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History notes on Chapter 1 : Bricks breads and bones.Period:-Early Harappan culture – Before 2600 BCEMature Harappa culture – 2600 BCE to 1900 BCELate Harappa culture – After 1900 BCEExtent of Harappan civilisation:-Northern boundary- Manda Southern Boundary- DaimabadEastern boundary- Alamgirpur Western boundary- Sutkagendor Characteristics of the Harappan Civilisation.Time Line 1Subsistence strategiesThe Harappans ate wide range of plants and animal products.Animal bones found at Harappan sites include those of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig.The bones of wild species found suggest the Harappans hunted these animals themselves or obtained meat from other hunting communities. Bones of fish and fowl are also found.Agricultural technologies:Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known, and archaeologists extrapolate from this that oxen were used for ploughing.Terracotta models of the plough have been found at sites in Cholistan and at Banawali. Evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan has also been found.Traces of irrigation canals have been found at Shortugahi in Afghanistan.Traces of rainwater harvesting found in Dholavira in Gujarat through water reservoirs.MOHENJODARO: A planned urban cityTwo Sections of settlement:-The CitadelThese were constructed on mud brick platforms and were walled, which meant that it was physically separated from the Lower TownThese include the warehouse – a massive structure of which the lower brick portions remain.The upper portions, probably of wood, was – the Great Bath. It was a large rectangular tank in courtyard surrounded by a corridor on all four sides.The Lower TownIt had carefully planned drainage system. The roads and streets were laid out along an approximate “grid” pattern.It  provides examples of residential buildings. Many were centred on a courtyard, with rooms on all sides.Every house had its own bathroom paved with bricks, with drains connected through the wall to the street drains.The uniqueness of the structure, as well as the context in which it was found (the Citadel, with several distinctive buildings), has led scholars to suggest that it was meant for some kind of a special ritual bath.Social differencesBurials: At burials in Harappan site,s the dead were generally laid in pits. Sometimes, there were differences in the way the burial pit was made. Some graves contain pottery and ornaments, perhaps indicating a belief that these could be used in the afterlife. Jewellery has been found in burials of both men and women.Looking for “luxuries”:  The artefacts are classified as utilitarian and luxuries by the archaeologists. Utilitarian objects are of daily use made fairly easily out of ordinary materials such as stone or clay. Luxuries are those items if they are rare or made from costly, non-local materials or with complicated technologies. The situation becomes more complicated when we find what seem to be articles of daily use, such as spindle whorls made of rare materials such as faience.Craft ProductionChanhudaro is a tiny settlement exclusively devoted to craft production, including bead-making, shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making and weight-making.The variety of materials used to make beads is remarkable.Techniques for making beads differed according to the material.Nodules were chipped into rough shapes, and then finely flaked into the final form.Specialised drills have been found at Chanhudaro, Lothal and more recently at Dholavira.Nageshwar and Balakot were specialised centres for making shell objects – including bangles, ladles and inlay.Centres of production: Archaeologists identified centres of production by looking for raw materials and tools used.Waste is one of the best indicators of craft work. Sometimes, larger waste pieces were used up to make smaller objects.These traces suggest that apart from small, specialised centres, craft production was also undertaken in large cities such as Mohenjodaro and Harappa.Strategies for procuring materialProcured from the subcontinent and beyond: The Harappans procured materials for craft production in various ways.Terracotta toy models of bullock carts suggest that this was one important means of transporting goods and people across land routes.Another strategy for procuring raw materials may have been to send expeditions, which established communication with local communities.Contact with distant lands: archaeological finds suggest that copper was also probably brought from Oman, on the southeastern tip of the Arabian peninsula.Mesopotamian texts datable to the third millennium BCE refer to copper coming from a region called Magan, perhaps a name for Oman.Other archaeological finds include Harappan seals, weights, dice and beads which suggests contacts with regions named Dilmun (probably the island of Bahrain), Magan and Meluhha, possibly the Harappan region.It is likely that communication with Oman, Bahrain or Mesopotamia was by sea. Mesopotamian texts refer to Meluhha as a land of seafarers. Besides, we find depictions of ships and boats on seals.Seals, Script, WeightsSeals and sealings were used to facilitate long distance communication. The sealing also conveyed the identity of the sender.An enigmatic script: Harappan seals usually have a line of writing, probably containing the name and title of the owner. Scholars have also suggested that the motif (generally an animal) conveyed a meaning to those who could not read.Most inscriptions are short, the longest containing about 26 signs. Although the script remains undeciphered to date, it was evidently not alphabetical as it has just too many signs – somewhere between 375 and 400. The script was written from right to left.Weights: Exchanges were regulated by a precise system of weights, usually made of a stone called Chert and generally cubical, with no markings.Metal scale-pans have also been found.Ancient AuthorityThere are indications of complex decisions being taken and implemented in Harappan society.Palaces and kings: A large building found at Mohenjodaro was labelled as a palace by archaeologists but no spectacular finds were associated with it. A stone statue was labelled and continues to be known as the “priest-king”.Some archaeologists are of the opinion that Harappan society had no rulers, whereas other archaeologist feels that there was no single ruler but several rulers, Mohenjodaro had a separate ruler, Harappa another. While some believe that there was a single state.The End of the CivilisationThere is evidence that by c. 1800 BCE most of the Mature Harappan sites in regions such as Cholistan had been abandoned. Simultaneously, there was an expansion of population into new settlements in Gujarat, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh.Several explanation for the decline of Harappan civilisation are climatic changes, deforestation, excessive floods, the shifting and/or drying up of rivers.The end was evidenced by the disappearance of seals, the script, distinctive beads and pottery, the shift from a standardised weight system to the use of local weights; and the decline and abandonment of cities.Discovering the Harappan CivilisationWhen Harappan cities fell into ruin, people gradually forgot all about them.Cunningham’s confusion: The first Director-General of the ASI, Cunningham used the accounts left by Chinese Buddhist pilgrims who had visited the subcontinent between the fourth and seventh centuries CE to locate early settlements. A site like Harappa, which was not part of the itinerary of the Chinese pilgrims and was not known as an Early Historic city.A Harappan seal was given to Cunningham by an Englishman. He noted the object, but unsuccessfully tried to place it within the time-frame with which he was familiar. It is not surprising that he missed the significance of Harappa.A new old civilisation: In 1924, John Marshall, Director-General of the ASI, announced the discovery of a new civilisation in the Indus valley to the world.It was then that the world knew not only of a new civilisation, but also of one contemporaneous with Mesopotamia.Marshall tended to excavate along regular horizontal units, measured uniformly throughout the mound, ignoring the stratigraphy of the site. This meant that all the artefacts recovered from the same unit were grouped together.New techniques and questions: Since the 1980s, there has also been growing international interest in Harappan archaeology.Specialists from the subcontinent and abroad have been jointly working at both Harappa and Mohenjodaro.They are using modern scientific techniques including surface exploration to recover traces of clay, stone, metal and plant and animal remains as well as to minutely analyse every scrap of available evidence. These explorations promise to yield interesting results in the future.Time Line 2Major Developments in Harappan Archaeology during Nineteenth Century1875Report of Alexander Cunningham on Harappan sealTwentieth Century1921  M.S Vats beings excavations at Harappa1925    Excavations begin at mohenjodaro1946    R.E.M wheeler excavates at Harappa1955    S.R Rao beings excavations at Lothal1960    B.B Lal and B.K Thapar being excavations at Kalibangan1974    M.R Mughal beings exploration in Bahawalpur1980    A team of German and Italian archaeologists beings surface exploration at mohenjodaro1986    American team beings excavations at Harappa1990    R.S Bisht beings excavations at     DholaviraProblems of Piecing Together the PastIt is not the Harappan script that helps in understanding the ancient civilisation. Rather, it is material evidence that allows archaeologists to better reconstruct Harappan life. This material could be pottery, tools, ornaments, household objects, etc.Organic materials such as cloth, leather, wood and reeds generally decompose, especially in tropical regions. What survive are stone, burnt clay (or terracotta), metal, etc.Classifying finds: One simple principle of classification is in terms of material, such as stone, clay, metal, bone, ivory, etc. The second, is in terms of function. Archaeologists have to decide whether, for instance, an artefact is a tool or an ornament, or both, or something meant for ritual use.Sometimes, archaeologists have to take recourse to indirect evidence. For instance, though there are traces of cotton at some Harappan sites, to find out about clothing we have to depend on indirect evidence including depictions in sculpture.Problems of interpretation: Early archaeologists thought that certain objects which seemed unusual or unfamiliar may have had a religious significance.Attempts have also been made to reconstruct religious beliefs and practices by examining seals, some of which seem to depict ritual scenes.Others, with plant motifs, are thought to indicate nature worship.Several reconstructions remain speculative at present.Prepared by  : Mrs Komal JainH.O.D ( History Department)

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History notes on Chapter 1 : Bricks breads and bones.Period:-Early Harappan culture – Before 2600 BCEMature Harappa culture – 2600 BCE to 1900 BCELate Harappa culture – After 1900 BCEExtent of Harappan civilisation:-Northern boundary- Manda Southern Boundary- DaimabadEastern boundary- Alamgirpur Western boundary- Sutkagendor Characteristics of the Harappan Civilisation.Time Line 1Subsistence strategiesThe Harappans ate wide range of plants and animal products.Animal bones found at Harappan sites include those of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig.The bones of wild species found suggest the Harappans hunted these animals themselves or obtained meat from other hunting communities. Bones of fish and fowl are also found.Agricultural technologies:Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known, and archaeologists extrapolate from this that oxen were used for ploughing.Terracotta models of the plough have been found at sites in Cholistan and at Banawali. Evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan has also been found.Traces of irrigation canals have been found at Shortugahi in Afghanistan.Traces of rainwater harvesting found in Dholavira in Gujarat through water reservoirs.MOHENJODARO: A planned urban cityTwo Sections of settlement:-The CitadelThese were constructed on mud brick platforms and were walled, which meant that it was physically separated from the Lower TownThese include the warehouse – a massive structure of which the lower brick portions remain.The upper portions, probably of wood, was – the Great Bath. It was a large rectangular tank in courtyard surrounded by a corridor on all four sides.The Lower TownIt had carefully planned drainage system. The roads and streets were laid out along an approximate “grid” pattern.It  provides examples of residential buildings. Many were centred on a courtyard, with rooms on all sides.Every house had its own bathroom paved with bricks, with drains connected through the wall to the street drains.The uniqueness of the structure, as well as the context in which it was found (the Citadel, with several distinctive buildings), has led scholars to suggest that it was meant for some kind of a special ritual bath.Social differencesBurials: At burials in Harappan site,s the dead were generally laid in pits. Sometimes, there were differences in the way the burial pit was made. Some graves contain pottery and ornaments, perhaps indicating a belief that these could be used in the afterlife. Jewellery has been found in burials of both men and women.Looking for “luxuries”:  The artefacts are classified as utilitarian and luxuries by the archaeologists. Utilitarian objects are of daily use made fairly easily out of ordinary materials such as stone or clay. Luxuries are those items if they are rare or made from costly, non-local materials or with complicated technologies. The situation becomes more complicated when we find what seem to be articles of daily use, such as spindle whorls made of rare materials such as faience.Craft ProductionChanhudaro is a tiny settlement exclusively devoted to craft production, including bead-making, shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making and weight-making.The variety of materials used to make beads is remarkable.Techniques for making beads differed according to the material.Nodules were chipped into rough shapes, and then finely flaked into the final form.Specialised drills have been found at Chanhudaro, Lothal and more recently at Dholavira.Nageshwar and Balakot were specialised centres for making shell objects – including bangles, ladles and inlay.Centres of production: Archaeologists identified centres of production by looking for raw materials and tools used.Waste is one of the best indicators of craft work. Sometimes, larger waste pieces were used up to make smaller objects.These traces suggest that apart from small, specialised centres, craft production was also undertaken in large cities such as Mohenjodaro and Harappa.Strategies for procuring materialProcured from the subcontinent and beyond: The Harappans procured materials for craft production in various ways.Terracotta toy models of bullock carts suggest that this was one important means of transporting goods and people across land routes.Another strategy for procuring raw materials may have been to send expeditions, which established communication with local communities.Contact with distant lands: archaeological finds suggest that copper was also probably brought from Oman, on the southeastern tip of the Arabian peninsula.Mesopotamian texts datable to the third millennium BCE refer to copper coming from a region called Magan, perhaps a name for Oman.Other archaeological finds include Harappan seals, weights, dice and beads which suggests contacts with regions named Dilmun (probably the island of Bahrain), Magan and Meluhha, possibly the Harappan region.It is likely that communication with Oman, Bahrain or Mesopotamia was by sea. Mesopotamian texts refer to Meluhha as a land of seafarers. Besides, we find depictions of ships and boats on seals.Seals, Script, WeightsSeals and sealings were used to facilitate long distance communication. The sealing also conveyed the identity of the sender.An enigmatic script: Harappan seals usually have a line of writing, probably containing the name and title of the owner. Scholars have also suggested that the motif (generally an animal) conveyed a meaning to those who could not read.Most inscriptions are short, the longest containing about 26 signs. Although the script remains undeciphered to date, it was evidently not alphabetical as it has just too many signs – somewhere between 375 and 400. The script was written from right to left.Weights: Exchanges were regulated by a precise system of weights, usually made of a stone called Chert and generally cubical, with no markings.Metal scale-pans have also been found.Ancient AuthorityThere are indications of complex decisions being taken and implemented in Harappan society.Palaces and kings: A large building found at Mohenjodaro was labelled as a palace by archaeologists but no spectacular finds were associated with it. A stone statue was labelled and continues to be known as the “priest-king”.Some archaeologists are of the opinion that Harappan society had no rulers, whereas other archaeologist feels that there was no single ruler but several rulers, Mohenjodaro had a separate ruler, Harappa another. While some believe that there was a single state.The End of the CivilisationThere is evidence that by c. 1800 BCE most of the Mature Harappan sites in regions such as Cholistan had been abandoned. Simultaneously, there was an expansion of population into new settlements in Gujarat, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh.Several explanation for the decline of Harappan civilisation are climatic changes, deforestation, excessive floods, the shifting and/or drying up of rivers.The end was evidenced by the disappearance of seals, the script, distinctive beads and pottery, the shift from a standardised weight system to the use of local weights; and the decline and abandonment of cities.Discovering the Harappan CivilisationWhen Harappan cities fell into ruin, people gradually forgot all about them.Cunningham’s confusion: The first Director-General of the ASI, Cunningham used the accounts left by Chinese Buddhist pilgrims who had visited the subcontinent between the fourth and seventh centuries CE to locate early settlements. A site like Harappa, which was not part of the itinerary of the Chinese pilgrims and was not known as an Early Historic city.A Harappan seal was given to Cunningham by an Englishman. He noted the object, but unsuccessfully tried to place it within the time-frame with which he was familiar. It is not surprising that he missed the significance of Harappa.A new old civilisation: In 1924, John Marshall, Director-General of the ASI, announced the discovery of a new civilisation in the Indus valley to the world.It was then that the world knew not only of a new civilisation, but also of one contemporaneous with Mesopotamia.Marshall tended to excavate along regular horizontal units, measured uniformly throughout the mound, ignoring the stratigraphy of the site. This meant that all the artefacts recovered from the same unit were grouped together.New techniques and questions: Since the 1980s, there has also been growing international interest in Harappan archaeology.Specialists from the subcontinent and abroad have been jointly working at both Harappa and Mohenjodaro.They are using modern scientific techniques including surface exploration to recover traces of clay, stone, metal and plant and animal remains as well as to minutely analyse every scrap of available evidence. These explorations promise to yield interesting results in the future.Time Line 2Major Developments in Harappan Archaeology during Nineteenth Century1875Report of Alexander Cunningham on Harappan sealTwentieth Century1921  M.S Vats beings excavations at Harappa1925    Excavations begin at mohenjodaro1946    R.E.M wheeler excavates at Harappa1955    S.R Rao beings excavations at Lothal1960    B.B Lal and B.K Thapar being excavations at Kalibangan1974    M.R Mughal beings exploration in Bahawalpur1980    A team of German and Italian archaeologists beings surface exploration at mohenjodaro1986    American team beings excavations at Harappa1990    R.S Bisht beings excavations at     DholaviraProblems of Piecing Together the PastIt is not the Harappan script that helps in understanding the ancient civilisation. Rather, it is material evidence that allows archaeologists to better reconstruct Harappan life. This material could be pottery, tools, ornaments, household objects, etc.Organic materials such as cloth, leather, wood and reeds generally decompose, especially in tropical regions. What survive are stone, burnt clay (or terracotta), metal, etc.Classifying finds: One simple principle of classification is in terms of material, such as stone, clay, metal, bone, ivory, etc. The second, is in terms of function. Archaeologists have to decide whether, for instance, an artefact is a tool or an ornament, or both, or something meant for ritual use.Sometimes, archaeologists have to take recourse to indirect evidence. For instance, though there are traces of cotton at some Harappan sites, to find out about clothing we have to depend on indirect evidence including depictions in sculpture.Problems of interpretation: Early archaeologists thought that certain objects which seemed unusual or unfamiliar may have had a religious significance.Attempts have also been made to reconstruct religious beliefs and practices by examining seals, some of which seem to depict ritual scenes.Others, with plant motifs, are thought to indicate nature worship.Several reconstructions remain speculative at present.Prepared by  : Mrs Komal JainH.O.D ( History Department)

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Mughal chronicals

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The revolt of 1857 is an important marker in Indian History, and is an area where questions have repeatedly featured in the Civil Services (Prelims) and Civil Services (Mains) Examinations conducted by the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC). Here we outline the various political and economic factors that helped cause the revolt. This is an important segment in modern Indian history for IAS exam.

