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Identify which muscle fibre type is best suited for this activity and provide rationale for the answer

Fast glycolytic (FG) Fast twitch B fibres. This muscle fibre is best suited for powerlifting. White in colour due to only having few mitochondria & blood vessels, low myoglobin. ATP generated via anaerobic glycolysis. primary function is rapid, intense movements of short duration for power lifting. Fast speed of contraction. Low capacity to generate ATP. Resistance to fatigue is low. (Lambert & Flynn, 2002)

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Thanks everyone for amazing efforts in this group assignment, it was great working with you!

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Describe the process by which the identified muscle fibre produces the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) required to contract the muscles used during a bench press.

The identified muscle fibre, fast glycolytic (FG) fast twitch B fibres, uses anaerobic metabolism to produce strong powerful, high-tension contractions although negatively does fatigue quickly.
The motion of the bench press requires short duration with extreme exertion as majority of the ATP contractions is generated by breakdown of creatine phosphate as well as acceleration of glycogen (glucose).
(Lambert & Flynn, 2002)

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Throughout a powerlifting event, Ben noted that he could not lift as effectively towards the end of a competition. State the fatigue resistance of previously identified muscle fibre and describe TWO factors that may contribute to metabolic fatigue specifically when powerlifting.

Previously stated in the above passage, fast-glycolytic (FG) fast twitch B fibers fatigue quickly due to, two main factors that contribute to specifically when powerlifting is: (1) phosphocreatine depletion. Muscles use phosphocreatine within the first few seconds of an intense muscle movement such as a bench press during a powerlifting competition. This energy is generated quickly/consumed quickly, after then reaching an anaerobic threshold resulting in rapid muscle fatigue. (2) intramuscular acidosis: is an accumulation of acidity within the blood. E.g. lactic acid will consequence in the absence of oxygen in the muscle tissue. (Lambert & Flynn, 2002).

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A brief contraction generated by a single action potential within a motor unit is called a twitch contraction. A single muscle twitch has THREE main periods. Name and describe at least ONE event that occurs during each of the periods.

A muscle twitch has three main periods: (1) latent period, (2) contraction period (3) relaxation phase.
(1)  Is the short delay from the action potential reaching the muscle until the tension can be observed within the muscle. This phase is known as the ‘slack’ phase as this is the time for required calcium to diffuse out of the sarcoplasmic reticulum, bind to troponin, the movement of tropomyosin off of the active sites, formation of cross bridges, and taking up any slack that may be in the muscle.

(2)  Contraction phase is when the muscle is generating tension, calcium exits allowing troponin within to change the shape

(3)  Relaxation phase is when all stop, calcium returns to the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
(Lambert & Flynn, 2002).

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Hi Team. Well done on your work with this assignment. I enjoyed working with both of you!

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State which major part of the brain has been damaged and name the TWO (2) major functional
areas of that part of the brain that have been affected

The major part of the brain that has been damaged is the cerebrum.
The Cerebrum is the largest part of the brain responsible for important functions in the body.( Frank H.Mayfield ,MD) The two major functional areas of that part of the brain that have been affected is  speech  and   movement .These are very important functions for human  survival as they it  allows you to develop social skills, behaviour, education and employment.( Frank H.Mayfield ,MD)

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Give a rationale as to why each of the functional areas was chosen by referring to the changes
experienced by Maria.

The changes experienced by Maria were evidently shown in the scenario below;

Scenario (1)
The functional area - movement "could not move her fingers
to button up her blouse with her R) hand"

Scenario (2)
functional area- speech
"despite being
able to speak, she could not arrange the words in a coherent fashion"

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Can neurogenesis occur to replace damaged/destroyed neurons in the central nervous system
(CNS)? Give rationale for answer.

