether it's connecting them with supporters, writing foundation grants, offering scholarship opportunities to their staff, and obtaining solar power for their organizations-WCN gives conservationists the funding and resources they need to save wildlife.

BUILDING SKILLS
Conservationists know a lot about wildlife, but might not know how to build a website or create a financial balance sheet. We offer partners opportunities to strengthen or learn new skills to make their organizations more impactful and resilient-from accounting to communications to fundraising.

CULTIVATING A NETWORK
WCN helps conservationists to collaborate and connect, including providing opportunities for partners to visit each other in the field to share experiences, support their colleagues, and make their organizations stronger by working together.

INTERNSHIPS
We offer our partners funding to hire student interns in their home countries, helping local students learn and grow and giving partners some extra assistance.

Helping Supporters Engage in Conservation

We offer supporters opportunities to get close to the conservation they care about.

ATTENDING THE EXPO
Our twice annual Wildlife Conservation Expos bring thousands of supporters together to meet their conservation heroes in person and hear their inspirational stories. At Expo, supporters can also engage with other wildlife enthusiasts; we've seen true, lasting friendships develop amongst donors and between donors and conservationists.

SEEING CONSERVATION IN ACTION
Under special circumstances, either on their own or with the WCN team, we can help our most involved donors travel to the field to see their donations at work protecting spectacular wildlife.

THE POWER OF STORIES
Saving wildlife is fascinating work. We keep our supporters updated on what's happening on the frontlines of conservation through our blog, newsletter, and on social media.

Helping Donors Invest in Conservation

Similar to venture capitalists, we identify, vet, then support conservation initiatives that hold the greatest promise for wildlife. As all organizations in our Network go through this rigorous vetting process, donors can invest in them with confidence.

We can offer donors the kind of personal attention they need to help match their unique, individual interests with the right Partner, Program, or Wildlife Fund and sometimes to peers outside of our Partner Network.

Holistic Solutions for Wildlife, Climate, and People

The effects of climate change don't just threaten wildlife, they create devastating consequences for people across the globe. Fortunately, research indicates that wildlife conservation can help naturally capture 95% of the carbon needed to mitigate climate change by 2030.

By supporting projects that restore wildlife populations and safeguard their habitats, our Network is preserving natural climate solutions that aid in carbon storage. Our Wildlife Funds protect large mammals like elephants and rhinos that are known to aid in seed dispersal and vegetation growth, maintaining healthy ecosystems that can better sequester carbon. Our Partners aid in forest restoration, marine habitat cleanup, and the establishment of protected areas, which help wildlife and people thrive while also contributing to a natural remedy for climate change.

Ensuring Conservationists Have Resources to Succeed

FUNDING AND RESOURCES
We offer fiscal sponsorship and help partners to fundraise, but we do so much more. Whether it's connecting them with supporters, writing foundation grants, offering scholarship opportunities to their staff, and obtaining solar power for their organizations-WCN gives conservationists the funding and resources they need to save wildlife.

BUILDING SKILLS
Conservationists know a lot about wildlife, but might not know how to build a website or create a financial balance sheet. We offer partners opportunities to strengthen or learn new skills to make their organizations more impactful and resilient-from accounting to communications to fundraising.

CULTIVATING A NETWORK
WCN helps conservationists to collaborate and connect, including providing opportunities for partners to visit each other in the field to share experiences, support their colleagues, and make their organizations stronger by working together.

INTERNSHIPS
We offer our partners funding to hire student interns in their home countries, helping local students learn and grow and giving partners some extra assistance.

Helping Supporters Engage in Conservation

We offer supporters opportunities to get close to the conservation they care about.

ATTENDING THE EXPO
Our twice annual Wildlife Conservation Expos bring thousands of supporters together to meet their conservation heroes in person and hear their inspirational stories. At Expo, supporters can also engage with other wildlife enthusiasts; we've seen true, lasting friendships develop amongst donors and between donors and conservationists.

SEEING CONSERVATION IN ACTION
Under special circumstances, either on their own or with the WCN team, we can help our most involved donors travel to the field to see their donations at work protecting spectacular wildlife.

THE POWER OF STORIES
Saving wildlife is fascinating work. We keep our supporters updated on what's happening on the frontlines of conservation through our blog, newsletter, and on social media.

Helping Donors Invest in Conservation

Similar to venture capitalists, we identify, vet, then support conservation initiatives that hold the greatest promise for wildlife. As all organizations in our Network go through this rigorous vetting process, donors can invest in them with confidence.

We can offer donors the kind of personal attention they need to help match their unique, individual interests with the right Partner, Program, or Wildlife Fund and sometimes to peers outside of our Partner Network.

Holistic Solutions for Wildlife, Climate, and People

The effects of climate change don't just threaten wildlife, they create devastating consequences for people across the globe. Fortunately, research indicates that wildlife conservation can help naturally capture 95% of the carbon needed to mitigate climate change by 2030.

By supporting projects that restore wildlife populations and safeguard their habitats, our Network is preserving natural climate solutions that aid in carbon storage. Our Wildlife Funds protect large mammals like elephants and rhinos that are known to aid in seed dispersal and vegetation growth, maintaining healthy ecosystems that can better sequester carbon. Our Partners aid in forest restoration, marine habitat cleanup, and the establishment of protected areas, which help wildlife and people thrive while also contributing to a natural remedy for climate change.

Helping You Invest

Supporting Conservation Where Needed Most

If you want to support endangered wildlife and empower conservationists to succeed, WCN can ensure your donation goes where it is most needed. We are constantly evaluating where there are gaps in funding and where there are the highest needs for WCN, our Conservation Partners, and our Wildlife Funds.

Support Where Needed Most

I am in awe of WCN. Bringing these amazing conservationists together in a network will do so much-and already has done so much-for wildlife everywhere.

Dr. Jane Goodall

Photography Credits: Mia Collis, John Dickens, Nicholas Dyer, Peter Lindsey, Jon McCormack, Nick Penny

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Our Unique Approach - Wildlife Conservation Network

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WCN's unique approach invests in conservationists and their strategies to protect wildlife by pursuing ways for humans and wildlife to co-exist and thrive.

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International Congress for Conservation Biology (ICCB)

The Society for Conservation Biology's International Congress for Conservation Biology (ICCB) is recognized as the most important international meeting for conservation professionals and students.

ICCBs are a forum for addressing conservation challenges. They are the global venue for presenting and discussing new research and developments in conservation science and practice. Most importantly, they connect our global community of conservation professionals and serve as the major networking outlook for anyone interested in conservation. ICCB attendance ranges from 1,500 - 2,200.

ICCB is a biennial congress. ICCB 2019 took place in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. ICCB 2021 took place December 12-16, 2021, virtually, after being rescheduled from July 2021. Our next conference, ICCB 2023, will take place in Kigali, Rwanda.

The first ICCB was held in 1988 in Bozeman, Montana, USA. Since then, SCB Global congresses have been held in Africa, Oceania, Europe, Asia and North and South America. Plenary sessions are presented by conservation leaders and visionaries - speakers have included Richard Cowling, Peter Kareiva, Gustavo Fonseca, Jeremy Jackson, Jane Lubchenco, Sir Robert May, EJ Milner-Gulland, Arun Agrawal, Brigitte Baptiste and Michael Soulé, just to name a few.

Each year the congress features numerous symposia, concurrent sessions, workshops, short courses and field trips. Past symposia have included such diverse topics as: the population biology of invasive species; global amphibian decline; how to integrate conservation research into policy; indigenous communities and conservation; comparing marine and terrestrial ecosystems-implications for conservation theory and practice; the application of top predator distribution to the design and efficacy of reserves; conservation marketing; and real-world social and economic solutions to preserve biodiversity.

Our attendees are concerned with the science and practice of conserving biological diversity. The ICCB is always global in scope, bringing together conservation professionals and students from every sector of the field including the biological and social sciences, management, policy and planning. Attendees work for universities, government agencies, non-governmental organizations, private foundations and organizations and publications. They are scientists, students, managers, policy-makers, writers, educators and other conservation professionals from throughout the world. Some come to present, others come for the incredible networking opportunities of the congress, so join us!

Please be aware: The Society for Conservation Biology and Conservation Biology journal are not associated with the congress called ICCB: International Conference on Conservation Biology. The congress has been reported to the International Congress and Convention Association.

SCB Group Congresses

The Society for Conservation Biology's various regional, local and topical groups may also sponsor their own meeting on off-years of SCB Global Meetings. Learn more about these meetings here.
Join the group and attend SCB's next congress!

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The Society for Conservation Biology is global community of conservation professionals dedicated to advancing the science and practice of conserving Earth's biological diversity.

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Friends of The Cliffs

Partners with the Bodaway/Gap Chapter of the Navajo Nation and the Bureau of Land Management's National Conservation Lands System to support, promote, and protect Vermilion Cliffs (USA) National Monument, and the Navajo Nation lands, its landscapes and in

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Friends of The Cliffs Partners with the Bodaway/Gap Chapter of the Navajo Nation and the Bureau of Land Management's National Conservation Lands System to support, promote, and protect Vermilion Cliffs (USA) National Monument, and the Navajo Nation lands, its landscapes and in

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The Sierra Club Grassroots Network is made up of volunteer-led issue teams working on range of issues at the regional, national and even international levels. Through volunteer leadership and engagement, these issue teams enable the Sierra Club to respond to issues above and beyond what our staffing and/or funding might otherwise allow. The Grassroots Network provides a pool of knowledgeable, committed volunteers who can provide their leadership and expertise to our chapters, groups and national programs.

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Wildflowers are some of the easiest and most rewarding plants to grow. Seeds are a miracle of nature, holding the spark of life inside themselves that can stay viable for many years, even decades or centuries if storage conditions are optimum.

Wildflowers require little water once established, and provide show-stopping color year after year. They also help provide food and habitat for local wildlife and pollinators, including birds, butterflies, bees, and more. Seeds are also a very cost-effective way to plant your property with a wide variety of wildflower species, especially when rehabilitating or restoring larger yards and fields.

Thinking of planting wildflowers this season? Follow this guide, and you'll be thanking yourself once your garden or meadow is bursting with blooms.
How To Grow Wildflowers From Seed:

1. Plan Your Wildflower Planting

2. Prepare Your Site For Planting

3. Plant Your Wildflower Seeds

4. Watering Your Wildflowers

5. What To Expect While Your Wildflowers Grow

1. Plan Your Wildflower Planting

Planning includes choosing where to plant wildflowers, calculating how much seed you need, and timing your wildflower planting,

Plan Where To Plant

Choose a spot on your property that receives at least 6 hours of sun per day. The more sun, the better with Wildflowers. South-facing spaces will receive the most sunlight throughout the day.

Good soil drainage is needed for healthy root growth.

If anything is growing in the area, such as grass or weeds, the area should support wildflowers.

Plan How Much Seed

1. Measure the area where you will plant your wildflowers and calculate the square footage of your planting area.

2. Then, reference the seed coverage rates for your wildflower seeds or wildflower mix. This information is listed under the "Key Features" of every product page. Seed coverage rates vary greatly with individual wildflower species, so it's important to check before planting.

3. For best results, plant the recommended amount of seed for your area. Too little, and your planting will be sparse. Too much, and your seedlings will be crowded, resulting in poor flowering.

Plan When To Plant

In all areas, you can seed in spring, just as long as the chance for frost has passed. Fall, just before the rainy season, is the best time for sowing seeds in the desert Southwest. In areas that get snowfall, winter seeding can give seeds a leg up in spring.

Spring Planting: Fall/Winter Planting:

Spring is a great time to plant Wildflowers in most states. In spring, wait until your ground temperatures have warmed to 55°F, and there is no chance of frost in your area.

If you're in a warmer climate, where spring and summer heat up early, you will want to plant at the tail end of your "rainy season" which will give the seeds plenty of natural water to germinate.

Fall/winter planting in areas with cold winters, hard frosts & frozen ground:

Fall planting is a great choice for dry areas, as it allows you to take advantage of winter precipitation and cooler temperatures to help seedlings grow.

Planting in the fall gives the seed a jump start on spring growth once the ground thaws. It also helps to reduce the growth of weeds, as the wildflowers get the chance to start growing and take over the weeds in the early spring.

If you are in an area where your ground does not freeze (California, southern Texas, or Florida, etc.):

If you live in an area where you have a true "winter season," meaning you receive hard frost and the ground stays frozen for several months, then fall is the perfect time to plant!

Wait until you've had several killing frosts and ground temperatures are cool enough that the seeds will not get the chance to germinate until the spring.

The best time to plant is just before your rainiest season begins, so the weather won't be too hot for young seedlings. In Florida, fall is best. In California and Texas, most wildflowers are planted during the winter to take advantage of early spring greening.

2. Prepare Your Site For Planting

Preparation is an important step for any new planting. Wildflowers often thrive in poor soil, but for best results, you'll need to remove existing growth and loosen the soil to create the best conditions for seedlings to grow.

To prepare your soil to create a nice seed bed, remove all existing growth from your planting area, including grass and weeds. Dig up everything that is growing, turn the soil over, and rake out debris from the area before spreading any seed. This will encourage good seed-to-soil contact, which in turn promotes better germination and less stress for seedlings.

Tips:

If you are seeding into what used to be a lawn or recently cultivated crop field, the time needed to prepare the site for planting is much less than seeding an old overgrown farm field choked with weeds and shrubs or other invasive species. If your area to be seeded has a lot of desirable species already on site, you may just need to prepare small pockets scattered around the site to seed while leaving the established plants undisturbed.

If planting in an area previously occupied by turf grass, consider solarizing or smothering the area to kill weeds and grass, using the power of the sun. You may need to till the area if there is an excess of grass, weeds, etc. on your property.

Do not sow seeds into your lawn without preparing your soil - grasses and weeds are vigorous growers that can out-compete wildflower seedlings. Preparing your soil will give seedlings the best chance to thrive.

3. Plant Your Wildflower Seeds

1. Mix the wildflower seed with sand for better visibility. Mix 8 parts sand to 1 part seed.

2. Sow your seeds in two batches. Separate your seed & sand mixture into two equal parts. With the first half, walk back and forth across your site from north to south, spreading the seeds as evenly as possible. Then, take the second half and walk east to west, spreading seeds in a similar manner. If you're planting a larger area, use a seed spreader. If it's a smaller area, you can simply spread the seed by hand.

3. After spreading the seed, compress the seed into the soil. The better seed-to-soil contact, the better chance of germination. Use a sod roller, a small 2 ft x 2 ft piece of plywood, or cardboard that you can stand on to press seeds into the soil. To allow the seeds full sunlight, do not cover them in any way.

4. After planting, give the area a good soaking.

5. We recommend watering regularly (but not soaking the area) until seedlings are about 6-8" tall.

4. Watering Your Wildflowers

Water as needed to keep soil and seedlings moist until they are 6 - 8 inches tall, which typically takes 4 - 6 weeks. At that point, they will be able to absorb groundwater through their roots to grow strong and healthy all on their own.

If you have hot, sunny, and/or dry weather, you may need to water your planting to help seedlings establish. Be sure to give a thorough watering in the morning before a hot day, and also give a thorough watering the next morning. A sprinkler attached to a timer is an easy and affordable way to water your planting without disrupting your regular schedule.
What can you do in areas where you cannot water?

Time your planting with rain in the forecast, and sow your seeds on a rainy day.

Or, you plant seeds in fall when you can take advantage of winter precipitation.

Lack of moisture can slow down germination. Be patient - at some point, you should have enough rain or precipitation to germinate your seeds.

In the heat of the summer, if you can't water, you may see reduced flowering.

Don't worry! Think about wildflowers growing in the wild - it may take more time than in an area where you could water with a hose, but you will still have a beautiful meadow.

5. What To Expect While Your Wildflowers Grow

When Will Wildflowers Bloom?
Spring Planting

Seeds will germinate as soon as your soil temperature has warmed to 55°F or warmer.

As long as the soil is warm, and there is enough sunlight and moisture, you'll begin to see growth appear in about 1-3 weeks.

Fall Planting

Seeds will lay dormant over the winter.

Then, in spring, seeds will germinate as soon as your soil temperature has warmed to 55°F or warmer. See notes on spring growth above.

See Your Soil Temperature Here Know Wildflower Lifecycles To Know Flowering Times

Annual wildflowers bloom with 6-12 weeks of germination. Annuals have a one-year lifecycle and bloom from spring until frost.