Political Factors (Political causes of Revolt of 1857 in points)

1. a) Due to the British expansionist policies, most of the Raja’s, Nawab’s and the zamindar’s, were either dispossessed from their state or became subsidiary to the British. b) The East India Company (EIC) had a planned way of expansionism and many Indian states easily fell prey to the policies of the East India Company. c) The policy of Trade and Commerce subjugated the state, the policy of indirect subordination (subsidiary alliance), policy of war and annexation, policy of direct subordination (doctrine of lapse), policy of misgovernance (in which Awadh was annexed). d) These policies greatly hampered the interests of the rulers of the native states, and they one by one became victims of British expansionism. e) Therefore, those rulers, who lost their states to the British, were naturally against the British and took sides against them during the revolt. f) However, some of the rulers were in active connivance and collaborated with the British in suppressing the revolt.

2. The period of Dalhousie (1848-1856) is marked as a major factor in the revolt of 1857. A famous policy under his period was ‘Doctrine of Lapse’. Under this, many states, like Satara, Jaitpur, Sambhalpur, Jhansi, were captured by the British who expanded recklessly. Thus the political factors, i.e. expansionary policy of the British greatly contributed towards the revolt of 1857. 3. The other factor was that Indian judges were not allowed to try the criminal cases of Europeans- thus discrimination was at all levels.

Revolt of 1857 Causes: Economic
Economic Factors (Economic Causes of Revolt of 1857):

This was a vital factor as it affected a large section of Indian society. Ever since the grant of Diwani was made to the British in 1765, land revenue became an issue of much burden. British Government had imposed ‘pocket area transformation’, that means, introduction of Permanent Settlement in Bengal, Mahalwari settlement in Central India, and Ryotwari settlement in southern India.
These three settlements were highly exploitative, and in particular, the Permanent settlement had created a devastating impact.
But the high rates of land revenue, ruined the prospects of Indian peasantry. Thus the peasants were greatly encouraged to overthrow the British Government from India. The ‘Drain of Wealth’ impoverished peasants and they thus participated actively in the revolt of 1857.
Also See:

Revolt of 1857: Immediate Factor Revolt of 1857: Social Causes
Revolt of 1857: Observations by Historians Revolt of 1857: Military Factors
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https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constituent_Assembly_of_India

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MAHATMA GANDHI AND THE NATIONALIST MOVEMENT (PART 2) CLASS 12: HISTORY | UPSC PREPARATION |

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Question 1.
Why is ‘Objective Resolution’ of Nehru considered as momentous resolution? Give two reasons?
Answer:
Objective resolution was considered as momentous resolution because:
It outlined the defining ideals of Constitution of Independent India and provided framework within which constitution making was to be proceeded.
It proclaimed India to be an “Independent Sovereign Republic”.

Question 2.
Mention any two arguments given by Balakrishna Sharma for greater power to the centre.
Answer:
Balakrishna Sharma said following things in favour for greater power to the centre:
He said strong centre could plan for well-being of the country and it can mobilise the available economic resources of the country.
Strong centre can establish proper administration and defend the country against foreign invasion.

Question 3.
Describe the different arguments made in favour of protection on of depressed class in the Constituent Assembly.

Answer:
The following arguments were made in favour of protection of depressed classes in the Constituent Assembly:
1. It was realised that the depressed classes especially tribals and untouchables needed special attention and safeguards to raise their status in society and provide them equality. But some members of the depressed class emphasised that the problem of the “Untouchables” could not be resolved through protection and safeguards alone.
2. These members believed that the disabilities of the depressed class were caused by the social norms and the moral values of caste divided society. The depressed class had been left in isolation with this belief that they are not born to be fit in the civil society.
Their suffering was due to their systematic marginalisation. They had no aceess to education and also had no share in the administration.
Thus, in the Constituent Assembly many recognised that social discrimination could not solve only through constitutional legislation, there had to be a change in the attitudes within society.

Question 4.
“The discussions within the Constituent Assembly were also influenced by the opinions expressed by the public”.
Examine the statement.

Answer:
The public opinion had a considerable effect on the discussions of the Constituent Assembly that were:
There was public debate on all the resolutions.
The newspapers reported the arguments presented by different members on any issue.
Criticisms and counter criticism in the press shaped the nature of the consensus that was ultimately reached on specific issues.
Suggestions from the public was also welcomed which created a sense of collective participation.
Many linguistic minorities demanded protection of their mother tongue. Religious minorities asked for special safeguards.
The groups low caste or dalits demanded an end to ill-treatments by upper caste people and reservation of separate seats on the basis of their population in legislatures.
Important issues of cultural rights and social justice raised in the public discussions were debated in the Assembly.
In the same way, groups of religious minorities came forward and asked for special safeguards.

Question 5.
“A communist member Somnath Lahiri saw the dark hand of British . imperialism hanging over the deliberations of the Constituent Assembly”. Examine the statement and give your own views in support of your answer.

Answer:
The statement implies that Somnath Lahiri saw the influence of the British imperialism over the deliberations of the Constituent Assembly.
As a result, he urged the members to completely free themselves from the influences of imperial rule. During the winter of 1946-47, when the assembly was constituted, the British were still in India.
An interim administration headed by • Jawaharlal Nehru was in place, but it could only operate under the directions of the viceroy and the British Government in London. Lahiri exhorted his colleagues to realise that the Constituent Assembly was British made and was working on the British plans as the British should like it to be worked out.

Question 6.
“Within the Constituent Assembly of India the language issue was intensely debated”. Examine the views put forward by members of the assembly on the issue.

Answer:
The language issue was intensely debated in the Constituent Assembly. R.V. Dhulekar, Shrimati G. Durgabai, Shri Shankarrao Deo and T.A. Ramalingam Chettiar were prominent members of the Constituent Assembly who gave their remarkable views on language.
R.V. Dhulekar, a Congressman from the United Provinces, made a strong plea that Hindi must be used as the language of constitution making. He stated! “People who are present in this house to fashion a constitution for India and do not know Hindustani are not worthy to be member of this Assembly. They better leave”. Many members of the Assembly became agitated and the controversy regarding language continued over the next three years.
After three years, the Language Committee of the Constituent Assembly had produced its report. The committee tried to give a compromise formula to resolve the dead lock between those who advocated Hindi as the national language and those who opposed it. The committee suggested Hindi in the Devanagari script would be the official language along with English. But this solution could not satisfy members like Dhulekar who wanted to see Hindi as the national language of India.
Shrimati G. Durgabai from Madras expressed her worry that this controversy made the non-Hindi speaking people to think that other powerful languages of India would be neglected and it was an obstacle for the composite culture of our nation. She informed the House that the opposition in the South against Hindi was very strong. She said “The opponents feel perhaps justly that this propaganda for Hindi cuts at the very root of the provincial languages”.
She along with many others had obeyed the call of Mahatma Gandhi and carried on Hindi propaganda in the South. She accepted Hindustani as the language of the people. But its character was changed as it took many Urdu words and regional vocabulary. Durgabai believed this composite character of Hindustani was bound to create anxieties and fears among different language groups
Shri Shankarrao Deo, a member from Bombay, a Congressman and a follower of Mahatma Gandhi accepted Hindustani as a language of the nation. But he warned “If you want my whole-hearted support (for Hindi) you must not do now any thing which may arise my suspicions and which will strengthen my fears”.
T. A. Ramalingam Chettiar from Madras suggested that whatever was done had to be done with caution. Because the cause of Hindi would not be helped if it was pushed too aggressively. There would be fear and bitter feelings among people if Hindi was applied forcefully, although the people might be unjustified. So he believed that to form a united nation “there should be mutual adjustment and no question of forcing things on people.”In this way different members of the Constituent Assembly expressed their views regarding the controversy.

Question 7.
How did Constituent Assembly of India protected the powers of the Central government? Explain.

Answer:
India achieved its independence on 15 th August, 1947 and was also divided into two parts i.e. India and Pakistan. Before the partition, the Constituent Assembly did not communicated itself in commendation of a strong Central Government, but after the declaration of partition on 3rd June, 1947, Constituent Assembly considered itself free from all restrictions inflicted by Cabinet Mission and political pressures. Constituent Assembly decided to opt for a federation alongwith strong centre. There were arguments in favour of strong provinces which evoked powerful reactions from the leaders who preferred strong centre.
Dr BR Ambedkar and Jawaharalal Nehru propounded a strong Central Government for India. They mentioned to the riots’and violences that were fearing the nation apart and stated that only a strong centre can stop the communal disharmony. Balakrishna Sharma focussed on length of the nation and stated that only a centre, which was powerful could plan for the well-being of the country. Strong centre would help in mobilising available economic resources and proper administration was possible only through strong centre only.
In spite of arguments of the centre has likely to break or inefficiency of the centre, the rights of the states were most impressively defended by K Santhanam from Madras. Also the decision of the Constituent Assembly to have a strong centre was occasioned by the situations in which it was taken. Most of the members felt that strong centre was the need of the hour. It was necessary to ensure peace, prosperity and political stability, and hence, Gopalaswami Ayyangar requested to make centre as strong as possible.

Question 8.
“There cannot be any divided loyalty”

Answer :
Govind Ballabh Pant argued that in order to become loyal citizens people had to stop focusing only on the community and the self.
For the success of democracy one must train himself in the art of self discipline.
In Democracies one should care less for himself and more for others. There cannot be any divided loyalty. All loyalties must exclusively be centred round the state. If in a democracy, you create rival loyalties, or you create a system in which any individual or group, instead of suppressing his extravagance, cares nought for larger or other interests, then democracy is doomed.

Questions 9
Why did Govind Ballabh Pant lay more stress on the art of self-discipline?
What was considered important for the success of democracy?
‘In Democracies one should care less for himself and more for other.’ Give your views on this philosopy.

Answer:
1. Govind Ballabh Pant suggested that to make democracy successful, one should be self disciplined. Individual should care less for personal gain and focus more on collective benefit or for others gain in democracy. So a trait of sacrifice should be present in every citizen and this character of sacrifice can be learned through discipline.
2. For success of democracy, there should not be divided loyality and it must be centred round the state and citizens
should care less for themselves and more for fellow citizens.
3. This philosophy of democracy suggests that one should be considerate towards other, nothing should be done for personal gain which can harm the interest of other person or large section of people. This philosophy promotes the feeling of people centric benefits instead of individual centric.

Question 10
‘We are not just going to copy’. Why Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru quoted this statement?
We say that it is our firm and solemn resolve to have an independent sovereign republic. India is bound to be sovereign, it is bound to be independent and it is bound to be a republic….Now, some friends have raised the question “Why have you not put in the word ‘democratic’ here.?” Well, I told them that it is conceivable of course, that a republic may not be democratic but the whole of our past is witness to this fact that we stand for democratic institutions.
Obviously, we are aiming at democracy and nothing less than a democracy. What form of democracy, what shape it might take is another matter. The democracies of the present day, many of them in Europe and elsewhere, have played a great part in the world’s progress. Yet it may be doubtful if those democracies may not have to change their shape somewhat before long if they have to remain completely democratic. We are not going just to copy, I hope, a certain democratic procedure or an institution of a so-called democratic country.
We may improve upon it. In any event whatever system of government we may establish here must fit in with the temper of our people and be acceptable to them. We stand for democracy. It will be for this House to determine what shape to be given to that democracy, the fullest democracy, I hope the House will notice that in this resolution, although we have not used the word “democratic” because we thought it is obvious that the word “republic” contains that word and we have done something much more than using the word.
We have given the content of democracy in this resolution and not only the content of democracy but the context, also, if I may say so of economic democracy in this resolution. Others might take objection to this Resolution on the grounds that we have not said that it should be a Socialist State.
Well, I stand for Socialism and, I hope, India will stand for Socialism and that India will go towards the Constitution of a Socialist State and I do believe that the whole world will have to go that way.

Question 11
Explain why Nehru did not mention the word democratic in the resolution.
Mention the three basic features of the constitution given in the above passage.
or
On what kind of socialism did Nehru give stress to?
Answer”
1. The explanation given by Jawaharlal Nehru for not using the term ‘Democratic’ in the objective resolution is as follows:
(a) It was thought by the makers of the constitution that the word ‘republic’ contains that word.
(b) They did not want to use unnecessary and redundant words.
(c) They had given the content of democracy in the resolution especially democracy.
2. Three basic features of the constitution given in above passage are independent, sovereign, republic.
3. Nehru was supporter of Socialism and he said that India would stand for socialism, where every citizen would be provided equal opportunities for growth and development. There would be economic democracy and economic justice.

Question 1
“British element is gone but they have left the mischief behind”
Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel said
It is no use saying that we ask for separate electorates, because it is good for us. We have heard it long enough. We have heard it for years, and as a result of this agitation we are now a separate nation… Can you show me one free country where there are separate electorates? If so, I shall be prepared to accept it. But in this unfortunate country if this separate electorate is going to be persisted in, even after the division of the country, woe betide the country; it is not worth living in. Therefore, I say, it is not for my good alone, it is for your own good that I say it, forget the past.
One day, we may be united… The British element is gone, but they have left the mischief behind. We do not want to perpetuate that mischief.
When the British introduced this element they had not expected that they have to go so soon. They wanted it for their easy administration. That is all right. But they have left the legacy behind. Are we to get out of it or not?

Questions 14
Why are separate electorates considered as a mischief?
State the arguments given by Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel for building political unity and forging a nation.
How did the philosophy of separate electorates result in a separate nation? (All India 2015)
or
Explain Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel’s views on the issue of separate electorate system.
In what ways did Sardar Patel explain that “The British element is gone, but they have left the mischief behind”?
Mention the reasons behind Sardar Patel urging the assembly members to get rid of separate electorate.

Answer:
1. Separate electorate was considered as a mischief because in the name of giving representation to minorities and making the administration easy, Britishers divided two major communities of India politically. Later, this issue of separate electorate played an important role in partition of the country.

2. Patel said in an assembly that there was no provision of separate electorate in any free country. He further said that separate electorate could not deliver any good, so it was better to forget it. For political unity he said, this electorate had to go. British introduced the policy of divide and rule. After the British we should reject.it for the sake of the unity of our nation.
3. Philosophy of separate electorate saw Hindus and Muslims as separate political identity. It believed that interest of Hindus and Muslims were not common, so to represent Muslims there should be a Muslim only, similarly for Hindu only Hindu should represent. This policy separated the people on the basis of religion and started to keep one community isolated from another politically. It was there to divide Indians on the basis of religion.
or
Answer:
1. According to Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, separate electorates would be suicidal to the minorities and would do tremendous harm to them and the whole society. It was a demand that had turned one community against another, divided the nation, caused , bloodshed and led to the tragic
partition of the country. He argued that it would permanently isolate the minorities, make them vulnerable and deprive them of any effective say within the government.

