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1/ General presentation of the Maya Civilization and description of their way of life

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1/ General presentation of the Maya Civilization and description of their way of life

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The Mayan civilization is an ancient Mesoamerican civilization that was a forerunner in many fields such as writing, art, architecture, agriculture, mathematics and astronomy. It was born in the 2nd millennium BC and died out in the 16th century for reasons that we will explain later.

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1.a/ Geographical representation of the Mayan Empire

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1.a/ Geographical representation of the Mayan Empire

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The Maya territory was consistent with that of other civilizations of the time. A total area of about 340,000 km2 extending today from south-eastern Mexico, including Belize, Guatemala, to the western tip of Honduras and Salvador.

The Mayan Empire is generally divided into 3 main regions which differ according to climatic and geological criteria. Firstly, the Pacific coast, which is a region of humid plains with fertile land, a warm climate and abundant rainfall, all of which favours the development of agriculture and fishing. Then there are the Highlands which are at an altitude of more than 800 meters with many volcanoes and a strong seismic activity, as the region is a meeting zone between 2 tectonic plates. The climate is temperate and the soil is suitable for cultivation because it is rich in phosphorus, which is a natural fertilizer. Finally, the last region is the Lowlands, which includes dense tropical forests in the South and bush in the North. The diversity of plant and animal species is important. But in general, the climate remains tropical.

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In Central America the rainy season lasts from November to April and the dry season from May to October.

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Geographical movements of the Maya population have been observed, which was more concentrated on the Pacific coast and the Highlands in the Pre-Classical period to the Southern and Northern Lowlands in the Classical and Post-Classical periods (see part 2 History for dates). The most important sites of the Classical period are Palenque, Piedras Negras, Kaminaljuyu, Copan, Tical and Calakmul; and the Post-Classical sites clustered in the Yucatan Peninsula with Mayapan, Uxmal, Chichen Itza and others.

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1.b/ Historical representation of the Mayan Empire and important events (from 2000 BC to 1697)

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1.b/ Historical representation of the Mayan Empire and important events (from 2000 BC to 1697)

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The Maya civilization is originally very old. Historians estimate that the societies behind it and having massively influenced it go back up to 3000 years BC, with the sedentarization of the archaic peoples of this era, who were originally hunter-gatherers. However, the first traces directly attributed to the Mayans date from around 1000 BC. They correspond to the beginning of Mayan culture as we know it today: massive use of pottery, precise social stratification, religious beliefs etc.

Mayan culture thus experienced a strong boom during the preclassical period (-600 to 300 AD). It corresponde to period of extension and cohesion: the small clans met, traded and ally. This is when started the typical Mayan architecture, such as the Teotihuacan site in Mexico.

This phenomenon reached its peak during the classical period, between 300 and 900 AD. This era represented the heyday of the Mayan civilization: a prosperous time during which the economy was highly developed and the cultural flourishing was strong, thanks to the spread of writing, the creation of the mayan calendar and beliefs. The territory had never been so extensive. This is the period of the so-called "Mayan Empire".

From 900 AD, took place the period of the decline of the Mayan civilization. For several reasons, this society collapsed in the height of its golden age. The construction of monumental places stopped, particularly in the south of the territory, as well as a massive depopulation took place in the largest cities. The fall gradually extended until the arrival of Spanish settlers in the 15th century, which marked the end of this civilization.

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1.c/ Social Organization and Hierarchy System among the Maya 

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1.c/ Social Organization and Hierarchy System among the Maya 

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The Mayans lived according to an organization of city-states, separated from each other: each had their own elites and sometimes spoke their own language. The largest grouped 200,000 to 300,000 people. The hierarchical system was however the same for all the cities. They were ruled by a king (Halac vinic) and the population was divided into several social categories.

The social structure was complex and based on a division by activity sector. The elite was divided between the nobility and the clergy. The people were the bulk of the population and divided into peasants and servants. There are also slaves. The elite and the people did not, however, form separate categories because they were linked by kinship or alliance. Only the nobility and the clergy lived within the city, which corresponded to a full-fledged religious center. Individual dwellings were scattered in the suburbs.

It was a hereditary monarchical system with patrilineal descent, which means that social status came from the father. They were thus mainly kings and not queens. These concentrated all the military, religious and civil powers and delegated their autority over the village communities to local chiefs (batabs), from the nobility.

The great religiosity of the Mayans explains the importance of the role of the clergy. Priests (ah kin) also succeeded one another from father to son and their knowledge (which was very extensive) was only transmitted within the family. Among the priests stand out the chilam, specially charged to receive the messages of the gods and to pronounce the prophecies.