Biennials have a two-year life cycle. In the first year, they establish foliage, and they bloom in the second year.

Perennials require a full season of growth to establish root systems, and will begin blooming in their second year. They return year after year from the same root system.

Growing a wildflower mix? Some of our wildflower mixes are all annuals, and some are a mix of annuals, perennials, and/or biennials.

Weeding Tips

Pulling or snipping weeds will help to encourage healthy growth in your wildflowers. This can be done by hand weeding in small areas, or mowing in larger areas where hand weeding isn't practical.

When hand weeding, It's better to cut the weeds off just below the soil line with a weed fork or a Hori Hori knife (or similar implement) instead of pulling the weeds. Cutting weeds avoids disturbing the soil and creating an inviting space for undesirable seeds to germinate.

Be sure you can identify seedlings of the seeds you sowed so that you don't weed them out by accident. Not sure if it's a wildflower or a weed? You can use a plant identification app, or wait until the plant blooms to make it easier to identify.

Patience Is Key

Seeding can be a thrilling experience. But success can take time. Sometimes it will take a couple or three growing seasons to establish a beautiful wildflower meadow, especially when seeding a large area with perennial plants. We often recommend choosing mixtures with annuals included, as you will get quick blooming results while the perennials mature.

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How To Grow Wildflowers From Seed | High Country Gardens

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Follow our guide to growing wildflower seeds.

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Assistant Professor and SDSU Extension Bison Specialist

Written collaboratively by Jeff M. Martin, South Dakota State University (SDSU) Center of Excellence for Bison Studies and Chase Brooke, Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Service.
Summary

North American bison ( Bison bison) are an attractive, high-value livestock species that is growing in number and popularity across the United States. While bison ranching has some similarities with cattle ranching, there are significant differences that must be accounted for to ensure long-term sustainability and profitability. Bison are a hardy species that tolerate hot climates of southern Texas and cold climates of northern Canada, utilize a wide variety of native forages and forbs that may not be as palatable to cattle and require less handling than cattle. Furthermore, bison are not domesticated, and therefore they are more wild, larger and stronger than cattle, and they should be managed as such.

A few things to consider when starting with or converting to bison ranching: 1) bison largely remain a wild and undomesticated species - treat them as dangerous wildlife, 2) precipitation and drought will affect summer growth and gains - more drought will reduce growth rates and 3) mind your genetics, avoid inbreeding.

Introduction

Bison are a pillar of North American natural history - appearing on flags, official governmental seals and history books across North America, particularly in the United States. While bison are not domesticated like cattle, they make for an attractive alternative species for landowners across the Great Plains and surrounding regions. They are hardy and integrate well into native rangeland restoration and tolerate Texas summers and Canadian winters alike (Figure 1). Accordingly, private herd sizes have continued to increase over the years as markets and consumer demand grow, making bison ranching financially attractive ( Bison Economics Tool).

Getting started in raising a bison herd requires adequate preparation along with the right management approach. A landowner should not expect bison to handle like cattle, and bison require a robustness of fencing, equipment and facilities that exceed typical cattle requirements. Once these topics are accounted for, bison can be readily reintroduced to the Great Plains and prairie landscapes they once ranged freely. Prior to 1868, between 30-60 million bison ranged across North America (Figure 1). Their populations were rapidly reduced to less than 1,000 remaining animals 20 years later. Recent reintroduction of bison for meat production has brought back herd numbers and has helped diversify livestock operations across the Great Plains.

Bison Biology and Behavior

Individual Behavior

In general, the internal workings of bison are similar to cattle, insofar as they are both ruminants with a four-chambered stomach. Bison retain many wild traits lost in cattle that include large flight-zone distances, short tempers and overall minimal domestication traits. As a general rule, expect bison to behave more like wildlife than domesticated livestock. As such, low-stress, low-pressure stockmanship and ensuring that handling facilities are built to reduce animal stress will reduce the chance of injury to the animal and the handler. Bison are extremely sensitive to stress, which can lead to reduced animal performance at best and animal death at worst. In the field recognizing these elevated stress and defensiveness levels is critical and may be identified by the following: panting, raising of tail, or in extreme circumstances laying down, passing out and cessation of breathing (ultimately dying). Defensiveness (also stress-related) is exhibited by snorting, bellowing, tails straight up, pawing the ground, bluff charges, attack charges and trampling. However, bison are more resistant than cattle to extreme weather events, such as blizzards and heat waves.

Given adequate nutrition, bison cows will produce calves annually after two years-of-age and live to be 20-30 years-of-age. This longevity comes with a tradeoff in that bison grow more slowly than typical beef cattle due to a lower and more variable metabolic rate. This slower growth results in a prolonged market turn around (20-30 months) compared to beef cattle (~18 months).

Herd Behavior

Bison herd behavior is dictated by both size of herd and seasonal cycles. Small herds (fewer than 30 individuals) behave as a cohesive nuclear unit, led by the dominant hierarchy of elder matriarchal cows. The other members of the herd maintain a hierarchy of less-dominant females, such as betas who operate as herd sentries that monitor nearby threats and safety, as well as rank-and-file, sub-adult individuals, twolings, yearlings and calves. Satellite bachelor groups of young males (two-to-five years old) will form and the older males (greater than six years old) will often be solitary for most of the year. During rut (July-September), the males will regroup with the main herd for competition and breeding. Heightened herd aggressiveness is also exhibited during calving season, when cows are particularly defensive for their newborns. Anecdotally, total herd sizes greater than 30 individuals remain more calm than smaller herds.

Grazing Behavior

Bison prefer to consume grasses, sedges, some seasonal forbs and may browse woody plants and other plants when preferred forage is unavailable. Like cattle and other bovines, bison only have lower incisor teeth and a hard-upper palette. However, unlike cattle, bison have different grazing habits. Whereas cattle will favor an area and heavily utilize it before moving on, bison will instead graze lightly while ranging over a larger area - thereby reducing grazing pressure at individual points relative to the whole pasture, but may also have favorite areas that are revisited more consistently. Additionally, due to their larger body size, bison have increased forage digestion retention time compared to cattle, which allows them to digest poorer forages more efficiently. However, basic stocking rate-based management is still critical-overstocked bison will still overgraze a pasture, just as cattle will.

Wallowing

Another distinctive characteristic of bison is their wallowing behavior. By wallowing, bison expedite the shedding of fur while the dust helps protect their skin from irritation and pests. The shedding, or molting, of winter fur also helps to disperse seeds of both grasses and desirable forbs. These wallows are often found in the middle of a pasture and should be left on the landscape and not be filled in, as they often serve to add plant and animal diversity to rangelands. Should these bison wallows get filled, the bison will simply open a new wallow elsewhere. Thus, these wallows should be considered temporary sacrificial areas when determining stocking rates.

Bison Herd Health Management

According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), 41% of existing bison operations experience bison death loss or euthanasia due to disease, injury, mishandling or austere weather - these deaths, however, only account for approximately 2% of the bison population. Bison death loss is largely explained by four top factors: 1) 61% are disease and health-related problems, 2) 23% are non-predatory injury and trauma, 3) 13% are handling-related problems and 4) less than 11% are weather-related. It is interesting to note that calving-related deaths are negligible in bison mortality reports, compared to 17% of beef cattle death losses are calving-related. As such, managing herd health is critical for reducing potential death in the herd.

Bison, like all animals, are susceptible to various pathogens, gastro-intestinal parasites and nutritional deficiencies and toxicities. Common diseases in bison include calf scours, Johne's disease (Mycobaterium avium paratuberculosis), bovine respiratory disease complex (BRD; a.k.a. shipping fever), infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR), parainfluenza-3 (PI-3), bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV), Mannheimia pneumonia, Mycoplasma bovis, bovine tuberculosis (bTB), listeriosis, brucellosis, bovine virus diarrhea (BVD), internal parasitism ( Cooperia, Haemonchus, Monezia, Nematodirus, Oesophagostomum, Setaria, Trichostrongylus, Trichuris), ostertagiosis, anaplasmosis, coccidiosis, liver flukes, lungworm, Toxocara vitulorum, copper and selenium deficiencies, clostridial diseases, blackleg, anthrax, histophilus, malignant catarrhal fever (MCF), pinkeye, bluetongue virus (BTV) and epidemic hemorrhagic disease (EHD). The National Bison Association has an in-depth guide on bison disease that may be purchased through their online resources.

Common, tell-tale signs of unhealthy bison include emaciation, lethargy, coughing and voluntary seclusion from the herd. One of the field monitoring tools to compare herd and individual health is by using Body Condition Scores (BCS). On a five-point scale with "5" being obese and "1" being emaciated, conservation-oriented herds should strive for an average BCS of 3.1 for the herd, while production-oriented bison herds should strive for an average BCS of 3.8 for the herd. It is important to monitor these behavioral and body condition scores for changes out of normal. As an example, emaciated animals may be indicative of poor nutrition, gastro-intestinal parasite infestation or disease infection and should be used to make management decisions regarding health interventions for those individuals or the herd. Establishing a frequent and regular parasite monitoring program for your herd is important to become proactive, instead of reactive to health problems. Contact your veterinarian or local extension office for labs that can conduct this testing.

As with any animal operation, dealing with animal carcasses is an important consideration. While this is an unfortunate part of operating animal herds, these carcasses are still a wealth of information for your operation. It is often worth conducting a necropsy to learn the cause of death for the animal, because it may provide a deep look into what else might be ailing the rest of your herd. Working with your herd veterinarian is essential to correctly and safely conduct a necropsy. The Center of Excellence for Bison Studies has resources available to assist you in obtaining pre-assembled necropsy kits that you can purchase as a contingency, and it has a long shelf-life.

Managing Rangelands and Pasture for Bison

Historically, bison ranged across almost all of North America and can acclimate to a variety of climates and ecosystems. As with any livestock, maintaining a healthy stocking rate compatible with your local carrying capacity is key for the long-term sustainability of the rangeland or pasture, as well as the herd itself. Overstocking a pasture can lead to degradation in forage quality, increased parasite and health issues and reduced soil productivity.

Determining stocking rate for bison is similar to other livestock species, as it is a function of the total number of animal units (AU) per acre of productive range or pasture. Bison are generally equivalent to cattle in terms of animal unit equivalents (AUE), with a bison cow and calf generally equating to one AUE. Appropriate stocking rates vary depending on forage type, precipitation and a number of other factors (collectively referred to as carrying capacity). For more information on appropriate stocking rates in your region, contact your local extension office. Also use this grazing calculator webtool.

Integrating bison into existing pasture and range management systems may be straightforward. Particularly, bison and prescribed fire are a traditional combination, which integrate well. Both history and research note that bison congregate and graze in recently burned areas, selecting newly sprouted grass shoots and churning the soil surface. This may lead to increased plant species diversity and reduced soil compaction. Average daily gains on bison on rangelands average approximately one pound per day, compared to approximately 1.3-2.4 pounds per day in feedlot conditions.

One important consideration for managers looking to convert a property to raising bison is that bison perform poorly in digesting coastal bermudagrass and some other introduced forage species. This is primarily a concern in unfertilized monoculture bermudagrass pastures that are found in the southern Great Plains and surrounding regions, but nevertheless may cause severe and chronic issues with animal performance and mortality.

Considerations for Transitioning From Cattle to Bison Ranching

Ranching operations running cattle herds are commonly found across the Great Plains and are typically well suited for transitioning to ranching bison. In many aspects, the two species of livestock require similar operational considerations and facilities, though there are notable differences that should be taken into consideration before transitioning. Comparing the economic feasibility of running bison, tracking local market outlets for marketable animals and changing fencing and handling infrastructure is critical for solvency and long-term success.

Economic Feasibility of Bison Ranching Relative to Cattle

The comparative economics of transitioning from cattle ranching to bison is dependent on the revenue prospects from selling higher value animals relative to the increased facility and transportation costs that are required for bison operations.

Overall, the number of bison in the United States has been remaining relatively constant, with recent trends showing an increasing number of bison from 161,917 in 2012 to 183,515 in 2017. Across the Great Plains region, the distribution of these animals has been greatest in the northern states relative to the central or southern ones. Around the same time, wholesale market carcass prices of bison generally outperformed cattle carcass prices from 2009 to 2019 and have outperformed cattle market prices since 2004 ( Bison Economics Tool). However, this increased carcass price is offset by the lack of tax incentives present in the cattle industry, which increases total costs on bison producers.

Converting an existing livestock operation to accommodate bison comes with potentially substantial changes in infrastructure and planning that may impact operational costs. Because of the size and behavior differences relative to domesticated livestock, fences, handling facilities and loading facilities must be strengthened and renovated to accommodate bison. These conversion costs for equipment and perimeter fences may be limiting for many cattle ranchers to transform their properties for conservation, but cost-sharing programs, loans and grants via the USDA may offset some costs. Check with your local USDA Service Center to verify which programs may apply.

Separate from ranch infrastructure, ranchers should be aware that there are fewer bison sale and processing facilities in the country. This effectively means that purchasing bison requires more effort or distance than cattle. While many bison are sold via private treaty, national and regional/state bison associations may organize regular or sporadic auctions. Many traditional sale barns are not equipped for bison. Sale to terminal markets and processors also typically involved an individual contract, with the producer being responsible for delivering the animals to the facility. Some companies may be able to contract or facilitate the delivery of the animals.

Converting Facilities to Accommodate Bison

The two areas that require the most significant adaptation to handle bison are fencing and animal handling facilities. Bison are larger, more agile and more skittish compared to cattle. Their larger size allows them to simply shove their way through fencing, and adult bison can jump up to six feet high. Therefore, they require appropriate facilities and infrastructure that can accommodate those differences.

Fencing

It is important to understand that very few fences will prevent a sufficiently motivated bison from getting through it. Their large size and ability to jump normal-sized fences mean a three-strand, barb-wire fence good enough for cattle should not be expected to deter or hold bison. Thus, the objective is to utilize fencing and handling techniques designed to reduce the desire for a bison to want to go through the fence and to deter that desire if necessary.

As a rule of thumb, keeping the fence line at the eye level of bison (5-5.5 feet) may deter attempts to cross it. For barbed wire fences, three-to-five strands of high-tensile wire should suffice and may make for straight-forward renovation of existing cattle fencing. For woven wire fencing, 48-inch woven wire topped with two-to-three strands of high-tensile barbed wire may contain bison, while deterring access to pastures by predators (however, this may also unintentionally limit pronghorn, elk and deer access). Electric fencing can also be effective given good grounding and adequate charge capacity on the lines.

Handling facilities

Like fencing, handling facilities need to be robust enough to handle bison. Compared to cattle facilities, this requires higher pens, fences and panels, with an average height of at least seven feet. Sorting pens need to be larger; chutes need to be larger, and squeeze chutes must be custom made to accommodate the larger width and weight of bison. Specialty squeeze chutes and other handling equipment is available from several manufacturers or can be custom built.

More so than cattle, planning handling facilities to reduce animal stress is critical for bison herds. Placing chutes, alleys and pens with good forward visibility and blocked visibility of humans will allow bison to progress through the facility readily. Excessive stress during handling and leading can lead to animal and human injury, damage to the facilities and potentially animal death.

Programs and Resources

Finally, landowners interested in beginning a bison ranch should be aware that bison do not always qualify for the same incentives and programs that other livestock do. Generally, Bison qualify for USDA Farm Service Agency Wildfire and Hurricane Indemnity Program (WHIP) and Livestock Forage Program (LFP). Within the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, their Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP) may be able to aid landowners interested in implementing best management practices. Information on these programs and coverage should be requested from your local USDA Service Center.

Additional Resources & Works Cited

National Bison Association, Official website.

Center of Excellence for Bison Studies, South Dakota State University.

Bison Worker and Handling Safety Guidelines, Central States Center for Agricultural Safety and Health.

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2020. Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers: All Items in U.S. City Average [CPIAUCSL]. FRED, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. [Accessed 19 Mar 2020].

USDA, 2016. Health and management practices on U.S. ranched-bison operations, 2014. Fort Collins, Colorado.

USDA, 2020. Monthly Bison Report.

USDA NASS, 2017. 2017 Census of Agriculture, Census Data Query Tool (CDQT).

USDA NRCS, 2021. South Dakota, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Body Condition Scoring - Bison.

National Bison Association, Official website.

Center of Excellence for Bison Studies, South Dakota State University.

Bison Worker and Handling Safety Guidelines, Central States Center for Agricultural Safety and Health.