2. Sardar Patel said that British policy of separate electorate created a division in the people of India and divided them on the basis of religion. This division culminated with partition of the country Britishers have left the country but negative consequence of that policy still haunted Indians.

3. Sardar Patel was urging for no separate electorates because it may harm the unity of the country as such no country is in the world having separate electorates.

Question 11.
“That is Very Good, Sir-Bold Words, Noble Words”
Somnath Lahiri said: Well, Sir, I must congratulate Pandit Nehru for the fine expression he gave to the spirit of the Indian people when he said that no imposition from the British will be accepted by the Indian people.
Imposition would be resented and objected to he said and he added that if need be we will walk to the valley of struggle. That is very good, Sir-bold words, noble words.
But the point is to see when and how are you going to apply that challenge. Well Sir the point is that the imposition is here right now.

Not only has the British plan made any future Constitution dependent on a treaty satisfactory to the Britisher but it suggests that for every little difference you will have to run to the Federal Court or dance attendance there in England or to call on the British Prime Minister Clement Attlee or someone else.

Not only is it a fact that this Constituent Assembly, whatever plans we may be hatching, we are under the shadow of British guns. British Army, their economic and financial stranglehold-which means that the final power is still in the British hands and the question of power has not yet been finally decided which means the future is not yet completely in our hands. Not only that, but the statements made by Attlee and others recently have made it clear that if need be, they will even threaten you with division entirely.

This means Sir there is no freedom in this country. As Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel put in some days ago, we have freedom only to fight among ourselves. That is the only freedom we have got…therefore, our humble suggestion is that it is not a question of getting something by working out this plan but to declare independence here and now and call upon the Interim government and call upon the people of India to stop fratricidal warfare and look out against its enemy, which still had the whip in hand of the British imperialism and go together to fight it and then resolve our claim afterward when we will be free
.
Question 15
Why did Somnath Lahiri congratulate Pandit Nehru?
Explain why Somnath feels that the absence of constitution will mean dependence on the British.
How did he feel that final power was still in hands of the British?
Explain the views of Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel.
Explain the intentions of the British in not framing the Constitution beforehand. What did they want?

Answer:
1. Somnath Lahiri congratulated Pandit Nehru for his fine expression that gave to the Indian people, when he said no imposition from the British would be accepted by India which was his true spirit for India and its free people.
2. Somnath felt that in the absence of Constitution for every basic law and rule, there would be need to refer to British government. British would obviously want control over the governance. So he felt that Indians should draft their own constitution according to their will and will of people, so it could be truly, independent and free.
3. Somnath Lahiri feels that although we have made our constitution but still we are not free. We are under British Army, British economic and financial stranglehold and this means that final power is still in the hands of British.
4. According to Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, we had freedom to fight only among ourselves, there was as such no freedom in our country.

5. The intentions of the British in not framing the constitution beforehand can be explained in the context of their convenience. It suggested that for every little difference, one would have to run to the federal court or act on the rule of the Government of England or to call on the British Prime Minister Clement Attlee.

Question 12.
We are not Just Going to Copy’
This is what Jawaharlal Nehru said in his famous speech of 13th December, 1946.
My mind goes back to the various Constituent Assemblies that have gone before and of what took place at the making of the great American nation when the father of that nation met and fashioned out a Constitution which has stood the test of so many years, more than a century and a half and of the great nation which has resulted, which has been built up on the basis of that construction.

My mind goes back to that mighty revolution, which took place also over 150 years ago and to that Constituent Assembly that met in that gracious and lovely city or Paris which has fought so many battles for freedom, to the difficulties than that Constituent Assembly had and to now the king and other authorities came in its way and still it continued.

The house will remember that when these difficulties came and even the room for a meeting was denied to the Constituent Assembly, they took themselves to an open tennis court and met there and took the oath, which is called the Oath of the Tennis Court that they continued meeting inspite of kings, inspite of the others and did not disperse till they had finished the task they had undertaken.

Well I trust that it is in that solemn spirit that we too are meeting here and that we too whether we meet in this chamber or other chambers or in the fields or in the market place will go on meeting and continue our work till we have finished it.

How was the American Constitution finalised and explain its results?
What does Nehru’s determination to pass the Constitution show? Explain any two such difficulties that were faced by the Constituent Assembly. (Delhi 2010)
Answer:
1. American Constitution was finalised when fathers of that Constitution met and fashioned out a Constitution. As a result, this Constitution stood the test of so many years.

2. Nehru’s determination to pass ‘The Constitution’ shows that our leaders were determined to establish parliamentary democracy in India and they were not ready to copy from other Constitution. But dedication and spirit were things that they wanted to copy. Two such difficulties faced by Constituent Assembly were:

There was no hall for meeting.
Kings and other authorities were not too willing and thus, posed hurdles in the making of Constitution.
Question 13.
“The Real Minorities are the Masses Of this country”
Welcoming the Objectives Resolution introduced by Jawaharlal Nehru, NG Ranga said. Sir, there is a lot of talk about minorities. Who are the real minorities? Not the Hindus in the so-called Pakistan provinces, not the Sikhs, not even the Muslims. No, the real minorities are the masses of this country.

These people are so depressed and oppressed and suppressed till now that they are not able to take advantage of the ordinary civil rights. What is the position? You go to the tribal areas. According to law, their own traditional . law, their tribal law, their lands, cannot be alienated.

Yet our merchants go there and in the so-called free market they are able to snatch their lands. Thus, even though the law goes against this snatching away of their lands, still the merchants are able to turn the tribal people into veritable slaves by various kinds of bonds and make them hereditary bond-slaves.

Let us go to the ordinary villagers. There goes the money lender with his money and he is able to get the villagers in his pocket. There is the landlord himself, the zamindar and the malguzar and there are the various other people who are able to exploit these poor villagers. There is no elementary education even among these people. These are the real minorities that need protection and assurances of protection. In order to give them the necessary protection, we will need much more than this Resolution…

How is the notion of minority defined by NG Ranga?
or
Who are the real minorities according to Shri NG Ranga and why?
Do you agree with Ranga? If not, mention who are real minorities according to you and why?
Explain the conditions of ordinary villagers.
Describe the living condition of the tribals. (All India 2010)
Answer:
1. According to Shri NG Ranga, the real minorities were the poor and downtrodden, especially the tribals because these people are so depressed, oppressed and suppressed till now that they are not able to take advantage of the ordinary civil rights.

2. I agree with Ranga that masses of this country are real minorities because these people have been depressed, suppressed and oppressed from the very long time.

3. The conditions of ordinary villagers

According to NG Ranga the life of ordinary villagers is miserable since they remain subjugated and exploited in the hands of the landlords, zamindars and the malguzars.
Secondly, there is no elementary education even among these people.
According to NG Ranga, these are the real minorities that need protection and assurances.
4. According to Professor NG Ranga, the living conditions of the tribals can be described as follows:

According to tribal law, the tribals cannot be alienated from their lands in their own areas but they were being alienated.
When the merchants go to the lands of tribals, they snatch their lands. The merchants were able to turn the tribal people into veritable slaves by various kinds of bonds and make them hereditary bond slaves.
Question 14.
“I Believe Separate Electorates will be Suicidal to the Minorities”
During the debate on 27th August, 1947, Govind Ballabh Pant said. I believe separate electorates will be suicidal to the minorities and will do them tremendous harm. If they are isolated forever, they can never convert themselves into a majority and the feeling of frustrations will cripple them even from the very beginning. What is that you desire and what is our ultimate objective? Do the minorities always want to remain as minorities or do they ever expect to form an integral part of a great nation and as such to guide and control its destinies?

If they do can they ever achieve that aspiration and that ideal if they are isolated from the rest of the community? I think it would be extremely dangerous for them if they were segregated from the rest of the community and kept aloof in an air-tight compartment where they would have to rely on others even for the air they breathe. The minorities if they are returned by separate electorates can never have any effective voice.

Why were some Muslims, like Begum Aizaz Rasul against it?
What are separate electorates?
Why did GB Pant feel separate electorate would be suicidal for the minorities? (Delhi 2008)
Do you think that seats should be reserved for Muslims and other minorities in educational institutions? Give one argument for or against it.
(Delhi 2008)
Answer:
1. Not all Muslims supported the demand for separate electorates. Begum Aizaz Rasul felt that separate electorates were self-destructive, since they isolated the minorities from the majority.

2. It was political arrangements where the seats were reserved for minority candidates. Means Muslim candidates in the election would be voted by only Muslim members. This was done to give representation to Muslims in the governance of the country.

3. Views put forward by GB Pant against the system of separate electorates were:

It would be suicidal to minorities and would tremendously harm them.
It would be difficult for them to be an integral part of a nation and as such guide and control their destinies.
They would have to always be dependent upon others.
In this way, if they were returned by separate electorates, they could never have an effective voice.
4. In my opinion, there should not be any reservation for Muslims and other minorities because it will make the minorities being isolated which will cripple them from the beginning.

Important Questions for Class 12 History Chapter 15 Value Based Questions

Question 15.
Read the following passage and answer the question that follows. (Delhi 2016)
Every citizen in a free state should be treated in a manner that satisfied not only his material wants but also his spiritual sense of the self respect and the majority community has an obligation to try and understand the problems of the minorities and empathise with their aspirations.

How could a citizen of a free nation express his imbibed value of equality and social justice while dealing with the members of the minority community? Explain.
Answer:
1. Majority community should understand the problem of their brothers from minority community and . empathise with their aspirations.

Constitution has granted its every citizen right to equality. Majority community should protect the rights of minorities and prevent them from discrimination. Majority community should keep in mind that culture of the majoritarian community should not dominate over the minorities and minorities culture and customs should be protected.

Question 16.

Why did Mahatma Gandhi think Hindustani should be the national language?
How did the Constituent Assembly seek to resolve the language controversy? (All India 2010)
Answer:
1. Mahatma Gandhi thought that Hindustani should be the national language because of following reasons:
Easily Understood:
The common people could easily understand it.

Blend of Diverse Cultures:
Hindustani was a blend of Hindi and Urdu and was a composite language enriched by interaction of diverse cultures.

Ideal Language of Communication between Diverse Cultures:
It would help to unify Hindus and Muslims and the people from North and South.

2. The language committee of the Constituent Assembly had submitted its report and thought of a composite formula to resolve the deadlock between those who advocated Hindi as the national language and those who opposed it.

Question 17.

How was the concept of separate electorates erratic? Explain by giving examples from the Constituent Assembly.
“I believed separate electorates will be suicidal to the minorities” How far these view of GB Pant are relevant in contemporary India? (Delhi 2008)
Answer:
1. Intense debate took place in the Constituent Assembly on the issue of separate electorate. Some were in favour of it and many nationalist leaders saw this system as a tool to divide people on the basis of religion and they believed that this idea finally culminated in partition of the country.

Sarder Patel strongly declared that separate electorate was a poison that has entered the body of politics of our contry and instigate one community against other caused bloodshed, riots and partition. So, for peace we need to remove separate electorate.

2. According to GB Pant, separate electorates would be suicidal to the minorities. By doing this, there would be tremendous harm to the minority sections, they would remain isolated forever. The feelings of isolation and frustration would cripple them from the very beginning.
Isolation would be extremely dangerous for them if they were segregated from the rest of the community. Through separate electorates, they could never have any effective voice.

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FRAMING  THE  CONSTITUTION . ( THEME 15 )

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FRAMING  THE  CONSTITUTION . ( THEME 15 )

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Key concepts in nutshell

The Indian Constitution, which came into effect on 26 January 1950, has the distinction of being the longest in the world.
But its length and complexity are perhaps understandable when one considers the country’s size and diversity
The Indian constitution was framed between Dec.1946 & Dec.1949.
The Indian Constitution came into effect on 26th Jan.1950.
The members of the Constituent Assembly were elected on the basis of the provincial elections of 1946.
The Assembly also had representatives of the princely states.
Since the Congress was itself a broad front these members held a wide range of views
The discussions within the Constituent Assembly were also influenced by the opinions expressed by the public.
As the deliberations continued, the arguments were reported in newspapers, and the proposals were publicly debated
The total membership of the Constituent Assembly was 300.
82 percent members were from congress as Muslim league bycotted the constituent assembly
Dr.B.R.Ambedkar was the chairman of the Drafting Committee and played an important role in the Constituent Assembly.
He was assisted by K M Munsi and Alladi Krishnaswami Aiyar
On 13 Dec.1946 Nehru moved the “Objective Resolution” in the Constituent Assembly.
It was a momentous resolution that outlined the defining ideals of the Constitution of Independent India and provided the framework within which the work of constitution-making was to proceed
An interim Government was made under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru.
Leaders like Somnath Lahiri thought that constituent assembly was the creation of the British and urged to be free from imperial influence
Jawahar Lal Nehru also felt the same and urged the members to work for the will of the people.
Heated arguments took place on issues of minority rights and separate electorates.
Mr Jaipal singh demanded seats reserved for the tribal people and special rights for the protection
J nagappa demanded seats reservation in the legislature and reservation for the depressed class people of India
After a lot of deliberations, the Constituent Assembly finally recommended that untouchability be abolished, Hindu temples be thrown open to all castes, and seats in legislatures and jobs in government offices be reserved for the lowest castes.
There was a vigorous debate in the Constituent Assembly on the matter of the rights of the central Government and the state.
Leaders like B R Ambedkar and Nehru were advocating for a strong centre and k Santhanam defended the rights of the state
Centralization now was seen as necessary both to forestall chaos and to plan for the country’s economic development.
The Constitution thus showed a distinct bias towards the right of the Union of India over those of its constituent states.
The language issue was also debated for many months within the Constituent Assembly.
Mahatma Gandhi believed that everyone should talk a language which even common man could be able to understand and he advocated Hindustani a mixture of many languages and dialects.
R V Dhulekar made a strong plea for hindi but the leaders from the south feared the dominance of hindi
As the discussion became acrimonious, many members appealed for a spirit of accommodation.
The Constitution of India thus emerged through a process of intense debate and discussion.
Many of its provisions were arrived at through a process of give-and-take, by forging a middle ground between two opposed positions.

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Topic : MAHATMA GANDHI AND THE NATIONALIST MOVEMENT .
General Instructions: Attempt  all the  questions  from each sections.

SECTION  A  ( OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS).

1. In 1931, Congress participated in the
(a) First Round Table Conference.
(b) Second Round Table Conference.
(c) Third Round Table Conference.
(d) Poona Pact.

2. The journal Harijan was published by
(a) Sardar Vallabhai Patel.
(b) Jawaharlal Nehru.
(c) Mahatma Gandhi.
(d) Rajendra Prasad.

3. Gandhi returned from South Africa to Inda in
(a) 1900.
(b) 1905.
(c) 1910.
(d) 1915.

4. In 1915, Gopal Krishan Gokhale advised Gandhi to:
(a) write autobiography
(b) tour India
(c) do social work
(d) assume leadership of Congress

5. The Non-Cooperation Movement was suspended due to the
(a) Chauri Chaura Incident.
(b) Jallianwala Bagh Massacre.
(c) Lahore Conspiracy.
(d) Kakori Conspiracy.

6. Khilafat agitators demanded the restoration of powers of
(a) Mughal emperor.
(b) Ottoman ruler.
(c) British monarch.
(d) German kaiser.

7. The Father of Our Nation is
(a) Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
(b) Jawaharlal Nehru.
(c) Mahatma Gandhi.
(d) Bhagat Singh.

8. The Salt March ended when Mahatma Gandhi reached Dandi on
(a) April 6, 1930.
(b) January 26, 1930.
(c) August 13, 1931.
(d) September 30, 1931..