At the bottom of the ladder was the people, who was responsible for providing food and clothing, as well as the main work for public works. Finally, the slaves were a class apart. They were mainly prisoners of war or delinquents.

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The Mayans ate only twice a day: in the morning and in the evening. Their meals were largely made up of corn, which they ate boiled, in flour or grilled on a hot stone. This method formed the basis of the dough used to form tortillas, which they filled with meat, red beans, crushed peppers or fish fillets. These tortillas (tamal) made up 60% of their daily calories. They also ate edible roots (like oca or quinoa for example). The only meat that the peasants consumed was guinea pig, because this animal was very widespread on the territory. The richest ate wild duck, tropical fruits (papayas, coconuts, guavas and bananas) or vegetables like avocados or tomatoes. The traditional drink was chicha, a beer made from corn.

To meet their food needs, the Mayans practiced agriculture. In particular, they had managed to develop a very efficient irrigation system. It involved diverting nearby waterways and creating tanks. This water was distributed through terraces of natural fields stepped around a hill. The cultivable land was divided into plots, each of them could be cultivated for three years. It was then set aside for five years to let the vegetation grow again. Before being cultivated, each plot was burned before the rainy season to let the ashes enter the soil and act as fertilizer. The lands that were going to be cultivated were blessed with invocations and incenses at their four corners. This whole process was called "agriculture on Milpa".

Hunting allowed the Mayans to supplement their diet. They used blowguns to kill birds (partridges or quail) and javelins for larger game (monkeys, deer, armadillos, tapirs). Snares were used to trap animals overnight. Fishing was also practiced, with nets or hook lines. There were also turkey and dog farms.

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1.e/ Mayan Religion and Beliefs, Links with Nature

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1.e/ Mayan Religion and Beliefs, Links with Nature

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The Mayan religion was a polytheistic religion with gods associated with elements of nature and human activities. The main gods were Itzamna, the supreme god who created the universe, it is from him that knowledge such as astronomy or mathematics comes and is represented in the form of a snake-crocodile. Kinich Ahau is the sun by day and the night turns into a jaguar. Ixchel is the goddess of motherhood and the moon, and is associated with water. She is represented by an old lady. She is the god of rain and thunder, and is responsible for the success of crops, floods and droughts. HanHau is the god of death and is represented in the form of a skeleton or decaying corpse. There is also Ah Katun the god of war represented with a torch in his hand. Yum Kaax is the god of vegetation and hunting, and Ek Chuah the god of prosperity, merchants and cocoa, an important commodity for the Maya. For the Maya, the cosmos is composed of 3 different entities which are the lower world composed of 9 strata, the earth and the sky with 13 strata each with its own deity. In addition, they believed in the recurrence of the cycles of creation and destruction in connection with the different Mayan calendars.

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The pantheon of the Maya is a vast collection of deities who were worshipped throughout the region which, today, comprises Yucatan, Quintana Roo, Campeche, Tabasco, and Chiapas in Mexico and southward through Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador and Honduras. Not all of the gods were venerated in all of the city-states of the Maya (at least, not by the same name) but the type of god, and what that god symbolized to the people, seems to have been universally recognized.

An example of this can be seen in the different names given to the underworld by the Yucatec Maya of the north and the Quiche Maya of the south. The Quiche called their underworld `Metnal' while the Yucatec referred to the same place as ` Xibalba'. Though the names were different, the characteristics of the dark `land of fright', through which a soul had to travel after death, were the same.

Another instance of this can be seen in the creation myths where, for the Quiche, thirteen gods were involved in creating human beings from maize while, to the Yucatec, it was only two. Still, the message of the myths is the same: the gods struggled to create human beings just as humans struggle with their own attempts at creation and survival and, also, that life comes from the earth (here, in the form of corn, the staple of the Mayan diet) and so the earth must be honored and respected.

The gods were involved in every aspect of the life of the Maya. They controlled the weather, the harvest, they dictated one's mate, presided over every birth, and were present at one's death. As the gods were depicted as cross-eyed, mothers would dangle a bead from the forehead of their children so that their eyes would become crossed. Similarly, children's heads were bound, especially males, in order to elongate the forehead in emulation of the gods, especially the very popular Maize God figure. The clothing worn by the nobility, and especially the ruler of a city, mimicked the dress of the gods. The way in which a city was planned and the precision with which the central temples were constructed all followed from an understanding of the way of the gods.