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2020. Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers: All Items in U.S. City Average [CPIAUCSL]. FRED, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. [Accessed 19 Mar 2020].

USDA, 2016. Health and management practices on U.S. ranched-bison operations, 2014. Fort Collins, Colorado.

USDA, 2020. Monthly Bison Report.

USDA NASS, 2017. 2017 Census of Agriculture, Census Data Query Tool (CDQT).

USDA NRCS, 2021. South Dakota, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Body Condition Scoring - Bison.

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While bison ranching has some similarities with cattle ranching, there are significant differences that must be accounted for to ensure long-term sustainability and profitability.

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Travis Audubon protects native habitat for birds and other wildlife. In 1952, our founders recognized the vital connection between conserving wildlife habitat and the ecological balance necessary for healthy and sustainable communities. Members enjoy many benefits and privileges, including exclusive access to our three sanctuaries, and discounts on exciting programs and classes. Join us, get involved, and find inspiration in nature.

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Travis Audubon - Inspiring Conservation Through Birding

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Travis Audubon protects native habitat for birds and other wildlife. In 1952, our founders recognized the vital connection between conserving wildlife habitat and the ecological balance necessary for healthy and sustainable communities. Members enjoy many benefits and privileges, including exclusive access to our three sanctuaries, and discounts on exciting programs and classes.

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Polls show that support for land conservation and public space for outdoor recreation is strong across the United States. A majority of voters believe that investing in conservation is important, regardless of their political affiliation or the state of the economy. Surveys show that voters understand the vital role conservation plays in their communities. Election results reinforce these findings: in recent decades, voters nationwide have approved billions of dollars in conservation funding.

Since Pew Research Center began polling on environmental issues in the early 1990s, public support for environmental protection in general has remained high. According to 2016 data, 74% of Americans believe the country should "do whatever it takes to protect the environment" compared to 23% who said the country has "gone too far" in environmental protection efforts.

Unless otherwise noted, the findings in this section come from a 2012 national survey completed by a team of Republican and Democratic pollsters. As of 2017, this survey remains the most comprehensive sampling of Americans' views of conservation.

Red or Blue, Green is Patriotic

Eighty-two percent of voters think that conserving natural resources is patriotic. This holds true regardless of ideology or political affiliation. More than three-quarters (77%) believe that protecting and preserving the nation's history and natural beauty through national parks, forests, and other public lands is one of the things the government does best.

Voters Identify as Conservationists

Voters identify themselves as conservationists and consider conservation in their voting decisions. Seven out of 10 respondents consider themselves "conservationists," compared to 53% who label themselves "environmentalists." Republicans are much more likely to use the "conservationist" label.

Conservation is Essential to the Economy

The majority of voters do not see protecting land and water to be at odds with protecting the economy. Almost eight out of 10 voters (79%) agreed with the statement "we can protect land and water without compromising our economy." Seventy-seven percent believe that environmental protections have a positive or neutral impact on jobs, compared to 17% who believe that environmental protections hurt jobs. Seven in 10 voters said that public lands--state and national parks, forests, monuments, and wildlife areas--are essential to their state's economy.

Conservation is Essential to Quality of Life

Almost 90% of voters believe that parks, forests, monuments, and wildlife areas are play an essential role in the quality of life in their state. More than half (53%) think that the best reason to conserve nature is because of its positive impact on human health and happiness, compared to 39% who prioritize conservation for nature's sake.

Conservation Concerns Affect Voting

Three-quarters (76%) of voters said that issues involving water quality (natural areas, lakes, rivers, or beaches), neighborhood parks, and wildlife habitat are important to them when deciding how to vote. One-third (35%) of voters think their member of Congress places a lower priority on conservation than they do; only 16% think their representative values conservation more than they do.

In the survey, voters were asked several questions about the importance of conservation and environmental issues when voting. The majority said it was important to know presidential and congressional candidates' views on natural resource issues, and natural resources were of similar importance to several hot-button topics. For example, 91% of voters were interested in the candidates' views on decisions impacting natural resources, versus 90% on taxes. Seventy-nine percent were interested in positions on protecting clean air, clean water, and natural areas, contrasted with abortion (61%) and same sex marriage (52%).

Voters are Willing to Pay More in Taxes to Support Conservation

A majority of voters support the idea of tax increases to fund conservation. Fifty-eight percent would support additional taxes at the local/state government level, and 56% at the federal government level. When presented with specific amounts 83% of voters say they are willing to pay at least something more. Those in a financial situation described as "comfortable" or "getting by" were much more likely to support tax increases than people who were "struggling."

Broadly speaking, most voters (72%) think the government plays an essential role in protecting land, water, and wildlife, including 64% of conservative Republicans (who typically favor a limited federal government). Eighty-two percent of people think the government should lead conservation efforts for areas that cross state boundaries, such as mountain ranges, rivers, and wildlife habitats.

Voters Oppose Cuts to Conservation

Don't Cut Federal Conservation Funding

Despite the challenging economic climate of 2012, three-quarters (74%) of voters opposed cuts to programs that safeguard land, air, and water.

Support the Land and Water Conservation Fund

Created by Congress in 1965, the Land and Water Conservation Fund (LWCF) receives a small portion of the fees paid by oil and gas companies that drill in waters owned by the American people. LWCF helps create and protect national parks, areas around rivers and lakes, national forests, and national wildlife refuges, while also providing matching grants for state and local parks and recreation projects. It is the premier federal funding source for land conservation.

In a 2013 survey, 85% of voters preferred that the nation continue to invest in LWCF. Support for LWCF transcends party identity. Seventy-eight percent of Republicans, 84% of independents, and 93% of Democrats are in favor of funding LWCF.

Regardless of a state's political leanings, its residents support conservation. Surveys in Montana, Maryland, and Pennsylvania demonstrate this.

Montana

Voters in Montana, which Gallup identifies as one of the most conservative states in America, value conservation. [4] In a 2017 survey, nearly eight out of 10 (78%) voters identified themselves as conservationists. [5] A majority of Montanan voters recognize the importance of maintaining public space for outdoor recreation: 92% support improving and repairing infrastructure in outdoor destinations, and 88% want to improve access to public lands.

Following the 2016 presidential election, a strong majority (63%) of Montana voters believe the Trump administration should emphasize protecting air and water resources while providing outdoor recreation opportunities on public lands.

Maryland

In Maryland, which Gallup identifies as one of the top-10 most liberal states, conservation is also a priority for voters. A 2016 survey found that support for the state's land and water conservation program (Program Open Space) is nearly universal: 87% of voters said they support the program, including 55% who "strongly" support it. Support cuts across party lines, as 93% of Democrats, 90% of independents, and 77% of Republicans are in favor of the program. [6]

Furthermore, voters express support for legislative measures to prevent the legislature from diverting money from Program Open Space to unrelated state programs. More than seven in 10 (73%) believe money should not be diverted from this statewide conservation program.

Pennsylvania

In the swing state of Pennsylvania, residents overwhelmingly support the use of state funds for conservation. In a 2015 poll, 90% of residents surveyed said they would support increasing state funds for land and water conservation, protection of historic sites, and farmland preservation. [7]

Most (80%) were in favor of increased funds even if it cost the average household $10-20 more annually. Independents (86%) were the most willing, followed by Democrats (82%) and Republicans (75%).

Each year, voters in various states, counties, and local municipalities face conservation funding ballot measures. Each year, these voters approve taxes and conservation spending in their communities. Between 1988 and 2017, there were 2,613 conservation funding measures on local and statewide ballots; 1,973 (75%) passed, allocating more than $75 billion for conservation.

For more information on these votes, see the Trust for Public Land's LandVote database.

Anglers and hunters express resounding support for conservation. This section cites data from a 2017 national survey of 1,000 voters who identify as hunters and/or anglers.

Sportspeople Identify Themselves as Conservationists

Nearly four in ten respondents (37%) identify as Republican, 36% as independent, and 20% as Democratic. A third live in rural areas, 30% in the suburbs, and 17% in urban areas.

Most (81%) identified themselves as conservationists, including 83% of Republicans, 81% of Democrats, and 80% of independents.

Sportspeople Prioritize Conservation

Nearly all voters (97%) agree that protecting public lands for future generations is important. Eighty-three percent, including 90% of Clinton voters and 73% of Trump voters, say this is "very important." Sportspeople are concerned about the future: 85% worry that "outdoor traditions and recreation opportunities are being lost for the next generation," with 52% "strongly" agreeing. Ninety-two percent say that conservation issues are important in their support for an elected official; 39% say it is the primary factor.

Sportspeople Support Conservation Funding

A vast majority (87% total) oppose cuts to conservation programs in the federal budget, despite budget difficulties; 59% strongly oppose cuts. More than two-thirds (67%) oppose selling public lands to reduce the federal budget deficit.

Nearly eight in 10 (79%) support using offshore oil and gas drilling fees for conservation and outdoor recreation. Most (75%) support providing financial incentives for farmers to conserve land.

Overall, 92% believe public lands make positive contributions to the economy; 58% strongly believe this.

Concern for Parks Transcends Politics

Protecting national parks is important to voters, regardless of political ideology. In a 2016 poll, 77% of respondents said that the United States benefits "a great deal" or "fair amount" from the National Park System, and 55% said they personally benefitted. Sixty-five percent said that strengthening the National Park System should be an important priority.

Pro-Park Candidates are Viewed Favorably

The poll found that-across party lines-voters think highly of pro-national park candidates. The vast majority of Democrats (88%), independents (83%), and Republicans (79%) said they would have a favorable reaction if their representative in Congress supported policies to protect and strengthen national parks.

Increase or Maintain Government Support for Parks

The same poll showed that nearly half of voters (49%) think the federal government is doing too little to protect and strengthen national parks. Another 46% think the government is doing the right amount. Only 6% say the government is doing too much.

A majority of Democrats and independents (54% and 51%, respectively), and 41% of Republicans, believe the government should do more to bolster the National Park System.

Campaign to Protect and Strengthen Parks

When it comes to political campaigns, it's not easy to find an issue that unites more than nine out of 10 voters. Yet a campaign in support of national parks could do just that.

In an earlier 2012 poll, voters were asked if they would support a national campaign to build support for policies that protect and strengthen national parks. Not only would 95% of people support this campaign, but 36% would actively contribute through volunteer work and/or financial contributions. Only 5% of voters would disagree with the campaign's goals altogether.

Over the years, voters have consistently expressed support for efforts to conserve wildlife. In a 2015 poll, 90% of voters said they support the Endangered Species Act, the federal law that protects species in danger of extinction, compared to 7% in opposition. Liberals (96%), moderates (94%), and conservatives (82%) from all regions of the country recognize the importance of safeguarding vulnerable wildlife. In Gallup polls on environmental topics, people report that extinction of plant and animal species is one of the most concerning issues. In 2017, 72% said they worry "a great deal" or "fair amount" about extinction of plant and animal species.

American Voters View Conservation as a Smart Investment. Conducted by the bipartisan team of FM3 (Democratic) and Public Opinion Strategies (Republican) for The Nature Conservancy (2013). Telephone survey of 700 registered voters nationwide from September 23-26, 2013.

State of the States. Gallup (2016). Data from Gallup Daily tracking survey, which polls 1,000 adults nationwide each day, 350 days per year.

In Depth Topics: Environment. Gallup. http://www.gallup.com/poll/1615/environment.aspx

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Across the political spectrum, voters in the United States consistently demonstrate support for conservation.

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Bird-Friendly Life | American Bird Conservancy

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Here are ways to live a bird-friendly (and Earth-friendly) life: Simple steps to help birds will also help many other species, including people.

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Global Alliance for the Rights of Nature (GARN)

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It is the recognition that our ecosystems - including trees, oceans, animals, mountains - have rights just as human beings have rights. Rights of Nature is about balancing what is good for human beings against what is good for other species, what is good for the planet as a world. It is the holistic recognition that all life, all ecosystems on our planet are deeply intertwined.

Rather than treating nature as property under the law, rights of nature acknowledges that nature in all its life forms has the right to exist, persist, maintain and regenerate its vital cycles.

And we - the people - have the legal authority and responsibility to enforce these rights on behalf of ecosystems. The ecosystem itself can be named as the injured party, with its own legal standing rights, in cases alleging rights violations.

For indigenous cultures around the world, recognizing rights of nature is consistent with their traditions of living in harmony with nature. All life, including human life, are deeply connected. Decisions and values are based on what is good for the whole.

Nonetheless, for millennia, legal systems around the world have treated land and nature as "property". Laws and contracts are written to protect the property rights of individuals, corporations, and other legal entities. As such, environmental protection laws legalize environmental harm by regulating how much pollution or destruction of nature can occur within the law. Under such law, nature and all of its non-human elements have no standing.

By recognizing rights of nature in its constitution, Ecuador - and a growing number of communities in the United States - are basing their environmental protection systems on the premise that nature has inalienable rights, just as humans do. This premise is a radical but natural departure from the assumption that nature is property under the law.

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What are the Rights of Nature? - Global Alliance for the Rights of Nature

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Learn the definition of the Rights of Nature according to the movement - what are the Rights of Nature and what do they seek to recognize?

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Habiturf®: The Ecological Lawn - Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center

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Turfgrasses have a wide range of applications: roadsides, parks, corporate campuses, golf courses, utility rights of way and residential lawns. But they're often villainized as requiring high levels of nutrients, water and maintenance. In 2007, Wildflower Center researchers decided to put turfgrass to the test.

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Green roofs in hot climates got off to slow start. They were up against a lot: extreme temperatures, intense rainfall events and long periods of drought. Plant roots - and the matter they live in - have to remain cool enough to survive and be able to retain moisture. No small feat on a Central Texas rooftop.

To address these issues from the roof up, as it were, Wildflower Center researchers developed SkySystem™, a planting medium specifically formulated for green roofs in hot climates. Even in hot Texas summers, it helps keep roots cool and soil moist. An added bonus? It's comprised of 100% recycled materials.

Center Environmental Designer John Hart Asher says most planting media prior to SkySystem was made up of components that had a negative environmental association, such as sand (which requires mining). Or, if they had green products such as coconut coir fiber in them, that matter wasn't locally sourced. Faced with no good available option, the Center decided to make its own.

SkySystem consists of 100 percent recycled content - all of which is locally available. It's a low impact development (LID) mix, including material that's organic, like compost, and mineral, such as pulverized brick. Asher says the custom recipe created at the Center is able to prevent big temperature fluctuations, which makes for healthier, stronger roots.

Currently, SkySystem is only used on projects contracted through the Wildflower Center, but a major green roof manufacturer is considering licensing the product, which would make it available for purchase by other developers and designers.

DIG DEEPER
Wildflower Center Living Architecture Projects

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SkySystem™ - Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center

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Developed by Wildflower Center researchers, SkySystem™ planting medium is specifically formulated for green roofs in hot climates.

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For any gray-colored states, we are currently working to identify organizations to represent this state in our network. Find more information on membership with NCN.

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Jeanne Gang: Buildings that blend nature and city

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A skyscraper that channels the breeze ... a building that creates community around a hearth ... Jeanne Gang uses architecture to build relationships. In this engaging tour of her work, Gang invites us into buildings large and small, from a surprising local community center to a landmark Chicago skyscraper.

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Elora Hardy: Magical houses, made of bamboo

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You've never seen buildings like this. The stunning bamboo homes built by Elora Hardy and her team in Bali twist, curve and surprise at every turn. They defy convention because the bamboo itself is so enigmatic. No two poles of bamboo are alike, so every home, bridge and bathroom is exquisitely unique.

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About Resolutions and Ordinances

Most city councils (or comparable local legislative bodies) can take action in one of two ways: by ordinance or resolution.

Although this can vary community to community, typically a RESOLUTION is passed to express the opinion of the adopting body on some matter of a temporary or advisory nature (such as expressing its concern over the USA PATRIOT Act), or to handle administrative business. An ORDINANCE is passed to enact regulations of a general and permanent nature, enforceable as local law. An example of this would be to legally require the posting of a warning against USA PATRIOT Act Sec. 215 in your local libraries.

The vast majority of communities that have acted in opposition to the USA PATRIOT Act have passed resolutions, however a few communities have passed ordinances (see St. Paul's or Minneapolis's ordinances as examples).

Parts of a Resolution

Resolutions have two main parts: preambular clauses and operative clauses.