9. Mahatma Gandhi left India for South Africa in
(a) 1893.
(b) 1889.
(c) 1885.
(d) 1905.

10. In 1916, the annual session of Indian National Congress was held at
(a) Lahore.
(b) Lucknow.
(c) Nagpur.
(d) Surat.

11. Why was charkha chosen as a national symbol?
(a) Symbol of anger and self-confidence.
(b) Symbol of nationalism and self-confidence.
(c) Symbol of self-reliance and patriotism.
(d) Symbol of self-reliance and self-confidence.

12. What was the significance of Lahore Session of Congress?
(a) Gandhiji postponed Civil Disobedience movement.
(b) Declaration of poorna Swaraj
(c) Oppose Rowlatt Act.
(d) Support the Khilafat  movement.

13. After the failure of the Cripps Mission, Mahatma Gandhi decided to launch which movement?
(a) Civil Disobedience Movement
(b) Quit India Movement
(c) Non Cooperation Movement
(d) None of the above

14. Jinnah called for a ______ to press the League’s demand for Pakistan.
(a) Civil Disobedience Day
(b) Quit India Day
(c) Direct Action Day
(d) Rowlatt Satyagraha

SECTION B ( ANSWER THE FOLLOWING IN SHORT)  ( 3 MARKS)

Question 15
When Gandhiji returned to India in 1915, he observed a few changes in India. Mention any two such changes.

Question 16
Why was salt march notable? Mention any two reasons?

Question 17
State the significance of Gandhiji’s speech at Banaras Hindu University.

SECTION C  :(ANSWER  THE FOLLOWING IN DETAIL)
(8 Marks Questions)

Question 18
Gandhiji encouraged the communication of the Nationalist Message in mother tongue rather than in language of the ruler.
Or
Examine how he knitted the Non-Cooperation Movement with his philosophy.

Question 19
“The salt march of 1930 was the first event that brought Mahatma Gandhi to world attention.” Explain significance of this movement for Swaraj.
or
Explain the main events of the Dandi March. What is its significance in the history of the Indian National  movement.

Question 20
In the history of nationalism Gandhiji was often identified with the making of a nation. Describe his role in the freedom struggle of India.
or
Explain how Gandhiji transformed Indian Nationalism by 1922.

Question 21
Describe the different source from which we can reconstruct the political career of Gandhiji and the history of National Movement?
or
How have the different kinds of available sources helped the historians in reconstructing the political career of Gandhiji and the history of the national movement that was associated with it? Explain.
or
Explain the sources from which we can reconstruct the political career of Gandhiji and the history of the nationalist movement.
Or
How do autobiographies, government records and newspapers help us in knowing about Gandhiji? Explain.
or
Examine the different kinds of sources from which political career of Gandhiji and the history of the National Movement could be reconstructed.

Question 22
Assess the significance of salt march in India’s  freedom  struggle.

Question 23
Explain the ideas expressed by Gandhiji in his address at the time of opening of Banaras Hindu University in February 1916. Did he put his precepts into practice? Give examples.

Question 24
How was Quit India Movement genuinely a mass movement? Explain.

Question 25
Explain how Gandhiji’s mass appeal was undoubtedly genuine in the context of Indian politics and how it contributed to his success in broadening the basis of nationalism?

Question 26
Why the Salt Satyagraha?
Or
Why was salt the symbol of protest?

Question 27
Why was salt monopoly introduced by the British considered as a curse by the Indians?
Or
How did Gandhiji illustrate his tactical wisdom with regard to salt monopoly?
Or
Explain the significance of Gandhiji’s challenge of salt protest.

Question 28
“Tomorrow we shall break the salt tax law” What Gandhiji meant by quoting this statement.

Question 29
Why did Gandhiji start the Dandi March?
Why was the salt march notable?

Question  30
“The power of peace and non-violence are universally felt”. Why did Gandhiji said so?

Question 31
How did Ambedkar justified himself on separate electorates in response to the opposition  for separate electorates by Mahatma Gandhi.

SECTION  E  ( SOURCE BASED  QUESTION  )

Question 32
Read the following passage and answer the question that follows.
“Gandhiji was as much a social reformer as he was a politician. He believed that in order to be worthy of freedom, Indians had to get rid of social evils such as child marriage and untouchability.
Indians of one faith had also to cultivate a genuine tolerance for Indians of another religion hence his emphasis on Hindu – Muslim harmony.”

Question i)
In the light of the above statement, highlight the values upheld by Mahatma Gandhi.

Question 33
Read the following passage and answer the question that follows.
When his turn came to speak, Gandhiji charged the Indian elite with a lack of concern for the labouring poor. The opening of the BHU, he said, was “certainly a most gorgeous show”. But he worried about the contrast between the “richly bedecked noblemen” present and “millions of the poor” Indians who were absent. Gandhiji told the privileged invitees that “there is no salvation for India unless you strip yourself of this jewellery and hold it in trust for your countrymen in India”. “There can be no spirit of self-government about us,” he went on, “if we take away or allow others to take away from the peasants almost the whole of the results of their labour. Our salvation can only come through the farmer. Neither the lawyers, not the doctors, not the rich landlords are going to secure it.”

Question ii)
Why was Gandhiji worried about on the opening of the Banaras-Hindu University in 1916? Discuss
.
SECTION E (MAP BASED QUESTION )
Question 34)
i) The place where the Indian National Congress Session was held in 1929.

SECTION F ( Picture based questions)
QUESTION 35 :

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1. How did Mahatma Gandhi seek to identify with the common people?

Ans: Mahatma Gandhi seeked to identify himself with the common people of India. For this action plan
(a) He began to live in a very simple lifestyle. He wore simple clothes which a poor Indian would wear.
(b) He spoke the language of local people.
(c) Mahatma Gandhi opposed the caste system and attacked untouchability personally lived with the Harijan.
(d) Mahatma Gandhi attached dignity to labour and physical work. He worked on Charkha and cleaned toilets.
(e) He attacked the sentiment of the feeling of classifying people into low and high.

2. How was Mahatma Gandhi perceived by the peasants?
Ans: Mahatma Gandhi was very popular among the peasants and his image was as mentioned below :
The peasants considered him as if he had been sent by the King to redress the grievances of the farmers, and that he had the power to overrule all local officials.
It was also claimed that Gandhiji’s power was superior to that of the English monarch, and that with his arrival the colonial rulers would go away from the district.
There were also rumours that the villagers, who had criticised him, have found their houses mysteriously falling apart or their crops failing.
He was called as, “Gandhi baba – Gandhi Maharaj” or “Mahatma”.
Peasants considered him as a saviour, who would rescue them from high taxes and oppressive officials. It was hoped that Gandhi would restore dignity and autonomy to their lives.
Gandhiji’s appeal among the peasants was enhanced by his ascetic lifestyle, and by his use of the dhoti and the charkha.

3. Why did the salt laws become an important issue of struggle?
Ans: Poorest of poor Indian consume food that has salt as one of its prime ingredient. British government brought tax on salt and making salt indigenously was forbidden. It was to become a big burden on the poor people of India. Some important points regarding salt law are as follows.
Salt law was to lead to monopoly of salt production and distribution. It was to fuel prices, and added to this was the tax levied by the government.
People were denied access to natural salt and tons of the same were destroyed.
Salt law was an attack on the local industry in the villages too.
Hence salt law was extremely unpopular and it became an important issue of the struggle.

4. Why are newspapers an important source for the study of national movement?
Ans: Contemporary newspapers are an important source of the study of national movement. Following points lay bare their importance as source of history with reference to Indian Freedom Movement.
(a) Many contemporary newspapers were published by those who were involved in the freedom struggle. For example, National Herald was issued by Motilal Nehru, further Mr Jinnah issued Dawn. These nespapers were mouthpieces and represented important voices of the movement. Hence, they made important source of information regarding the freedom movement.
(b) Newspapers do daily reporting, hence, their reporting is more detailed than perhaphs any other source can be. As they report on extremely recent events, the chances of misreporting is less. Reading different nespapers further makes our reading balanced and free from bias.
(c) Many newspapers were in local Indian languages, i.e. in vernacular languages and their circulation was limited. Hence, they published newspaper from local perspective which other sources of history may not have.
(d) They reflect the mood of the people too. These newspapers shaped what was published and the way events were reported. Accounts published in a London newspaper would be different from a report in an Indian nationalist paper.

5. Why was the charkha chosen as a symbol of nationalism?
Ans: The charkha was chosen as a symbol of nationalism due to the following factors :
Gandhiji considered the charkha as a symbol of a human society that would not glorify machines and technology.
The spinning wheel or the charkha provided the poor with supplementary income and
make them self-reliant.
It leads to concentration of wealth, not in the hands of few, but in the hands of all.
The charkha was considered a machinery and was used for the service of the poorest in their own cottages.
Under the above circumstances, Gandhiji spent a part of each day working on charkha and encouraged other nationalists to do likewise. In this way, he broke the boundaries that prevailed within the traditional caste system, between mental labour and manual labour.

6.How was non-cooperation a form of protest?
Ans: Gandhiji believed that British empire in India could survive as long as the local people were cooperating with the foreign rule. Non-cooperating with the British government was to weaken it and also to protest against the same. Following points explain how it was a protest:
1. Non-coperation movement came along with the Khilaphate movement, The British has not seen Hindu Muslem unity of this level ever in history. The protest of the people was unified cutting across communities and at great scale.
2. People boycotted the pillars and symbols of British rule, courts, colleges and government offices. Lawyers stopped going to courts and students stayed away from colleges. At many places alternate arrangements were done to solve litigations out of court. Further many education institutions were established by the leaders of freedom struggle where students can study. One of them is Jamia Millia University in Delhi which exits today as one of the most reputed seats of higher education in India.
3. People boycotted tax collection also and they refused to pay taxes.
Thus, non-cooperation was a kind of protest too.

7. Why were the dialogues at the Round Table Conference inconclusive?
Ans: The British Government has had the policy to review the progress of self-rule in India and bring reforms after the gap of ten years. This began in 1910 with Morley Minto Reform and was followed in 1920 with Montague Chemsford Report. Ten years later British government invited Round Table Conference in London for the way forward. The First Round Table Conference took place in November, 1930. The Conference failed as the most important stake holder of Indian Freedom Movement, the Indian National Congress was absent in the conference. The leaders of the Congress were behind bars due to civil disobedience movement.
The Second Table Conference took pace in February 1931. One month earlier Mahatma Gandhi was released from the jail. Hence, he participated in the conference. Gandhi Irwin pact was signed and the British government agreed to withdraw salt law partly. But the agreement came under criticism as it did not talk about complete independence of India.
Third and the most important Round Table Conference took place in the later part of 1931. The new constitutional developments were not agreed upon. The main reason was that the other participants of the conference described Congress as representative of small group of Indians and not the entire population. The major voice of dissent were, the Moslem League that claimed itself the sole representative of the Moslems in India, Dr B.R. Ambedkar claimed himself the sole representative of the low castes in India and the native rulers also claimed they would deal with the British independently and Congress could not have any say in that.
To conclude divisive politics of Moslem League, Dr Ambedkar and the attitude of the princely states are the main reasons for the failure of the round table conferences.

8. In what way did Mahatma Gandhi transform the nature of the national movement?
Ans: Gandhiji came to India back from South Africa in 1915. In 1917 he went to Champaran in Bihar to fight for the cause of farmers who were forced to grow indigo by the British government. The farmers movement proved successful as the British government accepted the demands of the farmers. Since that time to 1943 when he was assassinated, he occupied the central place in the politics of India. The fact is Mahatma Gandhi is the chief protagonist of the Indian Freedom Struggle.
Mahatma Gandhi changed the nature of freedom movement and this can be elaborated by the following points:
1. When Gandhiji joined Indian politics, the freedom movement was limited to the middle class. Everybody who participated in the political movements was educated and product of the English education. Gandhiji made it all pervasive, now people from villages, poor people, labours, workers, and students all became part of the freedom struggle. However, there are people who find fault with the act of Gandhiji. They point out that Mahatma Gandhi used religious symbols to popularise the freedom movement that in long term gave fillip to communal politics. It is notable that the Age of Gan-lhi is also the age of the Rise of Moslem League in Indian politics. Eminent author Nirad C Choudhary has also criticised Mahatma Gandhi for making the freedom movement a mass movement by short cuts.
2. Mahatma Gandhi has to be credited with emancipation of women and their participation in the public life at a scale not known in Indian history. Women were very prominent in picketing activities against shops selling foreign goods. The freedom movement gave some prominent woman leaders viz. Sarojini Naidu, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, and many more.
3. For Mahatma Gandhi freedom movement was also a platform for social reforms. He spoke in favour of place of dignity and respects for depressed classes. He made end to untouchability a fundamental objective of his political philosophy.
Thus Mahatma Gandhi made freedom movement a mass movement and a movement much beyond politics.

9. What do private letters and autobiographies tell us about an individual ? How are these sources different from official accounts?
Ans: Private letters and autobiographies are important source of individual’s life and views. Many of our freedom struggle leaders wrote autobiographies and letters and today they are our great record about them and history too.
The autobiographies and letters tell us the following things about an individual.
1. Autobiographies and letters throw light on the interests of an individual. Let us take an example, Nehru wrote letters to his daughter Indira describing the events of world history, today it is known as the book, ” Glimpses of the World History”. These letters show that Nehru had great interest in history. These letters show also the views of the author. For example, Nehru talks highly of the socilaist government of USSR in his autobiography.
2. These autobiographies and letters are a good source of information of the social life of those days in India. Dr Rajendra Prasad has given vivid description of the village life that he saw as a child in his village.
3. Above all these autobiographies and letters are great source of history too. Nehru in his autobiography has explained in details about the obstinate approach of Moslem League towards solving the minority problem in India.
These sources were diffferent from the official accounts. This is manifested in the following points:
1. The official accounts are done by individuals but they work under the guidelines of the government. Thus, views that run against the government remain stifled. In addition, the author would not have the freedom of focused area. He would be required to write only on topics already defined. However, in autobiographies and letters one can choose anything of personal interest. Dr Rajendra Prasad gives a vivid description of his school and college days in his autobiography. This is not possible in any government account
2. The autographic letters throw light on the personal life of individual leaders and show these events shaped the thought process of these leaders in future life. Mahatma Gandhi described how he was thrown out of the first class compartment of the train in South Africa because he was not a white man. He describes the struggle inside on how to protest and later how he took to non -violent means of protest.

10. Find out about the route of the Dandi March. On a map of Gujarat plot the line of the march and mark the major towns and villages that it passed along the route.
Ans: Dandi March was started from Sabarmati Ashram. This Ashram is in Ahmedabad (Gujarat). The route followed from Ahmedabad to Vadodara and from there to Surat.