Yes, Neurogensis can occur to replace damaged/destroyed neurons in the nervous system.Regeneration -based therapeutic procedures have been made for patients suffering with damaged central nervous system.There are 2 different processes that can be conducted to do so ,these which include; the refill of lost neutral cells and the inference of axonal regeneration.
The first procedure consists of
the operation of endogenous neural stem cell  (NSC),thus which  is known to encourage the rise to new neurons after the occurrence of incidents.After this process the  relocation of neurogenesis cells follows and reaction of glial cells and the vascular system begin   creating endogenous mechanisms in damaged CNS tissue.(Okano, H., Sakaguchi, M., Ohki, K., Suzuki, N., & Sawamoto, K. (2007).

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Describe the negative feedback regulation of the hormone involved in hyperglycaemia.

When blood glucose levels are high (hyperglycaemia), beta-cells are stimulated to secrete insulin. Release of insulin affects the body by; accelerating diffusion of glucose into cells, increases conversion speed of glycogenesis and lipogenesis, increases uptake of amino acids and protein synthesis, slows glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. From all these changes blood glucose levels fall. When it returns to equilibrium, insulin secretion stops (Greenstein & Wood, 2011)

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Name the endocrine gland and associated relevant tissue that contribute to blood glucose regulation. Name and describe the function of two cells located within this organ that participate in glucose homeostasis

The pancreas, and within it the cells of the islets of Langerhans. Islets are composed of four main cell types. The two most common are alpha-cells, which produce glucagon, and beta-cells, which produce insulin (Greenstein & Wood, 2011)

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Describe the negative feedback regulation of the hormone involved in hypoglycaemia

When blood glucose levels are low (hypoglycaemia), alpha-cells are stimulated to secrete glucagon. Release of glucagon affects the body by; stimulating liver cells to increase glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. From these changes, blood glucose levels increase. When it returns to equilibrium, glucagon secretion stops (Greenstein & Wood, 2011)

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Hormones within the body (other than those identified in 2 & 3 above) can contribute to an elevation in blood glucose. Choose one hormone and describe the mechanism by which it raises blood sugar levels

Epinephrine is secreted by adrenal glands when blood glucose levels are low. Epinephrine (adrenaline) converts stored glycogen to glucose and releases it into the blood, therefore raising blood glucose levels. Most commonly, adrenaline is secreted when strong emotions such as fear or anger are felt as these emotions activated nerves connected to the adrenal glands (Greenstein & Wood, 2011)

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For the hormone identified in 4. above, name the location and specific cell type from where it is secreted and identify the hormone that stimulates its secretion. Describe where the hormone that stimulates the secretion is synthesised

Epinephrine is secreted from the medulla of the adrenal gland, which is made of chromaffin cells. The hypothalamus produces corticotropin-releasing hormone, which then stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete adrenocorticotropin hormone, which stimulates the adrenal gland to secrete epinephrine (Greenstein & Wood, 2011)

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Muscle contractions are described based on TWO variables: force (tension) and length (shortening). Throughout the process of Ben performing a bench press, different types of contractions are employed. Name and describe each of the types in relation to muscle and length.

Muscles used in a bench press; triceps brachii, pectoralis major with the anterior front deltoids, traps and lastly the back muscles as secondary muscles. Contractions include; (1) eccentric lowering phase: horizontal should abduction/elbow flexion. (2) concentric lifting phase: horizontal shoulder adduction/elbow extension. When the load on the muscle (length, shortend) increases it finally reaches a point where the external force on the muscle is greater than the force that the muscle can generate. Thus, even though the muscle may be fully activated, it is forced to lengthen due to the heavy external load (Lambert & Flynn, 2002).

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Name the zones of the epiphyseal plate and describe the structure of cells contained in each

1. Zone of resting cartilage - Contains small, scattered chondrocytes
2. Zone of proliferating cartilage - Contains larger, stacked chondrocytes
3. Zone of hypertrophic cartilage - Contains large, columnised chondrocytes
4. Zone of calcified cartilage - Contains dead chondrocytes, osteoclasts and osteoblasts (Tortora & Derrickson, 2014)

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Describe the process of growth in length of a long bone

Chondrocytes proliferate on epiphyseal side of the plate as the bone grows. Old are replaced by new ones. Cartilage on the diaphyseal side is replaced by bone, therefore bone on diaphyseal side increases in length. At cessation of adolescence epiphyseal plates close, cartilage cells cease dividing and current cartilage is replaced by bone (Tortora & Derrickson, 2014).