PREAMBULAR clauses, which typically start with the word "whereas," give background information on why your community is passing its resolution. These clauses can refer to the following aspects:

the topic itself (for example, the USA PATRIOT Act and other federal government policy)

the occasion of consideration of the topic (for example, Sept. 11th or the passage of the USA PATRIOT Act)

recent incidents, and recent developments (for example, recent legislation that threatens our civil rights and liberties)

previous resolutions (for example, if your community has passed previous resolutions or laws to protect civil rights and liberties)

the Constitution

local history or community characteristics

OPERATIVE clauses, which typically start with "be it resolved" followed by an active, present tense verb (like "affirms" or "encourages"), call upon certain bodies to act. These clauses can contain the following aspects:

recommendations for specific action

statements of opinions

requests for further consideration or monitoring

Tips for Writing and Passing an Effective Resolution

1. Build a Broad Coalition. Writing the resolution should not be the starting point.

First, it is critical to build a diverse group of community members who support your efforts. This enables your group to demonstrate to your local legislative body that your concerns are valid and important and that local community members are educated on the issues. Building public support also helps to demonstrate to your legislative body why it is a local issue.

Additionally, if you choose to have a resolution or ordinance to increase monitoring about how the USA PATRIOT Act is being implemented, it is best to obtain the prior approval of the government agency that will be doing the monitoring. Many communities have Human Rights Commissions that may be willing to carryout monitoring.

2. Study legislative processes in your town or city.

Some cities may require you to have a councilperson introduce the resolution while in other cities you may be able to put the resolution on the agenda.

As an initial step, your group should build a relationship with members on your local legislative body. If the body feels that the resolution is a joint effort, there will be a greater chance that the resolution will pass.

You may want to even approach a member to draft the resolution, which you can collaboratively revise. Feel free to show the members a list of cities that have passed resolutions and to give them a sample resolution.

Also, in most locations, resolutions will not have lasting legal effect and if this is the case you may want to consider passing a city ordinance or other local legislation (see the explanation of resolutions and ordinances above).

3. Focus on using mandatory language ("shall" "must" "will", etc.) versus discretionary language ("we encourage x body to..." "may", etc.). Mandatory language helps to create a legally binding duty for the adopting body and those bodies it has jurisdiction over (such as local police departments). However, your resolution cannot have legally binding authority over other bodies that your adopting body does not have jurisdiction over, such as Congress or the President- for these bodies the resolution can only "urge" them to act. Like all legal language, the more specific you make the duty, the easier it will be to enforce.

4. Be textually accurate. In describing all laws and regulations, try to quote textual language or summarize directly from the textual language, citing the relevant section of the Act. Avoiding sweeping allegations or broad textual summaries will bring credibility and factual accuracy to your resolution and will also steer the discussion away from rhetoric towards meaningful discourse. Complete text of the USA PATRIOT Act

5. Allow for revisions. It is important to have some flexibility for compromises that may be necessary to pass the resolution in your legislative body.

6. Maintain your community network. As you may have to play watchdog to make sure the provisions or your resolution or ordinance are properly implemented, it is vital to keep your group connected and continuously informed. Additionally, as you probably know, new threats to our civil liberties arise all the time and keeping your network together will help your community address them in the future. Passing a resolution is just the first step towards protecting your civil rights and liberties.

This is not meant to be an exhaustive list. If your community has a tip that you think is important to include, please let us know.

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Guide to Writing Effective Resolutions and Ordinances

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About Resolutions and Ordinances Most city councils (or comparable local legislative bodies) can take action in one of two ways: by ordinance or resolution. Although this can vary community to community, typically a RESOLUTION is passed to express the opinion of the

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Ryan Panchadsaram, Anjali Grover and David Biello

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Ryan Panchadsaram, Anjali Grover and David Biello: An updated action plan for solving the climate crisis — and a look at progress to date | TED Talk

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When it comes to climate, what are we doing right and where should we focus our efforts next? Systems innovator Ryan Panchadsaram and strategist Anjali Grover talk with TED science curator David Biello about the latest on the world’s progress toward solving the climate crisis — and why there’s more reason for optimism than you might think. Using strategic goal-setting tools that have transformed countless organizations, Panchadsaram and Grover explore the urgent actions needed to steer the planet toward a sustainable future and the pivotal roles of innovation, investment and policy. “The climate story isn’t yet written,” Grover says.

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Actions and outcomes that benefit birds can also have far-reaching benefits for human health, economic interests, and other human goals. Engaging diverse stakeholders to work towards common goals can ensure we have the capacity and buy-in to tackle complex conservation challenges. Within the bird-focused conservation community, partners often collaborate with such diverse groups as private [...]

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The majority of Argentina's climate is subtropical The Patagonian provinces: Neuquén, Río Negro, Chubut, Santa Cruz and Tierra del Fuego, experience low rainfall, except in the strip adjacent to the Andes Mountains as well as in the southern end of the provinces of Santa Cruz and Tierra del Fuego. The contiguous strip of the Andes Mountains has abundant forests, glaciers and permanent snows, North of 40, the climate is subtropical with hot summers. At the eastern end of this region there is abundant rainfall, which decreases towards the west and desert areas with very scarce vegetation, where cities and agriculture exist in the oases of the rivers fed by rainfall in the Cordillera; including provinces of San Juan, La Rioja, Catamarca and part of Mendoza. In the east, covering part of the provinces of Entre Rios, Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, Córdoba, La Pampa and San Luis, due to the humid conditions, rain-fed agriculture and cattle raising is extensive. The region between the humid east and the west arid is semi-arid, whose vegetation, originally from the mountains, has been modified by cattle breeding. In this region, the precipitation occurs almost entirely during the summer period. In the north of the country, in the province of Misiones and on the eastern slopes of the Tucumán, Salta and Jujuy, the high temperatures and abundant rainfall results in tropical forests. In Misiones, part of the original forest was replaced by commercial forestry, primarily pine. Commercial forestation of pines and eucalyptus also extends to the provinces of Corrientes and Entre Rios. The provinces of Chaco and Formosa, east of Salta and north of Santiago del Estero are in the region of the Chaco characterized by arboreal vegetation in the form of a park, where it is also develops extensive cattle raising and, increasingly, dry farming.

Argentina's climate features and seasonality are influenced by the presence of Los Andes Mountain extending along the west of the country as well as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the Indian Dipole. Sea surface temperature anomalies also influence Argentina's weather. Additionally, warm (cold) phase of El Niño and a positive (negative) phase of Indian Dipole are all related to increased (decreased) spring and autumn precipitation in northeastern Argentina and Central Andes and the signal decreases in summer and winter.

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World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal

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This page presents Argentina's climate context for the current climatology, 1991-2020, derived from observed, historical data. Information should be used to build a strong understanding of current climate conditions in order to appreciate future climate scenarios and projected change. You can visualize data for the current climatology through spatial variation, the seasonal cycle, or as a time series.

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Climate issues are bird issues, and renewable energy is one of the best ways we can help.

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Lights Out Texas is a campaign of education, awareness, and action that focuses on turning out lights at night during the spring and fall migrations to help protect the billions of migratory birds that fly over Texas annually.

HOW IT STARTED:

This effort was originally launched in 2017 by Houston Audubon and American National Insurance Company following a major bird collision event involving 400 birds in Galveston. Right around this time, Cornell Lab of Ornithology developed their migration forecast maps using historical radar data. Later, Lights Out Texas took hold in Dallas-Fort Worth, led by Texas Conservation Alliance, The Perot Museum of Nature and Science, and Dallas Zoo with The Cornell Lab of Ornithology and Colorado State University supporting efforts and Texan by Nature helping with outreach in Fall 2020.

In 2021, Texan by Nature collaborated with these leading organizations to facilitate Lights Out Texas at the statewide level in order to standardize the approach to messaging, communication, and volunteer efforts across all Texas organizations.

In 2022, the management of Lights Out Texas for Spring of 2022 was co-facilitated by Texan by Nature and , with a total transition of the statewide initiative to Audubon Texas in the Summer of 2022. Learn more and see the latest Lights Out Texas Resources at Audubon Texas tx.audubon.org/urbanconservation/lights-out-texas

Please contact audubontexas@audubon.org if you have questions, and/or if you are interested in setting up a meeting.

"Every Texan can participate in protecting our feathered friends by simply turning off their lights at night...Taking action now is vital because every spring and fall, between a third and a quarter of all birds migrating at night through the United States, travel through Texas."

-Former First Lady and Texan by Nature Founder, Laura Bush ( Read the full op-ed...)

WHEN TO GO LIGHTS OUT:
Spring Migration Dates*

Full Spring Migration Period: March 1 - June 15

Critical Spring Peak Migration Period: April 19 - May 7

Fall Migration Dates*

Full Fall Migration Period: August 15 - November 30

Critical Fall Peak Migration Period: September 5 - October 29

*Please note that migration dates vary from year to year. Visit the Key Timing Audubon Texas website for the latest dates. Guidelines for Everyone
We encourage everyone to turn off non-essential lights at night from 11 pm - 6 am during the full fall and spring migration periods, and where conflicts apply, prioritize lights out during the critical peak migration periods.
Additional Guidelines for Buildings Taller Than 3 Stories
HOW TO GO LIGHTS OUT:

Turn off all non-essential lights from 11:00 p.m. to 6:00 a.m. each night during migration season.

Do not use landscape lighting to light up trees or gardens where birds may be resting.

For essential lights (like security and safety lighting) use the following dark skies-friendly lighting practices:

Aim lights down;

Use lighting shields to direct light downwards and avoid light shining into the sky or trees;

Use motion detectors and sensors so lights are only on when you need them;

Close blinds at night to reduce the amount of light being emitted from windows.

You can find examples of dark skies-friendly lighting from the International Dark Sky Association and additional guidance and language regarding dark skies from the McDonald Observatory's dark skies resources and recommended lighting practices.

If you own or manage a building, consider the following for custodial services:

Consider adjusting custodial schedules to end by 11:00 PM.

Ask custodial staff to ensure that lights are off after they finish their work.

Extinguish or dim:

Exterior and decorative lighting (i.e. spotlights, logos, clock faces, greenhouses, and antenna lighting);

lobby/atrium lighting;

lighting in perimeter rooms on all levels of the building.

Avoid:

Floodlights,

Illuminating interior plants or fountains,

Illuminating unoccupied floors,

Lights with blue-rich white light emissions (lighting with a color temperature of over 3000 Kelvin).

Use:

Desk lamps or task lighting rather than overhead lights,

Blinking lighting in place of continuously burning lights,

Warm light sources (less than 3000 Kelvin) for outdoor lighting

RESOURCES

2021-2022 REPORTS:

Download Building Safer Cities for Birds

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Lights Out Texas focuses on taking action to turn out lights at night during the spring and fall to help protect migratory birds.

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TX Youth Climate Corp — Representative Gina Hinojosa

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Political Advertisement Paid For By Gina Hinojosa For State Representative, Janis Pinnelli, Treasurer

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The Xerces Society partners with the native seed industry to produce wildflower seed mixes meeting Xerces specifications, to provide foraging and nesting resources for a diversity of pollinators. For details about species composition, recommended seeding rate, and how to contact the producer, please download the specification sheet for each seed mix.

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There are two primary technologies that can harness the sun's power and turn it into electricity. The first is the one you're likely most familiar with - photovoltaics, or PV. These are the panels you've seen on rooftops or in fields. When the sun shines onto a solar panel, photons from the sunlight are absorbed by the cells in the panel, which creates an electric field across the layers and causes electricity to flow. Learn more about how PV works.

The second technology is concentrating solar power, or CSP. It is used primarily in very large power plants and is not appropriate for residential use. This technology uses mirrors to reflect and concentrate sunlight onto receivers that collect solar energy and convert it to heat, which can then be used to produce electricity. Learn more about how CSP works.

Solar panels are built to work in all climates, but in some cases, rooftops may not be suitable for solar systems due to age or tree cover. If there are trees near your home that create excessive shade on your roof, rooftop panels may not be the most ideal option. The size, shape, and slope of your roof are also important factors to consider. Typically, solar panels perform best on south-facing roofs with a slope between 15 and 40 degrees, though other roofs may be suitable too. You should also consider the age of your roof and how long until it will need replacement.

If a solar professional determines that your roof is not suitable for solar, or you don't own your home, you can still benefit from solar energy. Community solar allows multiple people to benefit from a single, shared solar array that can be installed on- or off-site. Costs associated with purchasing and installing a solar energy system are divided among all of the participants, who are able to buy into the shared system at a level that best fits their budget. Learn more about community solar.

Those interested in community solar can take advantage of a tool from awardee EnergySage. The company's Community Solar Marketplace aggregates the many available options in one place and standardizes project information, allowing interested consumers to easily locate and compare multiple community solar projects in their area.

There are a number of mapping services that have been developed by SETO awardees that will help you determine if your roof is suitable for solar and can even provide you with quotes from pre-screened solar providers in your area. In addition to those resources, an internet search can help you find local companies that install solar panels. Because you will likely have many options to choose from, it's important to thoroughly read reviews of solar companies to make sure you are selecting the best fit for you and your home.

Solarize campaigns can also help you start the process of going solar. These programs work by allowing groups of homeowners to work together to collectively negotiate rates, select an installer, and create additional community interest in solar through a limited-time offer to join the campaign. Ultimately, as the number of residents who participate in the program increase, the cost of the installations will decrease.

The amount of money you can save with solar depends upon how much electricity you consume, the size of your solar energy system, if you choose to buy or lease your system, and how much power it is able to generate given the direction your roof faces and how much sunlight hits it. Your savings also depend on the electricity rates set by your utility and how much the utility will compensate you for the excess solar energy you send back to the grid. Check the National Utility Rate Database to see current electricity rates in your area.

In some cities around the country, solar is already cost competitive with the electricity sold by your local utility. The cost of going solar has dropped every year since 2009, a trend researchers expect to continue. Not only are the prices of panels dropping, so are the costs associated with installation, such as permitting and inspection-also known as " soft costs." All of SETO's funding programs are working toward improving the affordability of solar and making it easier for consumers to choose solar.

It should also be noted that energy efficiency upgrades complement solar energy economically. By using Energy Star appliances and other products in your home, you'll need less solar energy to power your home.

Consumers have different financial options to select from when deciding to go solar. In general, a purchased solar system can be installed at a lower total cost than system installed using a solar loan, lease, or power purchase agreement (PPA).

If you prefer to buy your solar energy system, solar loans can lower the up-front costs of the system. In most cases, monthly loan payments are smaller than a typical energy bill, which will help you save money from the start. Solar loans function the same way as home improvement loans, and some jurisdictions will offer subsidized solar energy loans with below-market interest rates, making solar even more affordable. New homeowners can add solar as part of their mortgage with loans available through the Federal Housing Administration and Fannie Mae, which allow borrowers to include financing for home improvements in the home's purchase price. Buying a solar energy system makes you eligible for the Solar Investment Tax Credit, or ITC. In December 2020, Congress passed an extension of the ITC, which provides a 26% tax credit for systems installed in 2020-2022, and 22% for systems installed in 2023. The tax credit expires starting in 2024 unless Congress renews it. Learn more about the ITC.

Solar leases and PPAs allow consumers to host solar energy systems that are owned by solar companies and purchase back the electricity generated. Consumers enter into agreements that allow them to have lower electricity bills without monthly loan payments. In many cases, that means putting no money down to go solar. Solar leases entail fixed monthly payments that are calculated using the estimated amount of electricity the system will produce. With a solar PPA, consumers agree to purchase the power generated by the system at a set price per kilowatt-hour of electricity produced. With both of these options, though, you are not entitled to tax benefits since you don't own the solar energy system.

Navigating the landscape of solar financing can be difficult. The Clean Energy States Alliance released a guide to help homeowners understand their options, explaining the advantages and disadvantages of each. Download the guide.

Buying a solar energy system will likely increase your home's value. A recent study found that solar panels are viewed as upgrades, just like a renovated kitchen or a finished basement, and home buyers across the country have been willing to pay a premium of about $15,000 for a home with an average-sized solar array. Additionally, there is evidence homes with solar panels sell faster than those without. In 2008, California homes with energy efficient features and PV were found to sell faster than homes that consume more energy. Keep in mind, these studies focused on homeowner-owned solar arrays.

When it comes to third-party owned (TPO) systems, data shows that while they add some complexity to the real estate transaction, the overall impacts in terms of sales price, time on market, agreement transfers, and customer satisfaction are mostly neutral. In some cases, TPO systems can even add value.