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( Chapter 13)
Mahatma Gandhi and the Nationalist Movement Civil Disobedience and Beyond

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born in Porbandar on 2nd October, 1869.
Gandhiji left for South Africa as a barrister to argue a case in 1893.
Gandhiji returned from South Africa in Jan, 1915.
Gopal Krishna Gokhale- The political Guru of Mahatma Gandhi
Peasant Movement in Bardoli-1928
BHU stands for-Benaras Hindu University
Khilafat Movement-1920
Peasant Movement in Bardoli-1928
Resolution of Pooma Swaraj passed in Congress Session in Lahore on 26th Jan, 1930
Civil Disobedience Movement begins- March-April 1930
Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed- March 1931
Second Round Table Conference held in London-Dee 1930
Government of India Act promulagated -1935
Provincial Government formed by Congress in some provinces-193 7
Second World War broke out- Sep 1939
Congress Provincial Governments resign- 1939
Quit India Movement begins- Aug 1942
India becomes independent- 15th Aug 1947
In 1905, Bengal, the biggest province of British India and included Bihar and some parts of Orissa, was partitioned by Viceroy Curzon. It enraged people all over India. Both the Moderates and the Radicals unitedly oppressed the British action. This led to the birth of the Swadeshi Movement, which boycotted British institutions and goods.
An important development came in 1906 with the formation of the All India Muslim League at Dacca. The founder members of the League were Muslim landlords and nawabs. They supported the partition of Bengal and demanded for separate electorates for Muslims.
However, in the year 1916, the Congress and the Muslim League decided to work together for representative government in the country.
The growth of mass nationalism began to take place after 1919. Peasants, tribals, students and women became involved in the struggle against the British rule.
Mahatma Gandhi emerged as a mass leader. He, first of all, toured the entire country in order to understand the people, their needs and the overall situation.
Afterwards, he led to local movements in Champaran, Kheda and Ahmedabad in which he got immense success.
In 1919 Gandhiji started Satyagraha Movement against the Rowlett Act that the British had just passed. The Act curbed fundamental rights such as the freedom of expression and strengthened the police powers.
In April 1919, there were a number of demonstrations and hartals in the country against this Act. The government used hartal measures to suppress them. The Jallianwala Bagh atrocities in Amritsar on Baishakhi Day were a part of this suppression.
In the year 1920, the British did another wrong known as khilafat movement. The British imposed a harsh treaty on the Turkish Sultan also known as Khalifa. This enraged Muslims and Khalifa agitation started under the leadership of Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali. They wished to initiate a full-fledged Non-Cooperation Movement. Gandhiji supported their call and urged the congress to campaign against Jallianwala massacre, and demand swaraj.
During the years 1921-22, the Non-Cooperation Movement gained momentum because it got a wide support. However, it was abruptly called off by Mahatma Gandhi when on February 1922 a crowd of peasants set fire to a police station in Chauri Chaura. twenty two policemen were killed on that day. It hurt Mahatma Gandhi because he had never thought that people would go violent. He always wished to drive away the British by violent methods.
The Congress now resolved to fight for Purna Swaraj (complete independence under the presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru.
Now efforts began to be made in this direction. In 1930, Gandhiji started Dandi March against the Salt Law. He got immense support from the people.
The combined struggles of the Indian people bore fruit when the Government of India Act of 1935 prescribed provincial autonomy and the government announced elections to the provincial legislatures in 1937.
In September 1939, the Second World War broke out. The Congress leaders were ready to support the British war effort. But in return they wanted independence after the war. The British refused to concede the demand.
A new phase of movement popularly known as Quit India Movement was initiated in August 1942 under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. As a result prominent leaders were jailed at once. But the movement spread.
In between these events the Muslim League began to demand independent states for Muslims in the north-western and eastern areas of the country. Mahatma Gandhi was not in favour of this.
The League began to think that Muslims were a minority and they would always have to play second fiddle in any democratic structure. The Congress’s rejection of the Leagues desire to form a joint Congress-League government in the United Provinces in 1937 further annoyed the League.
In 1945, the British opened negotiations between the Congress, the League and themselves for the independence of India. The talks failed because the League then wanted Pakistan.
In March 1946, the British cabinet sent a three-member mission to Delhi to examine the League’s demand for Pakistan and to suggest a suitable political framework for a free India.
The Mission suggested that India should remain united and constitute itself as a loose confederation with some autonomy for Muslim majority areas. Neither the Congress nor the League agreed to it. Now, partition of India became inevitable.
Finally, Pakistan came into existence. The violence of partition shook both the newly- independent countries—India and Pakistan. It marred the joy of independence.
Beginning of Gandhian Era:

Some times in the history of nationalism an individual with his contribution is identified with the making of a nation. Mahatma Gandhi is regarded as the father of Indian nation.
Gandhi came back to India in January 1915 after leading successful struggle against discriminatory and oppressive policy of British in South Africa. For the first time, Gandhi started Satyagraha in South Africa (non-violent protest ) and promoted harmony between different religious communities.
When Gandhi came back to India, he realised that India become politically more active. Congress had made its reach to major towns and cities and Swadeshi Movement greatly broadened National Movements appeal among middle classes.
Gandhiji’s first major public appearance in India was at opening of Banaras Hindu University (BHU) in 1916. During his speech, Gandhiji charged the Indian elite with a lack of concern for the labouring poor sections of our society.
Gandhiji said “There can be no spirit of self-government if we take away or allow other to ’ take away from the peasant almost the whole result of their labour.”
Gandhiji’s speech at one level was a statement of the fact that Indian nationalism was an elite phenomenon in which lawyers, doctors and landlords were mostly involved. But he wanted that Indian National Movement should represent Indian people as a whole.
Gandhi as a People’s Leader:

Gandhiji made the freedom struggle and National Movement representative of masses.Movement transcended from elite to peasants, working class and encompassed every section of society. People started venerating Gandhiji refering to him as ‘Mahatma’. People started appreciating the fact that Gandhiji lived like them, dressed like them, spoke their language, stand with them, empathise with them, and identified with them.
Gandhiji went among the people in simple dhoti or loincloth. He spent some part of each day working on Charkha and encouraged other nationalist to do likewise. The act of spinning helped in breaking traditional caste system and distinction between mental labour and manual labour.
Gandhiji appealed to peasants as saviour who can save them from oppressive taxes, officials and restore dignity and autonomy to their lives. Gandhiji ascetic lifestyle and love of working with hand, a deep empathy for poor and peasant won him followers irrespective of caste, creed and religion.
A series of Praja mandal were established to promote the nationalist creed in the princely states. Gandhiji stressed the use of mother tongue in communication, as the provincial Congress Committees were based on linguistic region. Many industrialists, entrepreneurs, businessmen started supporting Congress and Gandhiji.
Mahatma Gandhi was released from prison in 1924 and now choose to devote his attention to the promotion of home spun khadi and the abolition of untouchability. He believed that India need to be free from evils of untouchability, child marriage, to cultivate a genuine tolerance for one another and religious harmony.
He stressed the Indian’s need to be self-reliant on the economic front, so he promoted Khadi and was against mill-made clothes.
Background of National Movements in India:

In 1917, Gandhiji successfully led Champaran Movement. Through this movement he wanted to seek security of the peasants and their freedom to cultivate crop of their choice. In 1918, he led a strike demanding for better working conditions for the textile mill workers in Ahmedabad and other peasant movement asking the state for the remission of taxes in Kheda. During the First World War (1914-18), the British government instituted censorship of the
press and permitted detention without trial. At the recommendation of Rowlatt Committee, these policies were continued. So in response to it Gandhiji called for nationwide campaign against Rowlatt Act and Bandh were observed.
In Punjab opposition was quite intense, Gandhiji was detained while going to Punjab and many other local Congress leaders were also arrested. In April 1919, repressive policy took very ugly and tremendous turn when British Brigadier Dyer ordered his troops to fire on peaceful assembly at Jallianwalah Bagh in Amritsar. In this incident more than 400 people died. This shocked the nation and very deep resentment and anger was brewing inside Indians.
It was the Rowlatt Satyagraha that made Gandhiji a true national leader. Emboldened by its success, Gandhji called for campaign of non-cooperation with British rule. Indians were asked to renunciate all voluntary associations with British government. Gandhiji believed if non-cooperation was carried effectively, British would leave the country within a year.
Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement:

To further strengthen the movement and unity among fellow Indians he joined hand with Khilafat Movement. Khilafat Movement was led by Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali and it demanded restoration of the respect of the Caliphate.
According to Gandhiji by intermixing of Non-Cooperation and Khilafat Movement, the two major religious commuities i.e. Hindus and Muslims could collectively bring an end to colonial rule.
Students refused to go to schools, colleges, lawyers stopped to going courts, working class went on strike, tribes in Andhra Pradesh violated forest laws and farmers in Awadh stopped paying taxes.
American biographer of Mahatma Gandhiji, Louis Fisher wrote “Non-Cooperation became the name of an epoch in the life of India and Gandhiji. It was negative enough to be peaceful but positive enough to be effective. It entailed denial renunciation and self-discipline. It w’as training for self-rule.” Due to this movement British government was shaken.
In February 1922, Gandhiji called off Non-Cooperation Movement due to untowards incident of burning of police stations in Chauri Chaura in which several constables were burnt to death.
During the Non-Cooperation Movement, thousands of Indians were put in jail and Gandhiji was arrested in March in 1922, charged with sedition and awarded him six years of imprisonment.
The Salt Satyagraha:

In year 1928, there was Anti-Simon Commission Movement in which Lala Lajpat Rai was brutally lathicharged and later he succumbed to it. In year 1928, another famous Bordoli Satyagraha took place. So again by the year 1928 political activism started brewing in India.
In 1929, Congress session was held at Lahore and Nehru was elected as its President. In this session “Purna Swaraj” was proclaimed as motto, and on 26th January, 1930 Republic day was observed.
Dandi (Salt) March:

After Republic day observance, Gandhiji announced his plan of march to break salt law. This law was widely disliked by Indians, as it gave state a monopoly in manufacture and sale of salt.
On 12th March, 1930 Gandhiji began his march from ashram to ocean. He reached to shore and made a salt and thereby making himself criminal in sight of law. Many parallel salt marches were undertook during this time in other parts of the country.
Movement was supported by peasants, working class, factory workers, lawyers and even Indian officials in British government supported it and
left their jobs. Lawyer boycotted the courts, peasants stopped paying taxes and tribal broke forest laws. There were strikes in factories or mills.
The government responded by detaining the dissenters or Satvagrahis. 60000 Indians were arrested and various high rank leaders of Congress including Gandhiji were arrested.
An American magazine, ‘Time’, was initially doubtful on the strength of Gandhiji and wrote that Salt March would not be successful. But latter it wrote that this march made the British rulers ‘desperately anxious’.
These rulers were now started considering Gandhiji as a ‘Saint’ and ‘Statesman’, who was using Christian acts as a weapon against men with Christian beliefs.
Significance of Dandi March:

Davdi March was very significant for at least three reasons:
It brought Mahatma Gandhi and India to attention of the world.
It was the first National Movement in which women participation was really very notable. Kamladevi Chattopadhyay, a socialist leader persuaded Gandhi not to restrict movement to men alone. Many women including Kamladevi broke salt and liquor laws and courted arrest.
Third and most significant was that this movement forced the British to realise that their Raj would not last forever and they need to devolve some power to Indians.
In January, 1931 Gandhiji was released from jail and afterwards many meetings between Gandhi and Irwin took place and these meetings ended in a Gandhi-Irwin pact. Through this pact Civil Disobedience Movement would be called off, political prisoner will be released and salt manufacturers can make salt near coast. This pact was criticised by radical nationalist, as Gandhiji was unable to obtain commitment of political Independence for Indians.
In later part of 1931, Gandhiji went to attend Second Round Table Conference as representative of Congress and he said his party represent all of India but his claim was countered by Muslim league, Princely states and BR
So, this conference remained inconclusive. Gandhiji returned to India dejected and resume Civil Disobedience Movement.
In 1935, a Government of India Act came and it promised some part of representative government. Two years later, elections were held and out of 11 provinces in 8 provinces Congress government were formed. However in 1939, Congress government resigned from office as British declined their offer of cooperation in the war in lieu of granting freedom to India after the end of war.
In 1940 and 1941 Congress organised individual Satyagraha to pressure the government. In 1940, Muslim league passed the resolution demanding autonomy for the Muslim-majority areas of the subcontinent. Now, whole struggle became complicated and took a shape of three way struggle between British, Congress and Muslim league.
In 1942, Prime Minister Winston Churchill sent a mission under Stafford Cripps to India to try and forge a compromise with Congress and Gandhiji. However, talks broke down when Congress offered, it will help the British to defend India from Axis powers. Then the viceroy had to appoint an Indian as the Defence member of his Executive Council.
Quit India Movement:

After the failure of Cripps Mission, Gandhiji started Quit India Movement in August, 1948 from Bombay. Immediately, Gandhiji and other senior leaders were arrested, but younger activists organised strikes and acts of sabotage all over the country.
Quit India Movement being a Mass Movement brought into its ambit hundreds of thousand of ordinary citizens and youths left their colleges and went to jail. During this time as Congress leaders were in jail, Jinnah and other Muslim league leaders worked patiently to extend its influence in Punjab and Sind where it had scarcely any presence.
In June, 1944 Gandhiji was released from prison, later he held series of meeting with Jinnah to sort out the differences.
In 1945, labour government came to power in England and committed itself to grant Independence to India. In India, Lord Wavell organised meetings with Congress and league. In elections of 1946, polarization was completely observed when Congress swept general category but seats reserved for Muslims. These seats were won by the Muslim League by overwhelming majority.
In 1946, Cabinet Mission came but it failed in getting Congress and the Muslim League agreed on federal system which would have kept India united and autonomy would have been granted to provinces to a certain extent.
After failing of talks Jinnah called for direct action day to press demand for Pakistan. On 16th August, 1946, riots broke out in Calcutta, later spread to other parts of Bengal, then to Bihar, United Provinces and Punjab. In riots both the communities suffered.
In February 1947, Viceroy Lord Mountbatten replaced Wavell. He called for one last round of talk and when talks were inconclusive he announced India would be freed and it will be divided. Finally on 15th August, 1947, power was transferred to India.
The Last Heroic Days of Mahatma Gandhi:

Gandhiji marked the day of Independence with a 24 hour fast. The freedom struggle ended with division of country and Hindus and Muslims seeking each others life.
In the months of September and October Gandhiji went around hospitals and refugee camps giving consolation to people. He appealed to Sikhs, the Hindus and Muslims to forget the past and to extend the hand of friendship, cooperation and peace.
At the backing of Gandhiji and Nehru, Congress passed resolution on the right of minorities. It further said party had never accepted partition but it has been forced on it.
Congress said India will be a democratic secular country, every citizen will be equal. Congress tried to assure the minorities in India that their rights will be protected in India.
On 26th January, 1948, Gandhiji said, earlier independence day was celebrated on this day, now freedom has come but it has been deeply disillusioning. He believed that worst is over. He allowed himself to hope that though geographically and politically India is divided into two, at heart we shall ever be friends and brothers helping and respecting one another and be one for the outside world.
Gandhiji was shot dead by a Hindu extremist Nathuram Godse. Nathuram Godse was an editor of Hindu extremist, newspaper who had denounced Gandhiji as an appeaser of Muslims.
Gandhiji’s death led to extraordinary pouring of grief, tributes were paid across the political spectrum in India and appreciation coining from International figure such as George Orwell, Einstein, etc. Time magazine compared his death to Abraham Lincoln.
Knowing Mahatma Gandhi:

There are different sources from which history of the National Movement and the political career of Gandhiji can be reconstructed.
Writing and speeches of Mahatma Gandhi and his contemporaries were important source for knowing the events. Though there is a difference, speech were meant for public while private letter were meant to express emotions and thinking that cannot be expressed publicly.
Many letters written to individuals were personal but they were also meant for the public. The language of letter was shaped by the awareness that it might be published, so it often prevent people from expressing their opinion freely.
Autobiographies give us an account of past, but one need to be careful while reading and interpreting it. They are written on the basis of memory of author.
Government records, official letters were also important source for knowing the history. But it also have limitations as these were mostly biased so it needs to be interpreted carefully.
Newspapers in English and other Vernacular
languages tracked Gandhiji’s movement, National Movement and sentiment of Indians regarding freedom movement and Gandhiji. Newspaper should not be seen as unprejudiced as they were published by people who had their own political opinions and views.
Class 12 History Notes Chapter 13 Important Terms:
Moderate: A person who is against taking extreme action.
Repeal: To undo law.
Radical: A person who welcomes new ideas or opinions.
Revolutionary Violence: The use of violence to make a radical change within society.
Council: An appointed or elected body of people with an administrative advisory or representative function.
Knighthood: An honour granted by British crown for exceptional personal achievement or religious public service.
Picket: A person or a group of people protesting outside a building or shop to prevent others from entering.
Mahanta: Religious functionaries of Sikh gurudwaras.
Illegal eviction: Forcible and unlawful throwing out of tenants from the land they rent.
RSS: It stands for Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh.
Puma Swaraj: Complete independence.
Provincial Autonomy: Capacity of the provinces to make relatively independent decisions while remaining within a federation.
General Constituencies: Election districts with no reservations for any religious or other community.
Refugee: One who has been forced to leave his country or home due to some political, or social reasons.
Time line:

1905 – Bengal got partitioned
1915 – Mahatma Gandhi came to India from South Africa.
1919 – The Rowlatt Satyagraha started. The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre took place.
1920 – The Non-Coopreation Movement started.
1922 – Gandhiji called off the Non-Cooperation Movement.

