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Inferior displacement or dropping of the kidney.

Causes:

It occurs when the kidney slides from the normal position usually because it isn't securely held in place by the covering of fat which is the adipose capsule.

When the body fat percentage drops, the adipose capsule which is made up of fatty tissue also starts to drop away.

can also occur when someone experiences trauma.

Symptoms:

Nephroptosis is asymptomatic in most people.

However, nephroptosis can be characterized by violent attacks of colicky flank pain, nausea, chills, hypertension, hematuria and proteinuria.

People with symptomatic nephroptosis often complain of sharp pains that radiate into the groin. Many people also suggest a weighing feeling on the abdomen.

Treatment:

Nephropexy was performed in the past to stabilize the kidney, but presently surgery is not recommended in asymptomatic patients. A nephropexy does not guarantee the symptoms will go away. Laparoscopic nephropexy has recently become available for selected symptomatic patients.

References:

1. Moss SW, J Urol, Floating kidneys: a century of nephroptosis and nephropexy, 1997

10.1016/S0022-5347(01)64296-4. PMID 9258063.

2. Eun, Daniel D, Medical mystery: No, she wasn't imagining that pain, The philadelphia inquirer, 2018

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Blood enters the glomerular through afferent arterial. Blood pressure forces water and most solute in the blood plasma across filtration membrane in the capillary and into the Bowmans's capsule

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The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureter, urinary bladder and urethra. The function of the urinary system is to eliminate waste from the body, regulate blood volume and blood pressure, control level of electrolytes and metabolites, and regulate blood pH.

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They are reddish bean-shaped organs that are located just above the waist. Kidney sit between the posterior wall oof the abdomen and peritoneum. Typically, adult kidney is between 10-12 cm long, 5-7 cm wide and 3 cm thick which is roughly size of a "bar soap". Kidney filter blood, when they do this, they return most of the water and many of the solutes back to the bloodstream.

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The ureters are tubes made of smooth muscle that propel urine from the kidneys to urinary bladder. In adult, ureters are usually 20-30 cm long and around 3-4 mm in diameter.

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The bladder is a hollow organ that store urine from the kidneys before disposal by urination. The typical adult bladder hold 300 and 500 ml before urge to empty occurs but can hold considerably more.

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The urethra is a fibrous and muscular tube which connects the urinary bladder to the external urethral meatus. In male, the urethra is 18 to 20 cm and opens at the end of the external urethral meatus. In female, the urethra is about 4 cm long.

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It is a layer of thin, dense, irregular connective tissue and the function is to anchor the kidney to the surroundings and the abdominal wall.

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It is a mass of fatty tissue that surrounds the kidney. It helps hold the kidney firmly in the place and provides kidney protection from the trauma.

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It is the deepest layer , smooth transparent sheath of dense irregular tissue that is continuous with the outer layer of the ureter, helps maintain shape of the kidney.

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The waste products filtered out of the blood are excreted as urine. If no blood is filtered, no urine is produced.

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The process of reclaiming water and solutes from the filtrate and returning them to the blood. e.g. glucose, water amino acids.

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The process of secreting excess or waste substances from the blood into filtrate in the tubules.

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They are the functional unit of kidneys. Each kidney contain about one million nephrons.

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Cluster of capillaries. Capillary network of glomerulus has unique structure of large pores that permits the passage of water, ions and other small molecules into the glomerular space.

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Filtered fluid filtered though glomerulus is captured by glomerular capsule and moves through the renal tubules.

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Rising of glomerular capsule. Arises from Bowman's capsule. Simple cuboidal epithelium. Microvilli facing lumen.

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Brings blood into the glomerulus tube filtered.

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Takes blood out of the glomerulus.

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Also referred to as the loop of henle

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water permeable but impermeable to solutes

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water impermeable but things like sodium, pottasium , chloride ions are reabsorbed via active and passive transport.

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begins shortly after the ascending loop reenters the cortex, is comprised of cuboidal epithelium. It has almost no microvilli, it is because it is involved more in secretion and less in reabsorption.

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They are the end of renal tubules, receive filtrate from several nephrons. These ducts contain epithelial cells with microvilli which helps control the reabsorption of water, maintain electrolyte balance.

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About 20-25% of resting cardiac output which is about 1.2L of blood per minute flows into the kidney through right and left arteries.

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They radiate out from arcuate arteries. The cortical radiate arteries branch into numerous afferent arterioles, and then enter the capillaries supplying the nephrons.

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Many small radial arteries branch off at right angles from the arcuate artery, carrying blood toward the cortex.

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symporters in thick ascending limb cause buildup of Na+ and Cl- in renal medulla

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Countercurrent flow through nephron loop establishes osmotic gradient.

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Principal cells in collecting duct reabsorb more water when ADH is present.

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Urea recycling causes buildup of urea in renal medulla.

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Discharging of urine from the bladder is called micturition. Micturition occurs via a combination of voluntary and involuntary muscle contracts.

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Interconnection with the central nervous system:

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Interconnection with the central nervous system:

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when the volume of the bladder exceeds between 200 and 400 ml, the pressure within the bladder increases and this stimulates stretch receptors transmit nerve impulses to the spinal cord.

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These impulses then propagate to the micturition centre, Pons and trigger the Micturition reflex.

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The nerve impulses cause contraction of the bladder muscular, the bladder contract at the same time, the internal urinary sphincter relax.

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On contraction the urinary bladder, relaxation of internal and external urethral sphincter, urination takes place.

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Glomerulonephritis (GN) is inflammation of the glomeruli, which are structures in your kidneys that are made up of tiny blood vessels. This can cause your kidneys to stop working properly.

Symptoms:

blood or excess protein in your urine, which may be microscopic and show up in urine tests

high blood pressure

swelling in your ankles and face

frequent nighttime urination

bubbly or foamy urine, from excess protein

abdominal pain

frequent nosebleeds

Causes:

Heavy use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, such as ibuprofen (Advil) and naproxen (Aleve), may also be a risk factor

The chronic form of GN can develop over several years with no or very few symptoms. This can cause irreversible damage to your kidneys and ultimately lead to complete kidney failure.

Chronic GN doesn’t always have a clear cause. A genetic disease can sometimes cause chronic GN. Hereditary nephritis occurs in young men with poor vision and poor hearing

Treatment:

1. The first step in diagnosis is a urinalysis test. Blood and protein in urine are important markers for the disease.

2. One treatment is to control high blood pressure, especially if that’s the underlying cause of the GN.

3. Corticosteroids may also be used if your immune system is attacking your kidneys. They reduce the immune response.

For chronic GN, you’ll need to reduce the amount of protein, salt, and potassium in your diet. Additionally, you must watch how much liquid you drink

References:

1. Haider DG, Kidney biopsy in patients with glomerulonephritis: Is the earlier the better?, 2012 https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2369-13-34

2. Haladyj E, Do we still need renal biopsy in lupus nephritis? , 2016 https://doi.org/10.5114/reum.2016.60214

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Kidneys help regulate calcium and phosphate levels in the blood

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skeletal system relies on the urinary system to remove waste produced by bone cells; in return, the bones of skeleton create structure that protects the bladder and other urinary system organs.

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It removes waste products

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the lymphatic system carries destroyed bacteria and other waste products back into the bloodstream.

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The liver and kidneys remove these from the blood. The body then gets rid of this waste when you pass urine