The PV Value® tool is helpful for both home sellers and homebuyers. It calculates the energy production value for a PV system and is compliant with Uniform Standards of Progressional Appraisal Practice and has been endorsed by the Appraisal Institute for the income approach method. Make sure your appraiser uses this tool to get the most accurate estimate of your PV system's value.

Residential Consumer Guide to Solar Power - In an effort to make going solar as effortless and streamlined as possible, the Solar Energy Industries Association developed this guide to inform potential solar customers about the financing options available, contracting terms to be aware of, and other useful tips.

A Homeowner's Guide to Solar Financing: Leases, Loans and PPAs - This guide from the Clean Energy States Alliance helps homeowners navigate the complex landscape of residential solar system financing. It describes three popular residential solar financing choices and explains the advantages and disadvantages of each, as well as how they compare to a direct cash purchase.

Solar PV Project Financing: Regulatory and Legislative Challenges for Third-Party PPA System Owners - Third-party owned solar arrays allow a developer to build and own a PV system on a customer's property and sell the power back to the customer. While this can eliminate many of the up-front costs of going solar, third-party electricity sales face regulatory and legislative challenges in some states and jurisdictions. This report details the challenges and explains alternatives.

A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood: Encouraging Solar Development through Community Association Policies and Processes - This guide, written for association boards of directors and architectural review committees, discusses the advantages of solar energy and examines the elements of state solar rights provisions designed to protect homeowner access to these benefits. It then presents a number of recommendations associations can use to help bring solar to their communities.

Delaware Goes Solar: A Guide for Residential Customers - While you may not live in Delaware, this guide has practical information for people in all 50 states who would like to go solar.

A Residential Customer Guide to Going Solar: Duke Energy Carolinas Version - This guide, intended for North Carolina residents, is designed to help people take a larger measure of control over their energy production and energy future through solar.

Selling into the Sun: Price Premium Analysis of a Multi-State Dataset of Solar Homes - This report from Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory finds that home buyers are consistently willing to pay premiums of approximately $15,000 for homes that have solar across various states, housing and PV markets, and home types.

SEIA Residential Lease Disclosure Form - This form for solar energy leasing companies will help consumers better understand the terms and costs of their solar leases. The form is also designed to help consumers choose among competitive providers.

Learn more about the solar office's accomplishments.

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There are two primary technologies that can harness the sun's power and turn it into electricity. The first is the one you're likely most familiar with - photovoltaics, or PV. These are the panels you've seen on rooftops or in fields.

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Finding Grant Programs

If you are just entering the realm of grants and government funding, it can feel overwhelming trying to find the right program for you or your organization. When considering grants, these programs can be broadly categorized as those awarded by the federal government and those awarded by non-federal entities. Within these two categories are a variety of funding sources and program types.

Federal Grants, Funding & Benefit Programs

To sort through the federal grant programs, the authoritative source is the Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance (CFDA). This catalog lists all of the available funding programs to all levels of government, nonprofit organizations, for-profit businesses, and other eligible entities. Search Grants within Grants.gov allows you to search, filter, and apply for specific opportunities to receive funding from one of these programs.

Non-Federal Grant Programs

There are a large number of nonprofit organizations and for-profit businesses that also provide grants or other types of funding assistance.

Note: The information below is not exhaustive, and Grants.gov is not affiliated with, nor endorsing, any of these resources. They are provided as a convenience to prospective grant applicants.

The Foundation Center maintains a comprehensive database on U.S. and global grant-makers and their funding opportunities. It also operates research, education, and training programs designed to advance knowledge of philanthropy at every level.

The Funding Information Network facilitates access to grant resources and publications to under-resourced entities and populations.

State and regional directories can also be found with some research. Try using the Community Foundation Locator to find a grant-making foundation in your region. You may also use your preferred web search engine to find your state's grant or foundation directory. Local libraries may have access to subscription-based search engines or the Foundation Center Cooperating Collections, so visit your library to work with them for assistance.

Learn more about federal grant programs in the "Exploring Eligibility" blog series on the Grants.gov Community Blog .

For Personal Benefits

Are you an individual person looking for benefits, loans, or assistance from the government?

Grants.gov is probably not the site for you, but there are plenty of opportunities available:

Benefits.gov

The first place to look if you are looking for personal funding, such as funding for education, disaster relief, or health care. Use the Benefits Finder tool to identify programs for which you may be eligible.
GovLoans.gov
This site is helpful if you are looking for any type of personal or business loan.
StudentAid.ed.gov
You should check out this site if you are looking for education-related funding.

FedBizOpps.gov

This site is the government point-of-entry for federal government contract procurement opportunities over $25,000.

USA.gov

This site functions as an entryway to the U.S. Federal Government by providing information on federal agencies and programs, as well as facilitating access to the benefits and services for which you may be eligible.

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If you are just entering the realm of grants and government funding, it can feel overwhelming trying to find the right program for you or your organization. When considering grants, these programs can be broadly categorized as those awarded by the federal government and those awarded by non-federal entities.

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An excerpt of this article appeared in the Autumn 2023 issue of Living Bird magazine. Subscribe now.

"My dad gave me a pair of binoculars when I was ten years old, and I haven't put them down since"-that's how Christian Cooper, the cheery, bespectacled host of National Geographic's 2023 show Extraordinary Birder, opens each episode. Skipping from one birding destination to the next, he explores places like Puerto Rico, Hawaii, and his home turf in New York City. At each stop, he goes adventuring with experts, visits conservation projects, and shares his bottomless enthusiasm for the unique birdlife he finds along the way.

Christian Cooper wrote about his lifelong love for birds and birding in a 2023 New York Times-bestselling memoir, Better Living Through Birding: Notes from a Black Man in the Natural World. He is a Cornell Lab administrative board member and is on the NYC Audubon board of directors. We sat down with the former Marvel comics writer and editor to chat about weaving bird myths, growing up a Black and queer birder, and the universal appeal of birding.

The following interview has been edited for length and clarity.

All About Birds: What is it about birdlife that connects deeply with you, and what about birding brings you the most joy?

Christian Cooper: The long answer is something I call the seven pleasures of birding.

Every year, I disappear during the spring migration, from the middle of April until the end of May. My friends don't see me, and I'm not going out at night because I'm going to bed at eight. And they're always whining about it; they ask, "Why do you do this?" This is why:

The beauty of the birds

The joy of being in a natural setting

The pleasure of scientific discovery

The joy of collecting

The pleasures of hunting, without the bloodshed

The joy of puzzle solving

The seventh-this is what I call the Unicorn Effect. You know there's a bird out there because you've seen pictures of it, read about it in books, seen it in the field guide, and one day you're out there and there it is in real life as if a mythological creature has come to life.

AAB: You describe birds so vividly, like in the show you say, "If you took a ruby and infused it with so much life that it burst open, that's a hummingbird." In what ways does nature inspire your writing?

CC: All my spiritual inspiration comes from the natural world around me, even if it's a sky with scattered clouds I can look at-it fills me with a sense of wonder and awe.

One of my hobbies is writing myths. One of the myths I wrote was that the goddess of the Earth was giving out all these gifts to all the different creatures of the world, and she got to the Western Hemisphere where there were all these rubies and emeralds and gems that were desperate to come alive. So, they kind of shaped themselves into birds to fake out the goddess of the Earth. She thought, 'All right, you made an effort,' so she poured all this energy in. And of course they're stones, so nothing happened, but she finally poured in so much energy that they burst into life and became hummingbirds, and now they're vibrating with energy. [Note: the full version of this story appears in Cooper's 2014 book Songs of the Metamythos.]

So, yes, the natural world does inspire my writing and the way I think about the world.

AAB: When you talk about birding, you refrain from being too nerdy, scientific, or esoteric. Is there a reason for that?

CC: I see it as my job to translate messages. The title- Extraordinary Birder -doesn't refer to me. What the title refers to is all those amazing people who we meet in the show, the contributors who may be birders or ornithologists or just dedicated individuals who have spent time trying to save the birds. Those are the extraordinary birders and they have a wealth of knowledge, and it's my job to take that knowledge and bring it to an audience-and bring it in a way they can understand, appreciate, and absorb it.

AAB: In the show I see this constant stream of you drawing parallels between birdlife and human life and creating empathy that way, which I find really cool!

CC: One of my favorite parallels came in the Alabama episode. I don't think it made it to the camera, but it's the fact my family are all northern people for several generations. But [if] you go far enough back in the family history of any African American, our roots are in the South. I'd never been to Alabama, so I went down and it was such an amazing, eye-opening experience in so many ways.

My dad's side of the family, the Coopers, had left Alabama. And we went north during what's known as the Great Migration [beginning in 1910] when African Americans left the South in huge numbers to escape persecution and bigotry, but also to find economic opportunities in the North, so that your kids get raised in a better environment. That's [similar to] what birds do every year!

The birds are wintering in the south. They leave the south to come to the north because there's [seasonal] opportunity, because there's a chance to raise your young where they will maybe be more successful-so it's not an accident that the same word migration is used when you're talking about birds seasonally and when you're talking about African Americans who left in this period of time for opportunities in the north.

So, I love it when you can find things like that, but you can't force it-it's either there or it's not. If it's there, I try to bring that out.

AAB: I think it's beautiful how you're drawn to unconventional birding narratives in the show, too.

CC: I think it shows the ways that birds and birdlife are woven into our everyday lives and through everybody's everyday lives. So with the show, you're always spotlighting, yes, many white guys who are birders, and white women who are birders, but also other women who are birders. In the Palm Springs episode, we have a Black woman biologist. In the Puerto Rico episode, we have a blind guy who's a birder and it gives me a chance to explain one of the reasons why we use the term "birder," [because people can enjoy birds in more ways than just watching] and just the idea that birding is for people in all walks of life-queer, trans, everybody-birds don't care!

As we all know, there is a big deficit in Black and Brown people birding in this country, and elsewhere... I'm hoping that by being the face of the show, a lot of Black and Brown kids will tune in and say, "He's doing that? Oh! I can do that too!" It's so much easier to imagine yourself doing something if you can see someone who looks like you doing it.

AAB: In your memoir, you name one of the first chapters "An Incident in Central Park." But instead of it being about that notorious altercation in 2020, it's a beautiful narrative of how you spotted a very rare Kirtland's Warbler in Central Park two years earlier. Why is it important for you to not be known from the origin story of the Central Park incident?

CC: Well, because it's not my origin story. If you want to draw a superhero parallel: Spider-Man's origin story is when he gets bitten by a radioactive spider, but he didn't get famous until what made him famous in the comic. It's like that. The incident at Central Park made me gain prominence, but it is not what I do-it was maybe 4 minutes.

There's a whole bunch of things I've been fighting and working for for years and years before the incident, mainly justice for Black people, equality for queer people, and the joy of wild birds for all people!

AAB: What things have helped you navigate the mostly white, straight birding community?

CC: I think having a mentor who really made it his business that my interest in birds got nurtured and that I felt welcomed regardless of the fact that there weren't any other Black people in the group. I had this mentor, Elliott Kutner, from the South Shore Audubon Society, one of the founders of the society who led the Sunday bird walks. And when this little 9- or 10-year-old showed up on one of the walks, his eyes glowing with passion for birds, he took one look and literally and figuratively took me under his wing!

AAB: It's really important to have even one person who believes in you, puts their faith in you, and puts in that effort.

CC: Yeah, definitely. And it's something as a member of the [Cornell Lab's] Board now I am trying to work on-reminding them that you've got to reach a little further beyond the usual perspectives you may be accustomed to reaching for. In terms of diversifying its vision, diversifying its staff, diversifying everything about the Lab, a lot of work to do! So, yeah, get busy, Lab!

AAB: For many people, David Attenborough is the quintessential nature show host. Is there anything about his work that inspires you or any critiques you have for him?

CC: I'm inspired by his longevity, the breadth of his reach, and now he's taken up the mantle on climate change so that's huge. That has the possibility of moving a lot of people into where we need them to go, so we can save what's left of our planet, so nothing but admiration for him and what he's accomplished.

But hey, if I'm able to depart from [Attenborough's] tradition, you've got somebody Black and queer doing this now! And showing that there's possibilities for others, great! I like to think of it as a growing pie rather than a limited pie. It has to be-if we're going to save the planet. It absolutely has to be.

AAB: Are you down for a rapid-fire, of sorts?

CC: Let's do it.

AAB: You've expressed a lot of praise for your spark bird, the Red-winged Blackbird. Other birds you hold dear to you?

CC: Blackburnian Warbler. That bird just ignites a passion in me. Golden Eagles, which I won't get to see much, being in New York most of the time, but I will typically make a pilgrimage up to Oneonta [New York] to Franklin Mountain Hawkwatch, and I'll wait for a day at the end of October or beginning of November when a cold front has moved in from the northwest, because it'll push migrating Golden Eagles right through that gap in the mountains and it's like the E-ZPass lane on the Golden Eagle superhighway.

AAB: Any books or birders or writers that inspire your work?

CC: I would say Professor J. Drew Lanham of Clemson University. He's been a big inspiration to all of us Black birders, because he articulates so much about our experience so beautifully and poetically.

AAB: If there was a bird you could rename, which one would it be?

CC: It would be the scientific name of the Blackburnian Warbler. Which is Setophaga fusca- fusca means drab, or dull. "[So] wait, you took a bird with a fiery yellow-orange throat, and you called it Setophaga fusca?" I'd change it to Setophaga fieria! Or Setophaga solaria!

AAB: What would be your advice for your young birder self?

CC: It's okay to be a nerd. It's okay to be the guy who runs around looking at birds and nobody else at school gives a damn. I realized that this is what brings me joy, this is what I'm about, and I'm going to stick with it. And that was maybe the best choice I ever made.

Pareesay Afzal's work on this article as a student editorial assistant was made possible by the Cornell Lab of Ornithology Science Communications Fund, with support from Jay Branegan (Cornell '72) and Stefania Pittaluga.

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Q&A: Catching Up with Christian Cooper, Host of "Extraordinary Birder"

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The TV host and Cornell Lab board member shares his love of superheroes, mythology, Blackburnian Warblers, and the universal appeal of birding.

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Candid | Foundation Center and GuideStar are now Candid

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Candid connects people who want to change the world to the resources they need to do it. In 2019, Foundation Center and GuideStar joined forces to become Candid.

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CORVALLIS, Ore.-Soil is alive. Much more than a prop to hold up your plants, healthy soil is a jungle of voracious creatures eating and pooping and reproducing their way toward glorious soil fertility.

A single teaspoon (1 gram) of rich garden soil can hold up to one billion bacteria, several yards of fungal filaments, several thousand protozoa, and scores of nematodes, according to Kathy Merrifield, a retired nematologist at Oregon State University. Most of these creatures are exceedingly small; earthworms and millipedes are giants, in comparison. Each has a role in the secret life of soil.

Bacteria make up the largest group in the soil jungle, and they are as diverse as they are numerous. Some kinds of bacteria are responsible for converting atmospheric nitrogen to plant-available forms, a process known as nitrogen fixation. Actinomycetes, with cells like bacteria and filaments like fungi, are thought to contribute chemicals that give newly tilled soil its earthy aroma.

Mycorrhizae are fungi that form a relationship with plant roots and increase their ability to take up nutrients from the soil. These filaments, along with root hairs and other binding substances produced by bacteria and fungi, help hold soil particles together and keep soil from eroding.

Protozoa are single-celled, mostly motile organisms that feed on bacteria and other tiny organisms as well as each other. There may be thousands of them living in that teaspoon of soil. Protozoa release nitrogen, making it available to plants. As much as 80 percent of the nitrogen in plants can come from bacteria-eating protozoa.

Nematodes, simple roundworms, have evolved several feeding strategies. In temperate soils, some eat bacteria while others eat fungi or soil algae. Some nematodes attack plants, piercing plant cells and sucking out the contents. Some nematodes eat other nematodes or other small invertebrates.

Earthworms, giants of the soil jungle, mix and aggregate soil particles, creating deep channels that help aerate the soil and provide channels for growing roots. They shred and bury plant residue that stimulates microbial activity and increases the soil's capacity to retain moisture. Earthworms consume tiny soil organisms and excrete even more microorganisms in their castings.

The base of the soil food web is organic matter, material derived from living stuff that provides a source of energy stored as fixed carbon. Nutrients are "served" along with fixed carbon as carbon is converted to energy. Chemical fertilizers supply specific nutrients directly to plants, but they do not replace the other kinds of food that bacteria and fungi need. Soils with more organic matter tend to have more life. Mulching with compost, cover cropping and no-till farming practices tend to increase organic matter and thus increase the number and diversity of microorganisms in soil.