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General Instructions: Attempt all questions  given in the worksheet.

Multiple Choice Questions of
Rebel and the Raj.    ( Theme 10).

Q1.Consider the following statements regarding the revolt of 1857:

I. Late in the afternoon of 10 May 1857, the sepoys in the cantonment of Meerut broke out in mutiny which began in the lines of the native infantry, spread very swiftly to the cavalry and then to the city
II. The ordinary people of the town and surrounding villages joined the sepoys. The sepoys captured the bell of arms where the arms and ammunition were kept and proceeded to attack white people, and to ransack and burn their bungalows and property.
III. The sepoys arrived at the gates of the Red Fort early in the morning on 11 May.

A.Only I
B.I and II
C.I and III
D.All of the above
¹

Q2.Consider the following statements regarding the 1857 mutiny when reached Delhi:

I.The sepoys from Meerut arrived at the gates of the Red Fort early in the morning on 11 May.
II.Europeans had been protected by the rich people in Delhi.
III.Once word spread that Delhi had fallen to the rebels and Bahadur Shah had blessed the rebellion, events moved swiftly.

Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct?

A.Only I
B.I and II
C.I and III
D.All of the above

Q3.The tradition of Sati was abolished in the year:

A.1820
B.1825
C.1829
D.1842

Q4.Mangal Pandey, in 1857, killed British Officer(s):

A.Hughson
B.Baugh
C.John Saunders
D.Both A & B

Q5.Which of the following statements is incorrect?

A.Bell of arms is one type of bells in which some specific arms to be kept secretly.

B.Firangi, a term of Persian origin, possibly derived from Frank (from which France gets its name), is used in Urdu and Hindi, often in a derogatory sense, to designate foreigners.

C.In the context of the revolt of 1857 the term revolt refers primarily to the uprising of the civilian population (peasants, zamindars, rajas, jagirdars) while the mutiny was of the sepoys.

D.Mutiny – a collective disobedience of rules and regulations within the armed forces

Q6.Who was the prominent leader in Delhi during the Revolt of 1857?

A.Begum Hazrat Mahal
B.Rani Laxmi Bai
C.Kuar Singh
D.Bahadur Shah Zafar

Q7.Who was the prominent leader in Jagdishpur, Bihar during the Revolt of 1857?

A.Begum Hazrat Mahal
B.Rani Laxmi Bai
C.Kuar Singh
D.Bahadur Shah Zafar

Q8.“The Sepoys Mutiny and the rebellion of 1857” written by:

A.Karl Marx
B.Syed Ahmad Khan
C.R. C. Mazumdar
D.S. N. Sen

Q9.Who founded the Indian Home Rule League?

A.Annie Besant
B.Bal Gangadhar Tilak
C.Subhash Chandra Bose
D .V. D. Savarkar

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General Knowledge Quiz
GK Quiz on Modern Indian History: Revolt of 1857
Aug 13, 2019, Shakeel Anwar

Revolt of 1857 Quiz
Do you know in India it is also known as the First war of Independence. To know about the sepoy mutiny it is necessary to understand the root cause of the movement. Let us study more about the Revolt of 1857 in the form of questions and answers.

1. What was the role of Tatia Tope in 1857 mutiny?

A He was commander-in-chief of the army of Nana Saheb
B. He organized Bhils of Panchamahal region against the British

C. Both A and B

D. Neither A nor B

2. Who was the governor-general during the Revolt of 1857?

A. Lord Canning

B. Lord Irwin

C. Lord Lytton

D. Lord Willington

3. Who was the prominent leader in Lucknow during the Revolt of 1857?

A. Begum Hazrat Mahal

B. Rani Laxmi Bai

C. Kuar Singh

D. Bahadur Shah Zafar

4. Sir Huge Rose described whom as ‘the best and bravest military leader of the rebel’?

A. Begum Hazrat Mahal

B. Rani Laxmi Bai

C. Kuar Singh

D. Bahadur Shah Zafar

5. Who is the author of the book”The First Indian War of Independence- 1857-59”?

A. Karl Marx

B. Syed Ahmad Khan

C. R. C. Mazumdar

D. S. N. Sen⁸

6. Consider the following statements related to the cause of  1857  revolt and select the right one.

A. It was a great disparity in salaries between the Indian and European soldiers.

B. The Indian sepoys were treated with contempt by their European officers.C

C, The sepoys were sent to distant parts of the empire, but were not paid any extra allowance.

D. All the above

7. Which of the following is one of the social reasons for 1857 revolt?

A. The English could not establish any social relationship with the Indians.

B. The racial arrogance of the British created a difference between the rulers and the ruled.

D. The company’s trade policy destroyed Indian handicrafts.

8. Which of the following leader associated with Barout in Uttar Pradesh during 1857 revolts?

A. Shah Mal

B. Maulavi Ahamadullah Shah

C. Tatya Tope

D. Veer Kuwar Singh

9. Who among the following British Officials suppressed the Revolt of Jhansi?

A. Colin Campbell,

B. Henry Havelock

C. Henry Lawrence

D. Hugh Rose

10. Consider the following statement (s) related to the administrative causes of 1857 revolt and select the correct one.

A. Deprivation of the traditional ruling classes of their luxury due to the establishment of the company's suzerainty over the Indian states;

B. Introduction of new and revenue system which snatched the land from cultivator and gave it to the moneylender or traitor.

C. Lord Canning's announcement to that Mughals would lose the title of King and be mere Princess.

D. None of the above

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Rebels and the Raj –

The revolt of 1857 and its representation Pattern of Rebellion .

– People from different walks of life plunged into the revolt – due to their hatred against the oppressive policies of the British Centres of the Revolt – Lucknow, Kanpur, Bareilly, Meerut, Arrah in Bihar.
Leaders – Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi, Nana Saheb, Kunwar Singh, Bakt Khan, Begum Hazrat Mehal, Tatya Tope.
Awadh revolt – direct annexation policy of Dalhousie – 1856. Hatred provoked – dispossessed taluqdars of Awadh, Injustice done to Nawab Wajid Ali Shah of Awadh embittered the people.
Revolt of the sepoys:
Policy of social superiority of British.
Interference in religious matters – greased cartridges issues.
The vision of unity:
Hindu Muslim unity
Search for alternative powers
Rebels established parallel administration, in Delhi, Lucknow, and Kanpur after capturing centers of British power. Later they failed.
The British policy of repression.
Repression – 1857 – North India was brought under a strict law to prolonged attack of British – one from Calcutta to North India, another from Punjab to recover Delhi, 27,000 Muslims hanged.
Image of the Revolt – Pictorial images produced by British and Indians – posters and cartoons.
The performance of terror:
Execution of rebels Nationalist imageries.
Inspiration to nationalists celebration as the first war of Independence – leaders depicted as heroic figures.

PATTERN OF THE REBELLION

How the mutinies began?
The sepoys began their action with a signal, firing of the evening gun or the sounding of the bugle.
They seized the bell of the arms and plundered the treasury.
They attacked the government buildings – the jail, treasury, telephone office, record room, bungalows –burning all records.
Everything and everybody connected with the white man became a target.
In major towns like Kanpur, Lucknow, and Bareilly, moneylenders and rich became the objects of the rebels.
Leaders and followers
To fight the British, leadership and organisation were required, and for this, they turned towards the Mughal ruler Bahadur Shah who agreed to be the nominal leader of the rebellion.
In Kanpur, the sepoys and the people of the town agreed to support Nana Sahib.
In Jhansi, the Rani was forced to assume the leadership of the uprising.
Kunwar Singh, a local Zamindar in Arrah in Bihar, too took the leadership.
The local leaders emerged, urging peasants, zamindars, and tribals to revolt eg – Shah Mal mobilized the villagers of pargana Barout in Uttar Pradesh; Gonooa, a tribal cultivator of Singhbhum in Chotanagpur, became a rebel leader of the Kol tribals of the region.
Rumors and prophecies
There was the rumor that the British government had hatched a gigantic conspiracy to destroy the caste and religion of the Hindus and Muslim.
The rumour said that the British had mixed the bone dust of cows and pigs into the flour that was sold in the market.
The sepoys and the common people refused to touch the atta.
There was a fear and suspicion that the British wanted to convert Indians to Christianity.
The sepoy had the fear about bullets coated with the fats of cows and pigs, and biting those bullets would corrupt their caste and religion.
Why did the people believe in the rumors?
The British adopted policies aimed at reforming Indian society by introducing Western education, Western ideas, and Western institutions.
With the cooperation of sections of Indian society, they set up English medium schools, colleges, and universities which taught Western sciences and the liberal arts.
The British established laws to abolished customs like Sati (1629) and to permit the remarriage of Hindu widows.
The British introduced their own system of administration, their own laws and their own methods of land settlements and land revenue collection.
AWADH IN REVOLT
“A cherry that will drop into our mouth one day”
In 1851, Governor General Lord Dalhousie described the kingdom of Awadh as “a cherry that will drop into our mouth one day” and five years later it was annexed to the British Empire.
The Subsidiary Alliance had been imposed on Awadh.
The terms of this alliance the nawab had to disband his military force of the British to position their troops within the kingdom and act in accordance with the advice of the British.
Deprived of his armed forces the nawab became increasingly dependent on the British to maintain law and order within the kingdom.
He could no longer assert control over the rebellious chief and taluqdars.
WHAT THE REBELS WANTED
The vision of unity
The rebellion was seen as a war in which both Hindus and Muslims had equally to lose or gain.
The ishtahars (notifications) harked back to the pre-British Hindu-Muslim past and glorified the coexistence of different communities under Mughal Empire.
In1857, the British spent Rs. 50,000 to incite the Hindu population against the Muslims but the attempt failed.
Against the symbols of oppression
The land revenue settlements had dispossessed the landholders, both big and small and foreign commerce had driven artisans and weavers to ruin.
Every aspect of the British rule was attacked and the firangi accused of destroying a way of life that was familiar and cherished.
The proclamations expressed the widespread fear that the British were bent on destroying the caste and religions of Hindus and Muslims and converting them to Christianity.
People were urged to come together and fight to save their livelihood, their faith, their honor, their identity.
IMAGES OF THE REVOLT
Official accounts of colonial administration and military men left their versions in letters and diaries, autobiography and official histories.
The changing British attitudes were evident through the innumerable memos and notes, assessments of situations.
The stories of the revolt that were published in British newspapers and magazines narrated the in gory detail the violence of the mutineers.
The pictorial images were produced by the British and Indians – paintings, pencil drawings, cartoons, bazaar prints.
Celebrating the saviors
British pictures offer a variety of images that were meant to provoke a range of different emotions and reactions.
Some of them commemorate the British heroes who saved the English and repressed the rebels.
“Relief of Lucknow “, was painted by Thomas Jones Barker In 1859.
English women and the honour of Britain
The British government was asked to protect the honor of innocent women and ensure the safety of helpless children.
Artists expressed as well as shaped these sentiments through their visual representations of trauma and suffering.
The performances of terror
The urge for vengeance and retribution was expressed in the brutal way in which the rebels were executed.
They were blown from guns or hung from the gallows.
Images of these executions were widely circulated through popular journals.
When Governor General Canning declared that a gesture of leniency and a show of mercy would help in winning back the loyalty of the sepoys, he was mocked in the British press.
Nationalist imageries
The nationalist movement drew its inspiration from the events of 1857.
A whole world of nationalist imagination was woven around the revolt.
It was celebrated as the first war of independence in which all sections of the people of India came together to fight against imperial rule.
Art and literature had helped in keeping alive the memories 1857.
Timeline

Time Line
1801 Subsidiary Alliance introduced by Wellesley in Awadh
1856 Nawab Wajid Ali Shah deposed; Awadh annexed
1856-57 Summary revenue settlements introduced in Awadh by the British
1857, 10 May Mutiny starts in Meerut
11-12 May Delhi garrisons revolts; Bahadur shah accepts nominal leadership
20-27 May Sepoys mutiny in Aligarh, Etawah, Mainpuri, Etah
30 May Rising in Lucknow
May-June Mutiny turns into a general revolts of the people
30 June British suffer defeat in the battle of Chinhat
25 sept British forces under Havelock and Outram entre the Residency in Lucknow
July Shah mal Killed in battle
1858 June Rani Jhani killed in battle.

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Topic : Colonialism  and the country side.
Theme 10.
General Instructions: Attempt all the questions
All questions  are compulsory.

Section  A ( Objective type questions):

Q1. Consider the following statements regarding the early years of the East India Company establishment in India:

I. The colonial rule was first established in The Bengal.
II. In the beginning, the earliest attempts were made to reorder rural society and establish a new regime of land rights and a new revenue system.
III. The Permanent Settlement had come into operation in 1793. The East India Company had fixed the revenue that each zamindar had to pay.

Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct?
A. Only I
B. I and II
C. I and III
D. All of the above

Q2. Consider the following statements regarding after the establishment of British East India Company in Bengal:
I. In 1797 there was an auction in Burdwan (present day Bardhaman) during which A number of mahals (estates) held by the Raja of Burdwan were being sold.
II. The Permanent Settlement had come into operation in 1793.
III. The estates of those who failed to pay were to be auctioned to recover the revenue.

Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct?
A. Only I
B. I and II
C. I and III
D. All of above.

Q3. Consider the following statements regarding the problem of unpaid revenue:
I. In introducing the Permanent Settlement, British officials hoped to resolve the problems they had been facing since the conquest of Bengal.
II. By the 1770s, the rural economy in Bengal was in crisis, with recurrent famines and declining agricultural output.
III. Officials felt that agriculture, trade and the revenue resources of the state could all be developed by encouraging investment in agriculture.

Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct?
A. Only I
B. I and II
C. I and III
D. All of the

Q4. Who was the Governor General of Bengal when the Permanent Settlement was introducing in 1793?
A. Warren Hastings
B. The Charles Cornwallis
C. The Lord Minto
D. The

Q5. Consider the following statements regarding the failure of revenue payment by zamindars:
I. Initially the company made very high initial demand because if the demand was fixed for all time to come, the Company would never be able to claim a share of increased income from land when prices rose and cultivation expanded.
II. The high demand was imposed in the 1790s, a time when the prices of agricultural produce were depressed, making it difficult for the ryots to pay their dues to the zamindar.
III. The revenue was invariable, regardless of the harvest, and had to be paid punctually. In fact, according to the Sunset Law, if payment did not come in by sunset of the specified date, the zamindari was liable to be auctioned.

Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct?
A. Only I
B. I and II
C. I and III
D. All of  above.

Q6. Which of the following statement is incorrect?
A. Taluqdar literally means “one who holds a taluq” or a connection which came to refer to a territorial unit.
B. Raja (literally king) was a term that was often used to designate powerful zamindars.
C. Ryots in Bengal always cultivate the land directly, but never leased it out to under-ryots.
D. In Francis Buchanan’s survey of the Dinajpur district in North Bengal there is a vivid description of the class of rich peasants known as Jotedars.

Q7. When was the East India Company acquired a charter from the ruler of England?
A. 1600
B. 1602
C. 1603

Q8. Who was the ruler of England at the time when the East India Company got permission to trade with India?
A. Anne
B. Victoria
C. Queen Elizabeth I
D. Geurge I

Q9. After acquiring the royal charter, the East India Company could:
A. venture across the ocean
B. buy goods at cheap price and sell at higher price
C. could carry their business to European countries
D. All of the above.

Q10. Who had discovered the sea route from the west coast of Africa to India?
A. British East India Company
B. Columbus
C. Vasco Da Gama
D. Sir James cook.

Section  ( Answer the following  in  short  ) :
11 ) What was Permanent  Settlement  ? Who introduced  it . Write in brief the key features of it.
12) " Zamindars defaulted on payments. " Justify the statement.
13)  Who were Jotedars? How did they emerge as a powerful figure in many  areas of rural Bengal?
14)Who were Paharies ? How was their attitude towards outsiders?
15) Why were Santhals invited by the officials of the E.I. C to settle down on the foothills of RajMahal hills?
16 ) What was Damin - I- Koh ? Explain.
17 ) Why did the Santhals rebel against the British rule.
18 ) What was the outcome of the Santhal revolt?