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Name and briefly outline the phases of bone fracture repair

Reactive – early inflammatory phase. Blood from broken blood vessels of fractured area forms a fracture hematoma 6-8 hours after injury. Swelling and inflammation occur due to dead bone cells. Phagocytes and osteoclasts remove damaged tissue
Reparative (fibrocartilaginous callus formation) – Blood vessels grow into fracture hematoma. Fibroblasts produce collagen fibres and chondroblasts produce fibrocartilage in fracture site leading to development of a fibrocartilaginous callus
Reparative (bony callus formation) – Osteoprogenitor cells develop into osteoblasts and produce spongy bone trabeculae, which joins living and dead bone fragments. Fibrocartilage is converted to spongy bone
Bone remodelling – Dead portions of broken bone are resorbed by osteoclasts. Compact bone replaces spongy bone (Tortora & Derrickson, 2014).

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Name one possible consequence of damage to the epiphyseal plate in Tom's left femur and outline why this occurs

It may mean the bone is shorter than normal when Tom reaches adulthood. This is due to damage to cartilage (avascular) promotes cessation of cartilage cell division, therefore accelerates closure of epiphyseal plates and inhibits bone growth in length (Tortora & Derrickson, 2014).

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Describe three factors that influence the growth and repair of Tom's bones during his teenage years

Minerals – Large intake of calcium and phosphorous are required, as well as smaller amounts of magnesium, fluoride and manganese

Vitamins – Adequate intake of Vitamin A to stimulate osteoblast activity, Vitamin C for collagen synthesis, Vitamin D for calcium absorption, Vitamins K and B₁₂for synthesis of bone proteins

Hormones – Important to have adequate amounts of insulinlike growth factors to stimulate osteoblasts, promotion of cell division at epiphyseal plates, and bone protein synthesis, which is stimulated by release of human growth hormone by pituitary gland. Also important to have adequate amounts of thyroid hormones to stimulate osteoblasts, and insulin to promote synthesis of bone proteins (Tortora & Derrickson, 2014).

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Below is the link to our discussion padlet, where we can discuss content and padlet layout for the assignment

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Guidelines for online discussion:
All members of the group will comply with the guidelines below to ensure this forum remains appropriate and focussed on the assignment question (Salmon, 2013):
1. Use appropriate language
2. Participate and engage with the content
3. Thoroughly research the content shared
4. Be precise and accurate with information provided
5. Assist other group members

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The damage to Maria’s brain has resulted in her inability to move her R) arm. Which specific
neuron in the neural circuits that make up the somatic motor pathways has been affected in this
case? Give a rationale for the answer.

As a result of  damage caused to Maria's brain which has resulted in her inability to move her R) arm,  her motorneuron has been effected.This specific neuron is responsible for the movement of your muscles via sending signals from your brain and spinal cord and right through to your muscles to intimate movement.However this damage has caused the muscles to become still and weak  and as a result motor neuron syndrome is diagnosed.(WebMB. (2019)
This is so ,as muscles can no longer send information to each other in the normal way.

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The axons of the neuron identified above extend from the brain via two types of somatic motor
pathways - the direct and indirect motor pathways. Which specific pathway (within either one or
the other of these pathways) is affected? Using this pathway as an example, explain why damage
to the L) side of Maria’s brain has affected the movements in Maria’s R) hand.

The indirect pathway has been affected due to the damage on Maria's brain ,resulting in the inability of conducting body movement.The damage on the left side of Maria's brain has effected her ability to move.This is so as the left half of the brain controls movement and sensation in the ride side of the body and the right half controls movement sensation on the left side.Therefore ,this damage to the left side of the brain has caused effects on the right side of Maria's body movement ,due to the left side of the brain be in control of movements on the right side of the body.(Thomas Novack & Tamara Bushnik, 2019)