"All these things that live in the soil may seem unimportant," says Merrifield, "but they work together in a system that is truly the foundation of life."

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A jungle of minute creatures are found in healthy soil.

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Abstract

This publication introduces and explains federal working-lands conservation programs administered by the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) and Farm Service Agency (FSA). The Conservation Stewardship Program (CSP) and the Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP) are discussed in detail, with attention to understanding the application and implementation processes for these programs. Examples of how these programs can benefit farmers and ranchers are included.

Contents

Introduction
Federal Conservation Resources and Your Farm or Ranch
What's Available? Overview of Federal Conservation Resources
Conservation Programs: Planning and Application
Working Lands Programs
Implementation of EQIP and CSP Contracts
Conclusion
Final Word: Is Conservation a Public Good?
References
Further Resources

Introduction

Anna and Doug Jones-Crabtree began farming in their early forties, wanting to return to their agricultural roots. They have benefited greatly from programs offered by the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). Now, with more than 9,600 acres of certified organic cropland, Anna and Doug base their success, in part, on their ability to successfully access federal conservation resources. Over the years, they have been awarded several Environmental Quality Incentive Program (EQIP) contracts through a special initiative to assist organic farmers and ranchers. They have also enrolled in the Conservation Stewardship Program (CSP). As Doug explains, "Farming is the only thing I ever wanted to do. I believe farming is the most important avocation. I grew up on a farm that did not make it through the farm crisis of the '80s and have been waiting for the right time and opportunity to return to the land ever since." NRCS programs were critical to the couple's ability to begin organic farming. As Anna relates, "The EQIP organic initiative came at just the right time for us, as we literally started our operation from scratch in 2009. The EQIP organic initiative provided additional financial support as part of our start-up package. Practices we are implementing include organic transition, nutrient management, pest management, flex-crop, cover crop, field borders, and seeding pollinator species. Because we were considered beginning farmers, we were able to be included in the beginning farmer set-aside for the EQIP program."

This publication assists readers in understanding how they can capture benefits like these that help the bottom line and promote a more sustainable agriculture.

Federal Conservation Resources and Your Farm or Ranch

The federal government has provided significant benefits to American farmers and ranchers by both retiring marginal and environmentally sensitive lands and supporting the adoption of improved conservation practices on working lands. Figure 1 shows the actual and projected federal spending on major agricultural conservation from 1996 to 2023. Working-lands conservation increased from 1996 until 2018. It is projected to remain steady, making up about 50% of all agricultural conservation spending by the federal government (see Figure 2). Programs that support agricultural land preservation, conservation easement programs, and the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) make up the other half of federal spending on conservation. The Regional Conservation Partnership Program (RCPP) is a special program that works on a group-project basis. Learning how to take advantage of these important, but often complicated, programs can help farmers and ranchers lower production risks; provide tangible rewards for the contribution that conservation practices provide in improving soil, air, and water quality; increase profitability; and, in general, make farming and ranching more rewarding.

Another important reason to take advantage of federal conservation resources is that the application process itself helps farmers and ranchers see their operations from new perspectives. This can alert farmers and ranchers to new market opportunities and improve profitability and productivity. For example, transitioning to an organic production system on your farm or ranch may lead to higher value for your crops and livestock, as well as reduce environmental impacts of farming and ranching. Finally, farmers and ranchers can learn about and get technical assistance on conservation issues that the application process can identify.

Engaging in federal conservation programs can move your farm or ranch in a more sustainable direction. "Whole" farm or ranch planning-which assesses the goals and potential resources of the farm or ranch-will likely be necessary for farmers or ranchers interested in maximizing the benefits of these federal conservation programs. Even those unable to take advantage of a particular program should come away with a valuable learning experience through the very process of applying. Learning how federal conservation programs work and going through the application process usually helps farmers and ranchers better understand current innovative farming and ranching practices being adopted in their state or region. Also, farmers who engage in federal conservation programs can become more active citizens by making these programs work better for all farms and ranches in the community, state, and nation.

Finally, if you are identified as a historically underserved producer, these federal conservation-assistance programs offer a competitive advantage and/or higher levels of support. The definitions of these special categories are very specific, so make sure you meet the definitions and requirements before assuming eligibility (see Definitions box). When in doubt regarding eligibility requirements, check with the local office of the federal agency in charge of the specific program. You can find contact information for your NRCS state and local offices.

Definitions of Historically Underserved Producers
Limited-Resource Farmer or Rancher: A farmer or rancher who has a total household income at or below the national poverty level for a family of four, or less than 50% of county median household income in each of the previous two years. An online tool is available to make this determination.

Beginning Farmer or Rancher: A farmer or rancher who has operated a farm or ranch for not more than 10 consecutive years and who will materially and substantively participate in the operation of the farm or ranch. Material and substantial participation requires that the individual provide substantial day-to-day labor and management of the farm or ranch, consistent with the practices in the county or state where the farm is located.

Socially Disadvantaged Farmer or Rancher: A socially disadvantaged group is one whose members have been subjected to racial or ethnic prejudice because of their identity as members of a group, without regard to individual qualities. A socially disadvantaged farmer or rancher is a member of the following socially disadvantaged groups: American Indians or Alaskan Natives; Asians; Blacks or African Americans; Native Hawaiians or Pacific Islanders; and Hispanics. For a farm or ranch entity, at least 50% ownership in the farm business must be held by socially disadvantaged individuals.

The term "entity" reflects a broad interpretation to include partnerships, couples, legal entities, etc.

Veteran Farmer or Rancher: A farmer or rancher who has served in the U.S. Military and was not released under dishonorable conditions. Also, the producer cannot have operated a farm or ranch for more than 10 years; or must have first obtained status as a veteran during the most recent 10-year period. A legal entity of joint operation can be designated as a veteran farmer or rancher only if all individual members independently qualify as veterans.

What's Available? Overview of Federal Conservation Resources

The complexity of federal conservation programs-and, in particular, the application process itself-is perhaps one of the biggest reasons many farmers and ranchers do not access these resources. The programs are voluntary, and many opt out of using them simply because the process can be difficult and intimidating. The programs contain an "alphabet soup" of acronyms and bureaucratic jargon that is particularly difficult for first-time applicants to understand. The goal here is to present a somewhat simplified overview that outlines the essential step-by-step process to access these resources and benefits. The intent is also to help you understand the general purpose of the programs.

Here, we specifically concentrate on resources available from the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). This U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) agency is the one most engaged with agricultural conservation practices. The other major USDA agency involved in conservation efforts is the Farm Service Agency (FSA). Program responsibilities within these organizations often overlap. For example, the FSA shares administrative responsibility with NRCS for the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP). The FSA also has responsibility for the Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program (CREP), the Emergency Conservation Program (ECP), Farmed Wetlands Program (FWP), Transition Incentive Program (TIP) and the Emergency Forest Restoration Program (EFRP). Table 1 below provides an overview of the major conservation programs.

Table 1. Major Federal Conservation Programs as of Passage of the 2018 Farm Bill

Natural Resources Conservation Service NRCS)

Environmental Quality Incentive Program (EQIP)

Financial support for specific conservation improvements and meeting regulatory requirements. Variable levels of financial support, depending on practices implemented. Maximum financial support is set at $450,000 per farming operation. (EQIP contracts related to certain farms organized as general partnerships, as well as farms in particular irrigation districts, may be eligible for a maximum of $900,000. Ask your local NRCS if you qualify.)

Conservation Stewardship Program (CSP)

Financial support for current conservation performance and future improvements based on broad land-use categories (cropland, grassland, rangeland, and non-industrial private forest land). Maximum financial support is $40,000 per year for five years or a maximum of $200,000. Farmers and ranchers can apply for an additional five-year contract. (CSP contracts with a special joint-operations business type may have a contract limit up to $400,000 over the term of the initial contract period. Ask your local NRCS if you qualify.)

Water Bank Program (WPB)

A three-state program (Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota) to keep water on the land for the benefit of migratory wildlife, such as waterfowl.

Agricultural Management Assistant Program (AMA)

A 16-state program for financial and technical assistance to improve water management or irrigation structures. Variable levels of
support, depending on project.

Farm Service Agency (FSA) and NRCS

Conservation Reserve Program (CRP)

Annual payments to keep sensitive land out of agricultural production.

Farm Service Agency (FSA)

Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program (CREP)

Annual payments to keep riparian areas out of agricultural production (requires state matching funds).

Emergency Conservation Program (ECP)

Funding for rehabilitating farmland damaged by natural disasters and for carrying out emergency water-conservation measures in periods of severe drought.

Emergency Forest Restoration
Program (EFRP)

Financial and technical assistance to owners of non-industrial private forestland damaged by natural disaster, to carry out emergency measures to restore damaged forests and rehabilitate forest resources.

Farmable Wetlands Program
(FWP)

Designed to restore previously farmed wetlands and wetland buff er to improve both vegetation and water flow. Run through the CRP (above).

Conservation Programs: Planning and Application

The first step in accessing these federal resources can begin with the development of a comprehensive conservation plan by NRCS. Such a plan may be useful, but it is not mandatory for application. An NRCS conservation plan is helpful because it engages NRCS staff early in the process. Even if you have done prior planning, it is still important to get NRCS assistance in translating your existing planning efforts into agency language and structure. The local NRCS agent can evaluate the programs and practices available to you and suited to your needs.

Although this may be the ideal process, finding available NRCS local staff to assist with this kind of planning can often be difficult. The actual process begins with a farmer or rancher contacting the local NRCS field staff office about a specific conservation program. The conservation planning continues with a discussion of the application process and eligibility requirements for the specific program(s). Preparing in advance by understanding the basics of the programs is valuable because it is important to fully grasp the benefits and limitations of the financial and technical assistance available.

Beginning in early 2020, NRCS attempted to ease planning and application procedures through the development of a new ranking tool called the Conservation Assessment Ranking Tool (CART). This tool assesses natural resource concerns, planned conservation practices, and farm-site vulnerabilities and ultimately ranks the application for funding for both CSP and EQIP. It is a complicated tool, combining planning and program applications. The goal is to simplify both the planning and application process. Details of the CART process will be discussed below.

Finally, another improvement in accessing conservation programs has been the introduction of the Client Conservation Gateway system. This allows farmer and rancher applicants to do much of the paperwork for application and reporting on financial assistance programs online. There is a somewhat cumbersome process to establish a client account, but once that's done, this system can make application paperwork efforts easier, at least for those with good Internet access. Details are available at the NRCS Client Conservation Gateway System.

Know the Programs: Working Land vs. Retiring Land

Federal conservation programs can be divided into two broad categories: working-lands programs and land-retirement or easement programs.

Working-lands programs provide financial resources for farmers or ranchers to implement particular practices, conservation structures, enhancements, and bundles of practices on working agriculture lands. NRCS offers extensive information on quality criteria for managing natural resources to help in assessment and planning of future conservation efforts.

Understanding these technical standards can be complicated for many people who are not familiar with NRCS protocols and jargon. However, if you are serious about taking full advantage of the programs, some understanding of these standards and the systems of resource management that underlie them is important. The major resource that offers help in understanding technical standards and the general program-evaluation processes is the Field Office Technical Guide (FOTG). This document is available online at as the eFOTG.

This system is "localized" down to the state-and sometimes county-level, so obtain the copy relevant to your farm or ranch locale. The NRCS prides itself on soliciting local input for program development. Consequently, there is some variation among available programs across states and even counties, particularly for working-lands programs.

Land-retirement or easement programs, on the other hand, are those that pay farmers or ranchers to keep land out of agricultural production either permanently or temporarily. Some programs do allow specific productive uses of easement land, but generally these programs were established to take land out of substantial agricultural productive use for environmental and wildlife benefits. These programs are not discussed in detail in this publication.

National vs. State: Differences in Program Details

As noted, program details can change significantly from state to state and even county to county. The logic behind this approach makes some sense. Land use for agriculture varies dramatically between different parts of the country. For instance, the best conservation grazing management practices for southwest Montana are substantially different from those in central Florida. On the other hand, local determination of program criteria is often a source for confusion about what working lands programs can and do offer. In Montana, for instance, some NRCS programs provide resources for ranchers to improve fish passage around irrigation diversions. But the programs apply only to certain areas of the state, despite the fact that most areas have important fish-passage issues. The best way to avoid confusion is to go to the respective state NRCS website to look up specific details of a program for that state. Another way to clear up confusion is to talk with local and state-level NRCS staff.

Working-Lands Programs

Conservation Stewardship Program (CSP)

This program is unique because it rewards farmers and ranchers for current conservation efforts and for putting in place additional new conservation practices and enhancements over a five-year contract period. The program takes a whole-farm or ranch approach, rather than a specific practice-by-practice perspective. The program allows farmers and ranchers to apply at any time, but assessment and award of a CSP contract in any particular federal fiscal year begin after a specific deadline announced by NRCS, and these deadlines vary by state. Remember, the federal fiscal year ends in September, so the conservation contracts need to be awarded by the end of the fiscal year. For example, for the 2020 crop year, the deadline for CSP assessment was June 12, 2020, in Montana. This means that any CSP applications made prior to that date would be considered for funding in FY 2020. If you apply after that date, your application will be held and evaluated in the next program year. Unfortunately, the CSP application deadline changes from year to year and state by state, so you will need to check with your local NRCS office for relevant CSP application cut-off deadlines.

The CSP program was significantly changed by Congress in 2018 with the passage of the Agricultural Improvement Act, or what is called the 2018 Farm Bill. The most important change was that CSP is now based on a set overall funding level, rather than on a per-acre payment basis. In short, funding amounts are fixed in each state, and applications are ranked and funding allocations distributed to the higher-ranking applications until funding is exhausted. In general, CSP is an over-subscribed program, meaning there are more dollars requested in applications than available in the program. Thus, CSP is a truly competitive program for those seeking support. Below is a basic step-by-step outline for application, with important information and forms that can help in getting ready to apply for this program.

Step 1: Make initial application

The basic application form is available through the CSP website.

If you have NOT accessed federal agriculture funding in the past, or are a brand-new farmer or rancher, you will need to establish yourself as a legal farm by registering with the Farm Service Agency (FSA) and acquiring a Federal Farm ID number. NRCS and FSA field offices are usually located together in what is known as a Farm Service Center. It might be worth setting up an appointment with your local FSA office, and you will need copies of your Social Security number and property deed(s) or lease agreement document(s).

Some additional forms will likely be needed to establish basic eligibility:

AD-1026 Highly Erodible Land Conservation and Wetland Conservation Certification (available at local NRCS offices)

CCC926 Adjusted Gross Income Certification (available at local NRCS office)

Important NRCS Conservation Definitions
Land Uses: Cropland, forestland, pastureland, and rangeland

Resources of Concern: The major "resources of concern" categories considered by NRCS are Soil, Water, Air, Plants, Animals, and Energy. Resource concerns relate to possible problems or impacts farming or ranching may have on the resource. In the case of soil, for example, wind erosion could be a possible concern impacting the soil resource. There are a total of 47 possible resources of concern currently evaluated by the CART, and these relate to specific sub-categories of the major resources of concern. For example, in the case of plants, resources of concern include plant productivity and health, plant structure and composition, plant pest pressure, and wildlife hazard from biomass accumulation.

Stewardship Threshold: The level of management required, as determined by the NRCS, to conserve and improve the quality and condition of a natural resource. NRCS has many methods for making such determinations, and they are essentially embedded in the CART.

Step 2: Ranking and the Conservation Assessment Ranking Tool

After initial sign-up, and after establishing eligibility and completing the basic application, the next step will be to work with local NRCS staff to establish a ranking score. As mentioned earlier, NRCS staff will use a software tool called the Conservation Assessment Ranking Tool (CART) to determine this. This tool is used to evaluate an applicant's conservation performance, based on past and current efforts, as well as the activities proposed during the five-year contract period. Each CSP applicant must meet what is called the "stewardship threshold" for a least two resources of concern on each land use as determined by the CART (see box for definitions). Finally, to be eligible for possible funding, the applicant must also agree to address one additional resource concern by the end of the contract for each land use identified in the application.

After the assessment part of the CART is explored and explained to you by NRCS, you can consider a number of additional conservation practices, enhancements and/or "bundles" of enhancements and practices to adopt during the proposed five-year CSP contract. (See text box for details.) The list of practices, enhancements, and bundles is extensive and should probably be reviewed in advance of the ranking process. Unfortunately, what is available to the applicant is different in every state. For online access to what is available in your state, you must go to the respective state NRCS website and go to the financial assistance link available for CSP.