SECTION C : ( A newer the following in detail):
19) Why were many zamindaris auctioned  after the permanent settlement?
20)In what ways was the livelihood of thePaharies different from the Santhals?
21) The East India Company had recognised the zamindars importance but wanted to control and regulate them. Explain the steps taken by them to subdue their authority in the 18th century.

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Bengal – Establishment of colonial rule – New land revenue policy was introduced.
Auction system under Warren Hastings.
In 1793, Permanent Revenue settlement in Bengal by Lord Cornwallis.
Crises in village economy, revenue demand of the state was fixed.
The rise of the Jotedars – their land was cultivated through share croppers.
Resistance of Zamindars – their land was auctioned frequently.
The fifth report report submitted to British Parliament 1813.
The Hoe and the Plough – Shifting agriculture, expensive of village economy.
Paharias – hunters, shifting cultivators, food gathers connected with forests, invaded settled farmers 1770.
Santhals – Settled in Bengal – practiced cultivation land demarcated to them known as Daman-i-koh.
Conflicts with unsettled paharias -1850 – they resisted the British – Santhal revolt.
Revolt in the Bombay and Deccan – 1875.
Burning of account book of moneylenders and shopkeepers.
New revenue System – Ryotwari system in Bombay Deccan – direct settlement, land assessed for 30 years subject to periodic revision.
The problem of unpaid revenue.

In introducing the permanent settlement, the British hoped to resolve the problems they had been facing since the conquest of Bengal.
The rural economy in Bengal was in crisis with recurrent famines and declining agricultural output.
The problem lay in identifying individuals who could both improve agriculture and contract to pay the fixed revenue to the state.
The permanent settlement was made with the rajas and taluqdars of Bengal.
They were classified as Zamindars and had to pay the revenue that was fixed.
The Zamindar was not the landowner in the village, but a revenue collector of the state.
The zamindar collected rent from different villages, paid the revenue to the company,and retained the differences as his income.
He was expected to pay the Company regularly, failing which his estate could be auctioned.

Why zamindars defaulted on payments?

High initial demand: The initial demand was very high. It was felt that if the demand was fixed for all time to come, the Company would never be able to claim a share of increased income from land when prices rose and cultivation expanded. To minimise this anticipated loss, the Company pegged the revenue demand high, arguing that the burden on zamindars would gradually decline as agricultural production expanded and prices rose.
Imposition of high demand: This high demand was imposed in the 1790s, a time when the prices of agricultural produce were depressed, making it difficult for the ryots (raiyat, used to designate peasants) to pay their dues to the zamindar. If the zamindar could not collect the rent, how could he pay the Company?
The revenue was invariable: The revenue was invariable, regardless of the harvest, and had to be paid punctually. In fact, according to the Sunset Law, if payment did not come in by sunset of the specified date, the zamindari was liable to be auctioned.
Powers of Zamindars limited: The Permanent Settlement initially limited the power of the zamindar to collect rent from the ryot and manage his zamindari.
The rise of the jotedars
A group of rich peasants consolidated their position in the villages.
This class of rich peasant was known as jotedar.
The jotedars had acquired vast areas of land.
They controlled local trade as well as money lending,exercising immense power over the poorer cultivators of the region
A large part of their land was cultivated through sharecroppers (adhiyars or bargadars).
When the estate of the zamindar was auctioned for failure to make revenue payment, jotedars were often amongst the purchasers.
The jotedars were the most powerful in North Bengal, in some places they were called haoladars, gantidars or mandals.
The accounts of Buchanan
Francis Buchanan was a physician and an employee of the British East India Company.
He marched everywhere with a large army of people  – draughtsmen, surveyors, palanquin bearers, coolies.
The cost of the travels was borne by the East India Company.
He was perceived as an agent of the sarkar.
He observed the stones and rocks and different strata and layers of soil.
He searched for minerals and stones that were commercially valuable, he recorded all signs of irons ore and mica, granite and saltpetre.
He carefully observed the local practices of salt –making and iron ore mining.
Buchanan’s journal were packed with observations.

A Revolt in the Countryside: The Bombay Deccan
Through the nineteenth century, peasants in various parts of India rose in revolt against moneylenders and grain dealers. One such revolt occurred in 1875 in the Deccan.
Account books were burnt
The movement began at Supa, a large village in Poona (present-day Pune) district.
It was a market centre where many shopkeepers and moneylenders lived.
On 12 May1875, ryots from surrounding rural areas gathered and attacked the shopkeepers, demanding their bahi khatas (account books) and debt bonds.
They burnt the khatas, looted grain shops, and in some cases set fire to the houses of sahukars.
A new revenue system
As British rule expanded from Bengal to other parts of India, new systems of revenue were imposed.
Since the revenue demand was fixed under the Permanent Settlement, the colonial state could not claim any share of this enhanced income.
Keen on expanding its financial resources, the colonial government had to think of ways to maximise its land revenue.
The revenue system that was introduced in the Bombay Deccan came to be known as the ryotwari settlement.
Unlike the Bengal system, the revenue was directly settled with the ryot. The average income from different types of soil was estimated, the revenue-paying capacity of the ryot was assessed and a proportion of it fixed as the share of the state.
The revenue demand was no longer permanent.
Revenue demand and peasant debt
The first revenue settlement in the Bombay Deccan was made in the 1820s.
The revenue that was demanded was so high that in many places peasants deserted their villages and migrated to new regions. In areas of poor soil and fluctuating rainfall the problem was particularly acute. When rains failed and harvests were poor, peasants found it impossible to pay the revenue. However, the collectors in charge of revenue collection were keen on demonstrating their efficiency and pleasing their superiors. So they went about extracting payment with utmost severity. When someone failed to pay, his crops were seized and a fine was imposed on the whole village
The Deccan Riots Commission
When the revolt spread in the Deccan, the Government of Bombay was initially unwilling to see it as anything serious.
But the Government of India, worried by the memory of 1857, pressurised the Government of Bombay to set up a commission of enquiry to investigate into the causes of the riots.
The commission produced a report that was presented to the British Parliament in 1878.
This report provides historians with a range of sources for the study of the riot.

Timeline:

1765:  English East India Company acquire Diwani of Bengal
1773  Regulating act passed by the British Parliament to regulate the activities of the East Indian Company
1793  Permanent settlement in Bengal
1800s Santhals begin to come to the Rajmahal hills and settle there
1818 First revenue prices begin to fall
1820s A slow process of agrarian expansion in the Bombay deccan
1840s-50s Santhal Rebellion
1861 Cotton boom begins
1875 Ryots in Deccan villages rebel

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The great bath

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Topic : Theme 9   Kings and Chronicles.

General  Instructions: This worksheet  has  been  divided  into  five  sections  .
Attempt all the  questions  from  each  section  .

Section A ( Answer  the   following  in   very  short):
1) What do you mean by Chronicles?
2) When and between whom the battle of Panipat was fought  ?
3) Who was the founder of the Mughal empire?
4)  Which language was declared  by Akbar as his state language  and why ?
5)Write any two Objectives  of foreign policy of Mughal?
6) What do you mean by the divine theory of Kingsship?
7)Whatdo you mean but Axis Mundi?
8) Name the religious policy introduced by Akbar.
9) When  did the Babur established Mughal empire in India?
10) Which Mughal emperor ascended  the throne
of Baburand when?
11) Name four books translated into Persian during Akbar's reign?
12) Who wrote Alamgir Nama and during whose reign?
11) Describe in brief the nostali style of calligraphy?
12) Who was the founder of Asiatic society of Bengal?When was it formed?
13) When did HumYun defeated Sher Shah Suri?
14) After which event Akbar succeeds the throne of his father?

Section B ( Answer the following in short ):

14) The granting of titles to the men of merit was an important aspect of Mughal polity”. Explain.

15) How do you think that the chronicles
commissioned by the Mughal emperors are an important source for studing Mughal history?
( administrative arrangements).

16) How do you think that Qandahar remained a bone of contention between the Mughals and the Safavids? Explain.

177) Mughal rulers efficiently assimilated heterogeneous populace within an imperial edifice”. Support the statement.

18) “The keeping of the exact and detailed record was the major concern of Mughal administration”. Support the statement with examples.  court’ with the date and time of the court session.

19) One important pillar of Mughal administration was the nobility’. Justify.

20) Abu’l Fazl has described the ideal of Sulh-i-kul of Akbar as the corner-stone of his enlightened rule”. Justify.

21) Identify the distinctive features of the imperial household of the Mughal Empire.

22) Historians have provided accounts of diplomatic relationships and conflicts with the neighbouring political powers of the Mughal Empire.” Elaborate.

Section C  ( Answer the following  in  detail ) :

24.)  Describe how the ‘Humayun Nama’ of Gulbadan Begum gives us the glimpses of the Mughal Imperial household.

25)Describe briefly the expansion and consolidation of Mughal Empire under Jalaluddin Akbar (1556-1605).

26) Describe briefly how the emperor began his day in the balcony and at Diwan-i-am.

27) Name the author of ‘Badshah Nama’. Describe its content.

28) Why did Abu’l Fazl describe the land revenue as ‘remuneration of sovereignty’? Explain.

29) Describe the variety of tasks involved in creation of manusripts during the reign of the Mughal.Empire.

30) Describe briefly the relationship between the Mughals and the Ottomans.

31. What is meant by Mansabdari system? Discuss it's  main features.

32.)What was the contribution  of Babur in the establishment  of Mughal empire ?

Section  D ( Passage based questions) :

Read the following  passage  and   Answer  the  questions that  fellow:

33) Read the following  passage  and answer the  questions  that follow  :

Darbar-i Akbari
Abu’l Fazl gives a vivid account of Akbar’s darbar.
Whenever his Majesty (Akbar) holds court (darbar) a large drum is beaten, the sounds of which are accompained by Divine praise. In this manner, people of all classes receive notice. His Majesty’s sons and grandchildren, the grandees of the court, and all other men who have admittance, attend to make the kornish, and remain standing in their proper places. Learned men of renown and skilful mechanics pay their respects; and the officers of justice present their reports. His Majesty, with his usual insights, gives orders, and settles everything in a satisfactory manner.
During the whole time, skilful gladiators and wrestlers from all countries hold themselves in readiness, and singers, male and female, are in waiting. Clever jugglers and funny tumblers also are anxious to exhibit their dexterity and agility.

A) Explain main activities taking place in Darbar of Akbar,
B) Explain different forms of salutation to the ruler.
C) How did Emperors begin his day? Explain.

34) Read the following passage and answer the question that follow:

Abu’l Fazl placed Mughal kingship as the highest station in the hierarchy of objects receiving light emanating from God (Farr-i-izadi).
Here he was inspired by a famous Iranian sufi, Shihabuddin Suhrawardi (d. 1191) who first developed this idea. According to this idea, there was a hierarchy in which the Divine Light was transmitted to the king who then became the source of spiritual guidance for his subjects.
Paintings that accompanied the narrative of the chronicles transmitted these ideas in a way that left a lasting impression on the minds of viewers. Mughal artists, from the 17th century onwards, began to portray emperors wearing the halo, which they saw on European painting s of Christ and the Virgin Mary to symbolise the light of God.

A) Explain the idea that inspired Abu’l Fazl to place Mughal kingship at the top of the objects receiving divine light?

35) Read the following passage and answer the question that follow:

Akbar’s quest for religious knowledge led to interfaith debates in the ibadat khana at Fatehpur Sikri between learned Muslims, Hindus, Jainas, Parsis and Christians. Akbar’s religious views matured as he queried scholars of different religions and sects and gathered knowledge about their doctrines.
Increasingly, he moved away from the orthodox Islamic ways of understanding religions towards a self-conceived eclectic form of divine worship focused on light and the sun. We have seen that Akbar and Abu’l Fazl created a philosophy of light and used it to shape the image of the king and ideology of the state.
In this, a divinely inspired individual has supreme sovereignty over his people and complete control over his enemies.

A) How did the quest for religious knowledge lead emperor Akbar towards a self-conceived eclectic form of divine worship? Discuss.

36) Map based questions:

On an outline map of the world , mark the areas which had Economic links with   the  Mughal empire  and trace out possible routes of communication.

37) Picture based questions:

Identify the pictures that are given below and write their name.

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https://youtu.be/toMEqGyYRjE

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.Kings and Chroncles . ( The Mughal court )

The Mughal Dynasty
From the latter half of the 16th century, they expanded their kingdom from Agra and Delhi until in the 17th century they controlled nearly all of the subcontinent.
They imposed structures of administration and ideas of governance that outlasted their rule, leaving a political legacy that succeeding rulers of the subcontinent could not ignore.
Babur – The Founder of Mughal Empire
The first Mughal emperor (1526- 1530)
Political situation in north-west India was suitable for Babur to enter India .
Sikhandar Lodi died in 1517 and Ibrahim Lodi succeded him. I. Lodhi tried to create a strong centralised empire which alarmed Afghan chiefs as well as Rajaputs.
So in 1526 he defeated the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi and his Afghan supporters, at (First) Panipat (War) and captured Delhi and Agra.
The establishment of an empire in the Indo-Gangetic valley by Babur was a threat to Rana Sanga.
So in 1527 – defeated Rana Sanga, Rajput rulers and allies at Khanwa [a place west of Agra].
Babur’s advent was significant :
Kabul and Qandhar became an integral part of an empire   comprising North India . Since these areas had always acted as a staging place for an invasion of India and provide security from external invasions
These two areas mentioned above helped to strengthen India’s foreign trade with China and Mediterranean seaports .
His war tactics were very expensive since he used heavy artillery which ended the era of small kingdoms because these smaller ones cant afford it .
He introduced a concept of the state which has to be based on strength and prestige of Crown instead of religious interference. This provided a precedent and direction to his successors .
Humayun [1530-1540, 1555-1556]
Humayun divided his inheritance according to the will of his father. His brothers were each given a province.
Sher Khan defeated Humayun which made him forced to flee to Iran.
In Iran, Humayun received help from the Safavid Shah. He recaptured Delhi in 1555 but died in an accident the following year.
Akbar [1556-1605] – The Most Popular Ruler among the Mughal Dynasty
His reign can be divided into three periods :