As an example, the financial assistance page for the CSP for the Texas NRCS. However, this link does not provide easy access to what specific CSP practices, enhancements, and bundles are available from NRCS in Texas. Unfortunately, state NRCS websites are not uniform, so it takes a bit of exploration of your state's site to find these details. Of course, alternatively, you can visit or call your local NRCS office and simply ask for the lists of practices, enhancements, and bundles available for CSP in your state.

Examples of CSP Practices, Enhancements, and Bundles
Practices: NRCS has hundreds of conservation practices with detailed specifications on how to implement and estimates of costs for implementing. Each state NRCS office selects a subset of these that are then available for support through the CSP. One example of a conservation practice is the use of cover crops.

Enhancements: These are conservation activities that treat a natural resource concern and generally improve conservation performance. Enhancements exceed the basic minimum requirements of conservation practices. For example, the soil health crop-rotation enhancement includes efforts to increase diversity of the cropping system, maintain crop residues throughout the year, keep living roots in the soil, and minimize chemical, physical, and biological disturbances to the soil. Details of the enhancements can be found at: CSP Enhancements & Bundles.

Bundles: These are groupings of practices and enhancements, generally around a single resource of concern. An example is the Soil Health Assessment Bundle, which incorporates six separate conservation practices to create a "synergy" of activity that goes beyond adoption of any single specific soil health conservation practice. Details of the bundles can be found at the link above.

Step 3: Optimizing Ranking: Priority Resources of Concern

Though the CSP has a broad mandate to enhance and improve all natural resources of concern, the program allows each state NRCS office to identify five priority resources of concern. These state priorities will heavily impact how your application will be ranked in your state and how likely it is that your application will be supported. Thus, before making any decisions on what new conservation activities you will undertake, it is critical to find out the priority resources of concern for your state. Again, you can contact your local NRCS office or look for that information on your state's NRCS website.

To see how priority resources concerns matter, consider the example of California. California NRCS has chosen the following five resource concerns for the 2020 application year:

Air quality emissions

Degraded plant condition

Field pesticide loss

Livestock production limitation

Terrestrial habitat

After carefully reviewing your CART analysis with NRCS and exploring new activities you could undertake, you may decide that improving soil health is important to your farm or ranch. How could these state priority resource concerns help you in reaching such a general goal? The short answer is not very much, since none of these, with the possible exception of degraded plant condition, directly refer to improving soil health, and because soil resources of concern are not a priority for the NRCS in California in 2020. Thus, your application will likely not rank highly enough to be funded, given that applicants who address priority resources of concern will rank higher. This does not mean you cannot apply for support for improving soil health-it is just that your probability for support will be lower. In this case, you might want to consider alternative conservation-related problems that also may be of importance to you and that will fit within the priority resource concerns of the state. You can and should ask the local NRCS staff to look at various options and scenarios and explore them with the CART.

In addition to understanding how the state-adopted priority resources of concern impact your ranking, it is also important to understand which ranking pool you are participating in. All states have distinct ranking pools for socially disadvantaged and veteran farmers and ranchers, organic farmers and ranchers, and beginning farmers and ranchers. In addition, some states subdivide the state into geographic regions that represent separate ranking pools. It is important to note that when you are assigned to a specific pool, you are only competing with the other farmers and ranchers in the respective pool, rather than with all applicants statewide. Depending on how your state NRCS allocates available funding between the ranking pools, the competition for funding will vary.

The CART before the Horse: Understanding Access to Federal Assistance for Natural Resource Conservation on Working Lands.
This is a recorded, three-part ATTRA webinar series available to help you better understand the process of using the Conservation Assessment and Ranking Tool.

Step 4: Work out contract payments and details

Payment amount will be determined based on three factors:

1. Existing activity payment: payment to maintain the existing conservation, based on the land uses included in the operation and the number of resource concerns that are meeting
the stewardship threshold level at the time of application

2. Additional activity payment: payment to implement additional conservation activities

3. Supplemental payment: payment for adopting or improving a resource-conserving crop rotation or advanced grazing management (optional)

Overall, CSP payments vary by land type, the extent of existing conservation efforts that will be managed and maintained, and the extent of new conservation practices and activities to be implemented. It is important to note that the CSP does not pay for the full cost of either maintaining or taking on conservation efforts. So, be very clear what your financial commitments are in undertaking a CSP contract. Each state's payment rates for conservation activities vary and can change every year. The payment rate schedule for your state can be found by asking your local NRCS office.

Also, the relative importance of these three factors is variable, regarding their impact on application ranking. In general, undertaking new conservation activities weighs more heavily in improving the ranking of your application. Individual CSP payments depend on the details of each contract. Payments to contract holders will be made after October 1 of the year the conservation has been accomplished (i.e., if the terms of the contract are fulfilled during the spring and summer, the accompanying payments will be made in the fall).

Contract, Field Verification, and Conservation Stewardship Plans

As part of contract development for each successful applicant, NRCS is required to visit each applying farm and ranch to verify information provided in the application. In addition, the development of a conservation stewardship plan is required. A conservation stewardship plan is defined as a record of the participant's decisions that describes the schedule of conservation activities to be implemented, managed, or improved during the contract life.

Specialty Crops, Organic Production, and Technical Assistance

The implementation rules for the new CSP commit NRCS to make a special effort to provide technical assistance to organic and specialty crop producers. Though it's a bit dated, NRCS has provided The Organic Crosswalk to help organic farmers and ranchers applying to the CSP program. This document offers an explanation of how producers can use CSP Conservation Enhancements to aid them during the "transitioning" period to organic farming. The Organic Crosswalk is available online.

Resource-Conserving Crop Rotations

In the CSP, special emphasis and supplemental funding are available for applicants who undertake a resource-conserving crop rotation. The understanding of what constitutes such a rotation is still less than clear and will require careful discussion with NRCS field staff.

Grasslands Conservation Initiative

This is a new initiative introduced with the passage of the 2018 Farm Bill. It is specific to farmers and ranchers wishing to protect grazing land uses. See your local NRCS field staff for details to determine if this would be a useful addition to your CSP contract.

Environmental Quality Incentive Program (EQIP)

The Environmental Quality Incentive Program (EQIP) is the largest NRCS working-lands program, with an annual budget expected to be over $1.75 billion through 2023. The general purpose of EQIP is to promote agriculture production and sound forest management while encouraging environmental quality and benefits. As of the 2018 Farm Bill, EQIP applicants can now include water-management entities such as state irrigation districts for projects supporting water conservation and irrigation efficiency. Also, as of the 2018 Farm Bill, historically underserved participants (see definitions) can get advance payments to offset costs of implementation of conservation practices upon award of an EQIP contract.

EQIP has also provided substantial federal resources to assist farmers and ranchers to stay in compliance with regulations regarding the operation of Confined Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs) and Animal Feeding Operations (AFOs). This has raised controversial issues involving large-scale dairies and commercial feedlots. NRCS is currently required to try to achieve a target of 50% of EQIP expenditures for livestock conservation practices. Although not all of that livestock-related EQIP funding has gone to resolve CAFO/AFO issues, a large percentage has.

Despite these environmental regulatory aspects to EQIP, there have been many farmers and ranchers who have improved conservation practices and their bottom lines by participating in this program. EQIP has from time to time allocated resources to special initiatives.Currently (2020) there are six national EQIP special initiatives, as shown in Table 2. Also, each state NRCS has additional state-based EQIP initiatives that may be important to review prior to application. Check with your local NRCS office or website about special state-based EQIP initiatives.

EQIP is a very competitive program that is under-funded relative to demand by farmers and ranchers. This means that to make your application more competitive, you might want to develop a comprehensive plan of the conservation practices integrated into your farm and ranch before you apply. Also, pay close attention to which elements of your plan fit with the priorities that NRCS has identified as important for funding in your state and for the year you wish to apply. Below is a basic step-by-step outline for application, with important information and forms that can help in getting ready to apply to this program.

Step 1: Make initial application

The basic application form for EQIP is the same as for the CSP. This form is available online through the NRCS EQIP website as EQIP NRCS-CPA-1200.Again, if you have NOT accessed federal agriculture funding in the past or are a brand-new farmer or rancher, you will need to establish yourself as a legal farm by registering with the Farm Service Agency (FSA) and acquiring a Federal Farm ID number. NRCS and FSA field offices are usually located together in what is known as a Farm Service Center. Some additional forms will likely be needed to establish basic eligibility:

AD-1026 Highly Erodible Land Conservation and Wetland Conservation Certification (available at local NRCS offices)

CCC926 Adjusted Gross Income Certification (available at local NRCS offices)

As with the CSP, EQIP applications can be submitted to NRCS at any time; however, like CSP, there is a deadline after which your application will be pushed forward to the next fiscal year. Unfortunately, the EQIP deadline varies from state to state and often changes from year to year, so, again, check with your local NRCS office or the state NRCS website for the EQIP deadline in your state.

Finally, note that the EQIP deadlines can be quite early in the fiscal year. For example, the deadline for fiscal year EQIP applications in Montana was March 13, 2020. That means that within the first three months of the calendar year, your application would still be considered for funding within that year. Past that date, your application would be rolled over into the next fiscal year.

Step 2: Ranking and the Conservation Assessment Ranking Tool

EQIP benefits are determined by an NRCS evaluation of the farmer's or rancher's application against a set of funding priorities known as "ranking criteria." For EQIP, these are embedded in the Conservation Assessment Ranking Tool (CART). These criteria are set at the national, state, and even county levels. The NRCS gets advice on setting these priorities from two governance committees: the state technical advisory committee (state-level) and the "local working groups." (See the conclusion for more information on how these groups provide input.)

Thus, each state's set of priorities is distinct and, in any given year, may not reflect the needs you have identified in your planning efforts for your farm or ranch. However, there is often a fairly wide variety of conservation practices available to applicants and it may be hard to tell without going through the CART process how your planned changes will be "ranked." Also, the CART process can vary by where your farm or ranch is located, as the ranking criteria embedded in the CART vary based on the specific resource concerns identified for your location.

Step 3: Optimizing EQIP Ranking: Priority Resources of Concern

To provide an example of how the ranking process works and how to optimize benefit from an EQIP contract, consider the process from the perspective of a farmer in Cameron County, Texas. Note that this example is specific to NRCS in Texas, and the process described here will vary to some degree from state to state.

Priority Resource Concerns for Edinburg, Texas, Resource Team

Non irrigated cropland (1): Soil-Sheet and rill erosion
Non irrigated cropland (2): Soil- Wind erosion
Non irrigated cropland (3): Soil- Organic matter depletion
Irrigated cropland (1): Water-Inefficient irrigation water use
Irrigated cropland (2): Water-Salts transported to surface water
Irrigated cropland (3): Soil-Sheet and rill erosion
Pastureland (1): Animal-Feed and forage imbalance
Pastureland (2): Water-Inefficient irrigation water use
Pastureland (3): Animal-Inadequate livestock water quantity, quality, and distribution
Rangeland (1): Plant-Plant productivity and health
Rangeland (2): Animal-Inadequate livestock water quantity, quality, and distribution
Rangeland (3): Plant-Plant structure and composition
Forestland (1): Not Applicable
Forestland (2): Not Applicable
Forestland (3): Not Applicable

EQIP in Cameron County Texas, Fiscal Year 2021

Texas NRCS has determined priority resources of concern for EQIP application based on what Texas calls NRCS Resource Teams. There are 48 NRCS Resource Teams in Texas and these represent groups of Texas Soil and Water Conservation Districts. (Many of the Texas Soil and Water Conservation Districts are county-based, but some overlap several counties. For more details, see www.tsswcb.texas.gov/swcds.) In the case of a farmer in Cameron County, Texas, the Edinburg NRCS Resource Team establishes priority resource concerns. For Fiscal Year 2021, the Edinburg NRCS Resource Team has determined three priority resources of concern for each of the different land uses (non-irrigated cropland, irrigated cropland, pastureland, and rangeland). The box at right provides the list of these priority resources of concern.

What this list tells the EQIP applicant in Cameron County, Texas, who is pursuing EQIP support is that an application pursuing conservation efforts not on this list will likely be ranked lower, compared to applications addressing these priorities. So, for example, if the applicant wanted to pursue conservation efforts involving forestlands on the farm or ranch, then the application would likely rank low and funding would be less likely.

However, it is also important to understand that even if particular conservation measures prioritized locally are relevant to the applying farmer or rancher, there is still no guarantee that the producer will ultimately be provided EQIP benefits. This is true because the applicant is still competing with every other applicant statewide. Also, as noted earlier, there are often distinct funding pools that relate to special EQIP national and state initiatives. For instance, if a farmer or rancher is applying for EQIP funding under the Organic Initiative, that producer would only be competing with other organic EQIP Organic Initiative applicants, because this initiative is funded out of a separate funding pool.

What this example also shows is that applying for EQIP benefits is a little like applying for a grant. The grantor (NRCS) gets to decide the criteria for grant awards, and the producer applicant who best matches those criteria has increased probability of obtaining the grant. The CART is the major means for assessing the degree to which a given applicant matches the grant criteria.

In addition, note that an application for a single practice change is less likely to be funded than an application for multiple changes. It is useful to have a holistic plan of all the conservation-related changes you wish and can afford to make on your farm or ranch and then apply to implement the changes that best match the local priorities.

The benefits of an EQIP contract can be substantial, but obtaining one requires real work and financial commitment by the applicant farmer or rancher. Again, careful planning and optimization of program criteria are critical for success.

EQIP High Tunnel Initiative and NCAT's SIFT Farm

The National Center for Appropriate Technology (NCAT), which created and operates the ATTRA Sustainable Agriculture Program, has a long-term Small-Scale Intensive Farm Training (SIFT) demonstration farm to help communities everywhere increase food security by producing healthy food. In 2017, the SIFT farm applied for the EQIP High Tunnel Initiative and, after going through the yearlong application process, was supported in the development of two seasonal high tunnels. Montana NRCS provided $12,500 toward the purchase and establishment of these high tunnels. High tunnels are an enclosed covered structure at least six feet high that protect crops from sun, wind, excessive rainfall, or cold. The resource of concern addressed is plant health and vigor. See the ATTRA publications SIFT 2018: Lessons from a Small-Scale Urban Intensive Farm, and SIFT 2019: Continuing Lessons from a Small-Scale Urban Intensive Farm to learn more.

Implementation of EQIP and CSP Contracts

Being awarded an NRCS working-lands conservation program contract is only the beginning of the process. NRCS working-lands contracts are legally binding and commit you to fulfilling your end of the bargain. With contracts lasting in some cases 10 years, it is important to be absolutely clear on your commitments. By the same token, NRCS has also made significant commitments. During the implementation phase, you will need to work regularly with your local NRCS agent to make sure you are making timely progress on your contract.

It is possible that disputes may arise about either the fairness of the application process or about your obligations during the implementation of the contract. Federal law does provide for a formal process of appeal. Although NRCS works hard to make sure you understand the details of a program contract prior to implementation, knowing your rights for appealing decisions is important.

The appeals process-like the programs themselves-is complex. The first question to be clear about is the basis for your appeal. For instance, if you appeal the rejection of your application for program benefits, remember first that the programs are competitive and that losing in competition is not itself a reason to appeal. The general basis for an appeal includes the following:

Denial of participation in a program

Compliance with program requirements

The payment or amount of payments or other program benefits to a program participant

Technical determinations or technical decisions that affect the status of land even though eligibility for USDA benefits may not be affected

There are specific reasons that an appeal can be rejected by NRCS:

General program requirements applicable to all participants; that is, you cannot make your farm or ranch a "special" case.

Science-based formulas and criteria; for example, eligibility for CSP could be based on a certain minimum scoring as likely demonstrated by the CART analysis. You cannot appeal your eligibility on the basis the CART analysis used the wrong criteria for evaluation. However, if you think the wrong information was used in the CART analysis, then an appeal may be warranted. At a minimum, it should be clear to you how the CART analysis was done and that the information used was correct.

The fairness or constitutionality of federal laws; for example, arguing that it is unfair because you think the CSP should provide greater than $40,000 per year for your conservation efforts is not the basis for an appeal. However, you should expect NRCS to make it clear to you exactly what they are supporting you to do.