1556-1570 : Military campaigns were launched against the Suris and other Afghans, against the neighbouring kingdoms of Malwa and Gondwana, and to suppress the revolt of Mirza Hakim and the Uzbegs. In 1568 the Sisodiya capital of Chittor was seized and in 1569 Ranthambhor.
1570-1585 : military campaigns in Gujarat were followed by campaigns in the east in Bihar, Bengal and Orissa.
1585-1605 : expansion of Akbar’s empire. Qandahar was seized from the Safavids, Kashmir was annexed, as also Kabul . Campaigns in the Deccan started and Berar, Khandesh and parts of Ahmadnagar were annexed.
Jahangir [1605-1627]
Military campaigns started by Akbar continued.
The Sisodiya ruler of Mewar, Amar Singh, accepted Mughal service. Less successful campaigns against the Sikhs, the Ahoms and Ahmadnagar followed.
Shah Jahan [1627-1658]
Mughal campaigns continued in the Deccan under Shah Jahan.
The Afghan noble Khan Jahan Lodi rebelled and was defeated.
In the north-west, the campaign to seize Balkh from the Uzbegs was unsuccessful and Qandahar was lost to the Safavids.
Shah Jahan was imprisoned by his son Aurangazeb for the rest of his life in Agra.
Aurangzeb [1658-1707]
In the north-east, the Ahoms [a kingdom in Assam near Brahmaputra valley] were defeated in 1663, but they rebelled again in the 1680s. Because Ahoms successfully resisted Mughal expansion for a long time and they dont want to give up their sovereignty which they were enjoying for 600 years .
Campaigns in the north-west against the Yusufzai and the Sikhs were temporarily successful.
Mughal intervention in the succession and internal politics of the Rathor Rajputs of Marwar led to their rebellion.
Campaigns against the Maratha chieftain Shivaji were initially successful. However, escaped from Aurangzeb’s prison Shivaji declared himself an independent king and resumed his campaigns against the Mughals.
Prince Akbar[II] rebelled against Aurangzeb and received support from the Marathas and Deccan Sultanate.
After Akbar’s rebellion, Aurangzeb sent armies against the Deccan Sultanates. Bijapur[Karnataka] was annexed in 1685 and Golcunda [Telangana] in 1687.
From 1698 Aurangzeb personally managed campaigns in the Deccan against the Marathas who started guerrilla warfare.
Aurangzeb also had to face the rebellion in north India of the Sikhs, Jats and Satnamis . The Satnamis were a sect of Hinduism and they were resented against Aurangzeb’s strict Islamic policies – which included reviving the hated Islamic Jiziya tax (poll tax on non-Muslim subjects), banning music and art, and destroying Hindu temples .
Mughal relations with other rulers
The Mughal rulers campaigned constantly against rulers who refused to accept their authority.
However, as the Mughals became powerful many other rulers also joined them voluntarily. eg : Rajaputs.
The careful balance between defeating but not humiliating their opponents [but not with Shivaji by Aurangzeb] enabled the Mughals to extend their influence over many kings and chieftains.
Mansabdars and Jagirdars
As the empire expanded to encompass different regions the Mughals recruited diverse bodies of people like Iranians, Indian Muslims, Afghans, Rajputs, Marathas and other groups.
Those who joined Mughal service were enrolled as mansabdars – an individual who holds a mansab, meaning a position or rank.
It was a grading system used by the Mughals to fix rank, salary and military responsibilities.
The mansabdar’s military responsibilities required him to maintain a specified number of sawar or cavalrymen.
Mansabdars received their salaries as revenue assignments – jagirs which were somewhat like iqtas. But unlike muqtis, mansabdars dint administer jagirs, instead only had rights to collect the revenue that too by their servants while manasbdars themselves served in some other part of the country.
In Akbar’s reign, these jagirs were carefully assessed so that their revenues were roughly equal to the salary of the mansadar.
But by Auragzeb’s reign, there was a huge increase in the number of mansabdars which meant a long wait before they received a jagir.
So the shortage of jagirdars was witnessed and whoever got jagirs they extracted more revenue than allowed .
Aurangzeb couldn’t control this development and the peasantry therefore suffered tremendously.
Zabt and Zamindars
To sustain Mughul administration , rulers relied on extracting taxes from rural produce[peasantry].
Mughal used one term – zamindars – to describe all intermediaries, whether they were local headmen of villages or powerful chieftains who collect these taxes for rulers.
Careful survey was done to evaluate crop yields .
On the basis of this data , the tax was fixed.
Each province was divided into revenue circles with its own schedule of revenue rates for individual crops. This revenue system was known as zabt.
However, rebellious zamidars were present . They challenged the stability of the Mughal Empire from the end of the 17th century through peasant revolt.
Akbar Nama & Ain-i Akbari
Abul Fazl wrote a three volume history of Akbar’s reign titled, Akbar Nama .
The first volume dealt with Akbar’s ancestors .
The second recorded the events of Akbar’s reign.
The third is the Ain-i Akbari. It deals with Akbar’s administration, household, army, the revenues and geography of his empire. It provides rich details about the traditions and culture of the people living in India. It also got statistical details about crops, yields, prices, wages and revenues.
Akbar’s policies
The empire was divided into provinces called subas, governed by a subadar who carried out both political and military functions.
Subadar was supported by other officers such as the military paymaster (bakhshi), the minister in charge of religious and charitable patronage (sadr), military commanders (faujdars) and the town police commander (kotwal).
Each province had a financial officer or diwan.
Akbar’s nobles commanded large armies and had access to large amounts of revenue.
Akbar’s discussions on religion with the ulama, Brahmanas, Jesuit priests who were Roman Catholics, and Zoroastrians took place in the ibadat khana.
He realised that religious scholars who emphasised ritual and dogma were often bigots. Their teachings created divisions and disharmony amongst his subjects. This eventually led Akbar to the idea of sulh-i kul or “universal peace”.
Abul Fazl helped Akbar in framing a vision of governance around this idea of sulh-i kul.
This principle of governance was followed by Jahangir and Shah Jahan as well

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Important notes from Kings and Chronicles .( The Mughal court )

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Important notes from Kings and Chronicles .( The Mughal court )

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The production of chronicle (1526 -1707) provides us with the information on the Mughals and their empires.
The name Mughal is derived from Mongol.
From Turkish to Persian – Mughal court chronicles were written in Persian.
The making of manuscripts – all books in Mughals was manuscripts i.e. they were handwritten.

The Akbarnama and Badshanama – among the important illustrated Mughal official histories the Akbarnama and Badshanama.

A unifying force – sulh-i kul – Abu’l Fazl describes the ideal sulh-i-kul (absolute peace) .

Capitals and courts – capital city – the heart of Mughal empire is capital city where the court assembled.

Titles and Gifts – The granting of titles to men of merit was an important aspect of Mughal policy.
Mughal kings commissioned court historians to write accounts. These accounts recorded the event of the emperor’s time.

Babur laid the foundation for the Mughal Empire in India by defeating the last Lodhi King Ibrahim Lodhi through the battle of Panipat.
Modern historians writings in English have termed this original text or accounts of texts as chronicles, as they present a continuous chronological record of events.

The creation of a manuscript involved a number of people performing a variety of tasks.
Painters too were involved in the production of Mughal manuscripts.

Babur took over the Lodi capital of Agra.
During the 1560s Akbar had the fort of Agra constructed with red sandstone quarried from the adjoining regions.
In the 1570s he decided to build a new capital, Fatehpuri sikri.

The keeping of exact and detailed records was a major concern of the Mughal administration.
Akbar was curious about Christianity and dispatched an embassy to Goa to invite Jesuit priests.
The first Jesuit mission reached the Mughal court at Fatehpur Sikri in 1580 and stayed for about two years.
The Jesuit spoke to Akbar about Christianity and debated its virtues with the ulama. Two more missions were sent to the Mughal court at Lahore in 1591 and in 1595.
The Mughals and Their Empire

During the sixteenth century, Europeans used the term ‘Mughal’ to describe the Indian rulers of Timurids-Mongols descendant branch.
The founder of the empire, Zahiruddin Babur, was driven from his Central Asian homeland, Farghana, by the warring Uzbeks.
He first established himself at Kabul and then in 1526 pushed further into the Indian subcontinent in search of territories and resources for his clan.
His successor, Nasiruddin Humayun (1530-40, 1555-56) expanded the frontiers of the empire, but lost it to the Afghan leader Sher Shah Sur, who drove him into exile.
In 1555 Humayun defeated the Surs.
Jalaluddin Akbar (1556-1605) is considered to be the greatest of all the Mughal emperors.
He consolidated his empire and made it the largest, strongest and richest kingdom of his time.
Akbar succeeded in extending the frontiers of the empire to the Hindukush mountains, and checked the expansionist designs of the Uzbeks of Turan (Central Asia) and the Safavids of Iran.
Akbar had three successors – Jahangir (1605-27), Shah Jahan (1628-58) and Aurangzeb (1658-1707).
The three rulers maintained and consolidated the various instruments of governance.
The court was the visible centre of Mughal power.
After 1707, following the death of Aurangzeb, the power of the dynasty diminished.
In 1857 the last scion of this dynasty, Bahadur Shah Zafar II, was overthrown by the British.
The Production of Chronicles

The production of chronicle (1526 -1707) provides us with the information on the Mughals and their empires.
The authors of Mughal chronicles were invariably courtiers.
The histories they wrote focused on events centred on the ruler, his family, the court and nobles, wars and administrative arrangements.
The titles of the chronicles suggest that in the eyes of their authors the history of the empire and the court was synonymous with that of the emperor.
Some of the chroniclies are – Akbar Nama – the story of Akbar was written in Persian by Abu’l Fazl, Shahjahan Nama – story of Shah Jahan, Alamgir Nama – the story of Alamgir (a title of the Mughal ruler Aurangzeb).
Abdul Hamid Lahori is the author of the Badshah Nama, which is the official history in three volumes (daftars) of ten lunar years each.
Edited versions of the Akbar Nama and Badshah Nama were first published by the Asiatic Society in the nineteenth century.
Use of Persian

As the Mughals were Chaghtai Turks by origin, Turkish was their mother tongue. Their first ruler Babur wrote poetry and his memoirs in this language.
But in Mughal court chronicles were written in Persian.
It was Akbar who consciously set out to make Persian the leading language of the Mughal court.
Persian was elevated to a language of empire, conferring power and prestige on those who had a command of it. It was spoken by the king, the royal household and the elite at court.
Later, it became the language of administration.
Persian became Indianised by absorbing local idioms. A new language, Urdu, sprang from the interaction of Persian with Hindavi.
Translations of various books were done, like Babur’s memoirs, were translated from the Turkish into the Persian Babur Nama. The Mahabharata was translated as the Razmnama (Book of Wars).
The making of manuscripts

All books in Mughal India were manuscripts, that is, they were handwritten.
The centre of manuscript production was the imperial kitabkhana.
Although it can be translated as library, it was a scriptorium, that is, a place where the emperor’s collection of manuscripts.
The Painted Image

Paintings served not only to enhance the beauty of a book, but were believed to possess special powers of communicating ideas about the kingdom and the power of kings in ways that the written medium could not.
The historian Abu’l Fazl described painting as a “magical art”.
It had the power to make inanimate objects look as if they possessed life.
The production of paintings portraying the emperor, his court and the people who were part of it, was a source of constant tension between rulers and representatives of the Muslim orthodoxy, the ulama.
The concept of ideal kingdom

Divine Light: Abu’l Fazl placed Mughal kingship as the highest station in the hierarchy of objects receiving light emanating from God (farr-i izadi). He was inspired by a famous Iranian sufi, Shihabuddin Suhrawardi (d. 1191) who first developed the idea. of a hierarchy in which the Divine Light was transmitted to the king who then became the source of spiritual guidance for his subjects.
Absolute Peace: Mughal chronicles present the empire as comprising many different ethnic and religious communities. Abu’l Fazl describes the ideal of sulh-i kul (absolute peace) as the cornerstone of enlightened rule. In sulh-i kul all religions and schools of thought had freedom of expression but on condition that they did not undermine the authority of the state or fight among themselves.
Sovereignty: Abu’l Fazl defined sovereignty as a social contract: the emperor protects the four essences of his subjects, namely, life (jan), property (mal), honour (namus) and faith (din), and in return demands obedience and a share of resources.
Capitals & Courts

The heart of the Mughal Empire was its capital city, where the court assembled, which frequently shifted during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
Babur took over the Lodi capital of Agra. During the 1560s Akbar had the fort of Agra constructed with red sandstone quarried from the adjoining regions.
In the 1570s he decided to build a new capital, Fatehpur Sikri. The enormous arched gateway (Buland Darwaza) was meant to remind visitors of the Mughal victory in Gujarat.
Akbar commissioned the construction of a white marble tomb for Shaikh Salim Chishti next to the majestic Friday mosque at Sikri.
In 1585 the capital was transferred to Lahore to bring the north-west under greater control.
In 1648 the court, army and household moved from Agra to the newly completed imperial capital, Shahjahanabad. It was a new addition to the old residential city of Delhi, with the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid, a tree-lined esplanade with Fig. 9.8 The Buland Darwaza, Fatehpur Sikri 237 bazaars (Chandni Chowk) and spacious homes for the nobility.
The Mughal court’s physical arrangement focused on the sovereign, mirrored his status as the heart of society.
In court, status was determined by spatial proximity to the king. The place accorded to a courtier by the ruler was a sign of his importance in the eyes of the emperor.
The forms of salutation to the ruler indicated the person’s status in the hierarchy. Besides, there were explicit protocols that governed diplomatic envoys at the Mughal court.
On special occasions such as the anniversary of accession to the throne, Id, Shab-i barat and Holi, the court was full of life.
Gifts & Titles: Grand titles were adopted by the Mughal emperors at the time of coronation or after a victory over an enemy. The granting of titles to men of merit was an important aspect of Mughal polity. Titles could be earned or paid for. A courtier never approached the emperor empty handed. In diplomatic relations, gifts were regarded as a sign of honour and respect.
The Imperial Set up

Households:

The Mughal household consisted of the emperor’s wives and concubines, his near and distant relatives nd female servants and slaves.
Polygamy was practised widely in the Indian subcontinent, especially among the ruling groups.
marriage was a way of cementing political relationships and forging alliances. The gift of territory was often accompanied by the gift of a daughter in marriage.
In the Mughal household a distinction was maintained between wives who came from royal families (begams), and other wives (aghas) who were not of noble birth.
Officials & Recruitments:

One important pillar of the Mughal state was its corps of officers, also referred to by historians collectively as the nobility, which was recruited from diverse ethnic and religious groups. For members of the nobility, imperial service was a way of acquiring power, wealth and the highest possible reputation.
Turani and Iranian nobles were present from the earliest phase of carving out a political dominion.
Two ruling groups of Indian origin entered the imperial service from 1560 onwards – the Rajputs and the Indian Muslims.
Iranians gained high offices under Jahangir, whose politically influential queen, Nur Jahan (d. 1645), was an Iranian.
The nobles participated in military campaigns with their armies and also served as officers of the empire in the provinces.
Each military commander recruited, equipped and trained the main striking arm of the Mughal army, the cavalry.
Records: The mir bakhshi supervised the corps of court writers (waqia nawis) who recorded all applications and documents presented to the court, and all imperial orders (farman).
The akhbarat contained all kinds of information such as attendance at the court, grant of offices and titles, diplomatic missions, presents received, or the enquiries made by the emperor about the health of an officer.
The Mughal chroniclers usually portrayed the emperor and his court as controlling the entire administrative apparatus down to the village level.
Beyond the Frontiers

The diplomatic relationships and conflicts of Mughals with neighbouring political powers.reflect some tension and political rivalry arising from competing regional interests.
The relation of Mughal kings and the neighbouring countries of Iran and Turan hinged on the control of the frontier defined by the Hindukush mountains that separated Afghanistan from the regions of Iran and Central Asia. A constant aim of Mughal policy was to ward off this potential danger by controlling strategic outposts – notably Kabul and Qandahar.
The relationship between the Mughals and the Ottomans was marked by the concern to ensure free movement for merchants and pilgrims in the territories under Ottoman control.
By the end of the fifteenth century, Portuguese merchants entered India after the discovery of a direct sea route. The Portuguese king was interested in the propagation of Christianity with the help of the missionaries of the Society of Jesus (the Jesuits). as the Christian missions to India during the sixteenth century were part of this process of trade and empire building.
Akbar was curious about Christianity and dispatched an embassy to Goa to invite Jesuit priests. The first Jesuit mission reached the Mughal court at Fatehpur Sikri in 1580 and stayed for about two years. The Jesuits spoke to Akbar about Christianity and debated its virtues with the ulama. Two more missions were sent to the Mughal court at Lahore, in 1591 and 1595.
The high respect shown by Akbar towards the members of the Jesuit mission impressed them deeply. They interpreted the emperor’s open interest in the doctrines of Christianity as a sign of his acceptance of their faith.
Akbar’s quest for religious knowledge led to interfaith debates in the ibadat khana at Fatehpur Sikri between learned Muslims, Hindus, Jains, Parsis and Christians.
Akbar’s religious views matured as he gathered knowledge about their doctrines. he moved away from the orthodox Islamic ways of understanding religions towards a self-conceived eclectic form of divine worship focused on light and the sun.
Timeline:

Time Line
Some Major Mughal Chronicles and Memoirs

c. 1530 Manuscripts of Babur’s memories in Turkish – saved from a storm – becomes part of the family collection of the Timurids
c. 1587 Gulbadan Begum begins to write the humayun nama
1589 Babur’s Memories translated into Persain as Babur Nama
1589-1602 Abu’I Fazi works on the Akbar Nama
1605-22 Jahangir writes his memories, the Jahangir Nama
1639-47 Lahori composes the first two daftars of the Bashah Nama
c. 1650 Muhammad  Waris begins to chronicle the third decade of shah jahan’s regin
1668 Alamgir Nama, a history of the first ten years of Aurangzeb’s reign complied by Muhammad Kazim