Technical standards or criteria that apply to all persons

State Technical Committee membership decisions made by the State Conservationist

Procedural technical decisions relating to program administration

Denials of assistance due to the lack of funds or authority

Once you have established a basis for an appeal, determine whether you are appealing a "technical determination" or a "program decision." An appeal of a technical determination challenges the correctness of "the status and condition of the natural resources and cultural practices based on science and best professional judgment of natural resources professionals concerning soils, water, air, plants, and animals." For example, the stocking rate of cattle on a particular range or pasture could be a contested technical decision.

An appeal of a program decision, on the other hand, challenges the correctness of the determination of eligibility, or how the program is administered and implemented. For example, if the local NRCS field staff entered information incorrectly into the CART in assessing your application to the CSP, then you could appeal on the basis of this error.

After you have decided the basis for an appeal and the type of appeal, the next step is to make sure the program you applied for is a "Chapter XII" program. Chapter XII refers to the title of the Food Security Act of 1985, where the current appeals process was established. All the programs outlined in this publication are Chapter XII programs. Check with your local or state NRCS office for a list of non-Chapter XII programs.

To begin the preliminary phase of the appeal process, ask in writing for one of three actions to take place within 30 days after notification of the decision you wish to contest.

Make a request for a field visit and reconsideration of an NRCS decision.

Ask for mediation of the contested decision.

Appeal directly to the local Farm Service Agency (FSA)-usually county-based-for a reconsideration of a decision.

Which of these three routes to take in the appeals process is up to you. It may be hard to evaluate which is of greatest benefit. Even though the first choice explicitly provides for a "field visit," all others will require a field visit anyway. The reconsideration and mediation routes should be completed within 30 days of the request.

Finally, even after these appeal routes are exhausted, you can still appeal a decision to the National Appeals Division (NAD) of the USDA. This agency is independent of the other USDA agencies and provides participants with the opportunity to have a neutral review of an appeal. The NAD can make independent findings but also must apply laws and regulations of the respective agency to the case.

Conclusion

The working-lands conservation programs outlined in this publication are complex; accessing these resources requires significant effort and an investment in time and energy by producers. The complexities of the programs are in part due to sincere efforts by a large federal agency to make the programs locally relevant and to assure careful expenditure of federal resources. If you do not like the way programs are designed and implemented, the NRCS is unique in that it also provides at least two ways for you to be engaged in changing them.

Local Working Groups

Local Working Groups are essentially a form of local governance of federal conservation programs. Their meetings are open to the general public, but formal membership is limited to federal, state, tribal, or local government representatives. The meetings are convened by the local conservation district and the purpose of the group is to provide advice to the NRCS on conservation programs. Contact your local NRCS office about the meeting schedule in your area. As a farmer or rancher, you can attend these meetings and offer public comment on the decisions being made. Incumbents of any of several local government offices usually serve as leaders of these groups. The Local Working Groups also provide representatives to serve on a multi-state committee. The working groups provide advice in the following general areas:

Conditions of the natural resources and the environment

The local application process, including ranking criteria and application periods

Identifying the educational and training needs of producers

Cost-share rates and payment levels and methods of payment

Eligible conservation practices

The need for new, innovative conservation practices

Public outreach and information efforts

Program performance indicators

State Technical Committees

Each state NRCS office has a State Technical Committee (STC). The committee is comprised of groups or individuals who represent a wide variety of natural resource issues. If you wish to serve on your STC, either as an individual or as a representative of a group, you must write a letter to your State Conservationist explaining your interest and credentials. Several federal agencies must be represented on the committee by law and many non-governmental and state agencies are encouraged to participate, as well. Unlike local working groups, STC members do not have to be "elected" officials. Public notification of meetings must be accomplished no later than 14 days prior to the meeting, and the state conservationist is required to prepare meeting agendas and necessary background information for the meetings. There is no requirement for any number of meetings in any given year, but any USDA agency can request that a meeting be held.

The STC has the purpose of providing recommendations on conservation activities and programs in the state. However, it is important to remember that the STC is only an advisory body and has no legal enforcement or implementation authority. Nonetheless, even without statutory authority, members of the STCs are generally the leaders of agriculture in a particular state. It would be difficult for any State Conservationist to not give strong consideration to the recommendations of this important group.

Final Word: Is Conservation a Public Good?

There are some farmers, ranchers, and agricultural and conservation organizations who have had philosophical issues with the very intent of working-lands conservation programs. For example, the CSP concept of rewarding farmers and ranchers for their ongoing conservation efforts is fundamentally different from all other federal conservation programs. Some have argued that if some farmers and ranchers are already providing these benefits without public support, then why should scarce public resources be provided to continue these efforts (Batie, 2006)? Others have argued that good stewardship by farmers and ranchers provides a public good or investment. It is argued that we all benefit from these stewardship efforts, and that public incentives are required for continued good stewardship of the land and, more importantly, to encourage those who do not provide these public benefits to consider them (Kemp, 2005).

EQIP supports farmers and ranchers in moving toward improved conservation practices that protect natural resources and the environment. The immediate additions to social benefits seem clearer than with CSP. However, EQIP also has a role to regulate environmental damages resulting from agriculture by changing farming and ranching practices that damage the environment or degrade natural resources before governmental enforcement actions are imposed. In this regard, EQIP is often criticized for rewarding the worst environmental actors in the agriculture system.

These issues, like many others in our democratic system, strike at the broader issue of the proper role of government in protecting both the environment and the future productive capacity of natural resources. Even with the substantial federal-resource increases in conservation since 2002, federal conservation programs still only represent about 7% of all USDA expenditures. So, even at this higher level of activity, the federal government is far more engaged in other aspects of our agriculture and food systems than in protection of our agricultural resource base and natural environment.

References

Amber Waves. May. ERS. 2006. Contrasting Working-Land and Land Retirement Programs. USDA Economic Research Service, Economic Brief No. 4.

Batie, Sandra. 2006. Green Payments Discussion Continues. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. January/February. Vol. 61, No. 3. p. 6A.

Claassen, Roger. 2014. 2014 Farm Act continues most previous trends in conservation.

Kemp, Loni. 2005. Conservation investments: Green payments can replace a broken policy. The Conservation Planner. Vol. X, No. 3. p. 6.

Lundgren, Britt, Jody Biergiel, Meaghan Donovan, Christine Lee, and Kathleen Merrigan. 2006. The Conservation Security Program: Rewards and challenges for New England farmers. Tufts University and American Farmland Trust.

Wallace, J. and A. Coggins. 2019. SIFT 2018: Lessons from a Small-Scale Urban Intensive Farm. NCAT ATTRA National Sustainable Agriculture Program, Butte, Montana.

Further Resources

National Sustainable Agriculture Coalition
This 100-member coalition offers the latest information on most federal conservation policy.

Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS)
Your phone book should list your local county NRCS office in the "blue" federal government sections. If not, call the state office to get the phone number of your local office
NRCS has an excellent Internet-based information system. The national NRCS website links to all state NRCS websites. In turn, state websites link to local NRCS office websites, if the local office maintains a site. Starting at the national NRCS site is the best way to begin a search of all the programs and services NRCS provides.
Federal Resources for Sustainable Farming and Ranching
By Jeff Schahczenski, NCAT Agriculture Specialist
Published November 2020
© NCAT
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Version 112420
This publication is produced by the National Center for Appropriate Technology through the ATTRA Sustainable Agriculture program, under a cooperative agreement with USDA Rural Development.

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Federal Working Lands Conservation Resources for Sustainable Farming and Ranching

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This publication introduces and explains federal working-lands conservation programs administered by the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) and Farm Service Agency (FSA). The Conservation Stewardship Program (CSP) and the Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP) are discussed in detail, with attention to understanding the application and implementation processes for these programs. Examples of how these programs can benefit farmers and ranchers are included.

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Uniting all Americans to ensure wildlife thrive in a rapidly changing world

We believe America's experience with cherished landscapes and wildlife has helped define and shape our national character and identity for generations. Protecting these natural resources is a cause that has long united Americans from all walks of life and political stripes. To hunters, anglers, hikers, birders, wildlife watchers, boaters, climbers, campers, cyclists, gardeners, farmers, forest stewards, and other outdoor enthusiasts, this conservation ethic represents a sacred duty and obligation to protect and build upon our conservation heritage for the sake of wildlife, ourselves, our neighbors, and-most of all-for future generations.

Common Agenda for Wildlife

This belief led us to form a new strategic plan for saving wildlife that are suffering declines across America, with the goal of increasing America's fish and wildlife populations and enhancing their capacity to thrive in a rapidly changing world. The plan sets in motion a Common Agenda for Wildlife built upon sound science, clear priorities, and scalable solutions. Our Common Agenda includes a commitment to:

Protect, Restore, and Connect Wildlife Habitat: Active restoration and reconnection of fragmented and degraded habitat across protected lands, working lands, waterways, coasts, and communities

Transform Wildlife Conservation: Advancing 21st century wildlife management, defending public trust resources, and confronting emerging stressors like climate change, invasive species, and wildlife diseases

Connect Americans with Wildlife: Inspiring the next generation of conservationists and mobilizing a diverse conservation army to broaden the stewardship ethic, conservation action, public and private investments, and support for policy changes necessary to save thousands of at-risk species in our time

Metrics of Success

This four-year action plan represents the best science and thinking from across the National Wildlife Federation, our affiliates, and our large network of conservation partners on collective actions needed by 2021. Together we will:

Ensure a majority of Americans and policymakers are aware of our nation's wildlife crisis. We will activate 11 million people and join forces with 2,500 partner organizations as part of America's conservation army

Put 25 percent of America's at-risk wildlife species on a path to recovery, protect and better manage habitat and wildlife on 300 million acres of public and tribal land, and restore and enhance the resilience of 40 million acres of critical private land and water habitat. We will do this by securing at least $2 billion in additional annual conservation funding and advancing 21st century wildlife management practices in partnership with state and federal wildlife agencies

Rebuild America's conservation ethic by engaging 25 million young people across 20,000 schools in environmental education and recurring outdoor experiences

Increase the relevance of wildlife conservation nationwide by partnering on local water, wildlife habitat, and environmental justice projects in 1,000 diverse urban and rural communities

Defend America's democratic public trust resources (public lands, waterways, and wildlife) for current and future generations from threats of divestiture, reduced access, or privatization

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Mission and Strategic Plan | National Wildlife Federation

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Uniting all Americans to ensure wildlife thrive in a rapidly changing world We believe America's experience with cherished landscapes and wildlife has helped define and shape our national character and identity for generations. Protecting these natural resources is a cause that has long united Americans from all walks of life and political stripes.

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Pieces of trash collected and counting… #ComeCleanForEarth Follow these three easy steps: Organizing & Promoting a Cleanup Whether it’s a cleanup with a small group of friends or a large-scale community event, our Cleanup Toolkit provides everything you need to get started! You’ll find planning, pre…

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The Importance of Genetics
There are concerns about introducing species into a region where they were not previously growing. If you are not familiar with these concerns, please read the Importance of Genetics.
Selecting a Suitable Supplier
It is important that anyone contacting suppliers in this directory understand that it is their own responsibility to ensure that they are getting a reliable and quality product. For help choosing a supplier, please read Selecting a Suitable Supplier.
Seed Definitions
It is helpful to become familiar with seed terms when ordering seed to assist you in making informed decisions. Please review seed terms by visiting the page on Seed Definitions.

This directory has been compiled to make it easier to find businesses that sell native plants or seeds and provide professional landscape or consulting services. Use the search options below to find help for your native plant needs or click here to add your business to the directory. Associates are providers of native plant services who offer Wildflower Center members a discount on merchandise or services. To qualify, at least 50% of an Associate's projects or inventory must use native plants.

Based on your location search, these Suppliers are closest from nearest to farthest.

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Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center - The University of Texas at Austin

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Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center focused on protecting and preserving North America's native plants through native plant lists and image galleries, conservation, education, natural landscapes, seed collection - Millennium Seed Bank (MSB) Project, preserving and restoring native communities, spreading awareness on invasive species and gardening to attract wildlife.

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In Corpus Christi, Texas, Environmentalists Are Fighting a Slate of Proposed Desalination Plants

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The city says it needs extra water. But it’s for fossil fuel and plastic corporations--not people

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Catrin Einhorn and Lauren LeatherbyDec. 9, 2022

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Meet some of the animals most affected as humans take over more and more land.

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Read the Full Study

Published online in Science, Sept. 2019.

Feature Story

In Living Bird magazine

Help Birds

With 7 Simple Actions

Show Transcript

NARRATOR: Birds are part of our lives. They fill the air with song, Inspire us with their beauty. And make their homes in the most unexpected places. Sometimes they're even our neighbors. But the birds we love, are vanishing. An alarming new study reveals that the population of North American birds has dropped nearly 30% since 1970. That's almost three billion birds gone. Vanished from our forests, grasslands, and backyards, in less than the span of a human lifetime. Some of the hardest hit are familiar birds: orioles, meadowlarks, swallows, warblers. What's driving this decline?

NARRATOR: Birds are losing the habitats they need, places to live, find food, rest, and raise their young. They face many other threats as well-from free-roaming cats and collisions with glass, to toxic pesticides and insect declines. Climate change will compound all of these problems and accelerate the loss of habitats birds need. This enormous loss of birds signals a broader crisis in the natural world one that ultimately affects us all. But it's not too late....

NARRATOR: Our actions on behalf of birds make a positive difference and benefit the entire planet. Thanks to strong conservation efforts and habitat management, many waterfowl and formally endangered species are now flourishing. It's time to expand these conservation efforts to help the rest of our birds recover too. With our help, they can be restored as a vital part of the American landscape, and a precious part of our lives. We're united in pursuing better protections and increased support for birds... and you can help. Please, join us.

End of Transcript

Nearly 3 Billion Birds Gone Since 1970

The first-ever comprehensive assessment of net population changes in the U.S. and Canada reveals across-the-board declines that scientists call "staggering." All told, the North American bird population is down by 2.9 billion breeding adults, with devastating losses among birds in every biome. Forests alone have lost 1 billion birds. Grassland bird populations collectively have declined by 53%, or another 720 million birds.

A staggering loss that suggests the very fabric of North America's ecosystem is unraveling.
Cornell Lab director John Fitzpatrick and study coauthor Peter Marra

The Main Findings

Even Common Birds Are Vanishing

Common birds-the species that many people see every day-have suffered the greatest losses, according to the study. More than 90% of the losses (more than 2.5 billion birds) come from just 12 families including the sparrows, blackbirds, warblers, and finches.

The losses include favorite species seen at bird feeders, such as Dark-eyed Juncos (or "snowbirds," down by 168 million) and sweet-singing White-throated Sparrows (down by 93 million). Eastern and Western Meadowlarks are down by a combined 139 million individuals. Even the beloved Red-winged Blackbird-a common sight in virtually every marsh and wet roadside across the continent-has declined by 92 million birds.

"We want to keep common birds common, and we're not even doing that," said Pete Marra, a study coauthor who formerly directed the Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center and now directs the Georgetown Environment Initiative.

This Is a Problem Everyone Can Solve

7 Simple Ways to Help Birds

Support Our Research

Support from our members helped make this vital work possible.

Now, our scientists must seek solutions that will stem further population declines. The future of birds and our natural world depends on it-and you can help.
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Let's Tell People About This

If you're on this page, chances are birds are already important to you-but most people don't know about this finding. Can you help us take the news to them? Share these short videos on social media. Tweet about the research. Post an image to Instagram. Or just tell a friend the old-fashioned way-it all helps.

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New finding says 1 in 4 birds have vanished in our lifetime. Let's get together and #BringBirdsBack

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Save these infographics and share them on your Instagram feed to help people see how the birds we know and love are faring. Many trends are downward, but some positive trends illustrate what is possible when we take action.

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ABOUT THE STUDY

Critical data were contributed by citizen-science participants in the Audubon Christmas Bird Count, North American Breeding Bird Survey, and other bird-monitoring initiatives. The Partners in Flight Avian Conservation Assessment Database was a critical source for the data.

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Read the Full Study Published online in Science, Sept. 2019. Download Feature Story In Living Bird magazine Read It Help Birds With 7 Simple ...

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Even if you have only a few free minutes, you can do something to help birds. Explore our current alerts and take action for birds throughout the Americas!

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Maple Syrup Produced in Bird-Friendly Habitats

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Collaborating to keep forest habitat sweet for songbirds.

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Provides general information on energy resources and their environmental effects; how electricity is delivered and used; and related tools and EPA program links.