The great Temple of Kukulcan at Chichen Itza is an embodiment of the secular calendar (the Haab) of 365 days but is also very specifically designed to make the god known as the Plumed Serpent back to earth twice a year. At the two equinoxes, each year, people still gather for this event. The steps of the Temple of Kukulcan (also known as El Castillo) run steeply down from the temple at the summit of the pyramid to stone serpent heads at the base of the stairs. On the twin equinoxes each year, the sun casts the shadow of a serpent which moves slowly down the stairs from the temple to the stone heads and creates the image of a serpent descending to the earth. Kukulcan (also known as Gucamatz and, more famously, Quetzalcoatl) was the most popular god among the Maya and it is not surprising that, even today, many of the Maya, and non-Mayan people, congregate at the temple twice a year to receive the blessings of his visit to the earth.

There were over 250 deities in the pantheon of the Maya.

There were over 250 deities in the pantheon of the Maya and, owing to the mass burning of their books by Bishop Diego de Landa in 1562, much information about the gods (and Maya culture) was irretrievably lost. The Quiche Mayan religious text, the , gives one set of names for the gods which the Yucatec Maya knew by other names.

Some gods remain unidentified while others' provenance is unclear or has become conflated with still other deities or with Christian concepts. Scholars are hardly in agreement over the age and prestige of the `king' of the gods, Hunab Ku, for example, whom some claim an ancient lineage for while others maintain a post- conquest status. Some scholars adamantly defend their definition of a certain god while other scholars maintain an opposing one and there is strong evidence for the truth of both sides. The following list, then, is by no means comprehensive as far as defining every god the ancient Maya worshipped in every region, village, or city but attempts to be comprehensive in detailing as much as is presently known about the gods and hopes to do so concisely.

`A'
A Maya god of death whose name is not yet known. He is depicted ruling a part of the underworld surrounded by the bones of his subjects. His symbols are a skull and obsidian knife, both related to the practice of human sacrifice.

Acan
The god of intoxication, wine, and the art of brewing Balche (a kind of strong mead). His name means either `belch' or `groan' and he is associated with the Lacandon Maya god of drunkenness Bohr (also known as Bol).

Acat
The god of the art of tattooing and patron of tattoo artists, Acat is also associated with the growth and development of fetuses. He is further designated by the names Acat-Cib and Ah - Kat.

Ah-Cancum
A god of hunting.

Ah-Chun-Caan
A tutelary deity, he provided protection at sunrise and sunset.

Ah-Ciliz
The god of solar eclipses.

Ah-Cun-Can
A war god known as the Serpent Charmer.

Ah-Cuxtal
The god of birth. His name means `Come to Life' and he was responsible for the safe delivery of babies into the earthly realm, both physically and spiritually. After a birth he would wash his hands and then move on to the next one.

Ahluic
The god of merchants and material wealth often depicted as a member of a triad, with the deities Chac and Hobnil.

Ahmucen-Cab
A creator god who, according to the Chilam Balam creation story, covered the faces of the thirteen gods of the day and let them be captured by the nine gods of the night. During this captivity, he spread seeds and set boulders across the land which grew out of the darkness. This act of creation was later un-done and re-worked by the Becabs.

Ah-Hulneb
A minor god of water.

Ah-Kin
A deity who is an aspect of the sun god (Kinich Ahau) and controls drought and disease (also known as Ah-Kinchil).

Ah-Kumix-Unicob
These were minor water gods who attended to Cenotes and pools.

Ah-Mun
A god of fertility and protection who was also a personification of Maize.

Ah-Muzencab
The deities who presided over and cared for bees. They are also associated with air elemental spirits.

Ah-Patnar-Unicob
These deities were elemental gods of water. They were the lords of the Eight Day Rain Ceremony during which they were celebrated.

Ah-Pekku
A god of thunder.

Ah-Puch
A god of death, darkness, and disaster but also of regeneration, child birth, and beginnings. According to the Quiche Maya, he ruled over Metnal (Xibalba) while according to the Yucatec Maya he was one of many of the Lords of Xibalba. He is associated with Cizen, Yom Cimil/Yum Cimil (though Cizen seems to consistently be imagined more darkly).

Ah-Tabai
The god of the hunt and protector of animals.

Ah-Uaynih
The goddess of sleep. She was especially helpful in putting men to sleep.

Ah-Uncir-Dz'acab
The god of natural healing.

Ah-Uuc-Ticab
A Chthonic deity.

Ah-Wink-Ir-Masa
A nature goddess who protected wild animals, she is associated with deer.

Ahau-Chamahez
A god of medicine and healing.

Ahau-Kin
An aspect of the sun god also known as Jaguar Lord and Lord of the Underworld.

Ahmakiq
A god of agriculture and cultivated crops.

Ahulane
A war god associated with archery and known as The Archer.

Ajbit
One of the thirteen gods who assisted in the creation of human beings from Maize following two previous failed attempts.

Ajtzak
One of the thirteen gods involved in the attempts to create human beings.

Akhushtal
The goddess of childbirth.

Akna
A title applied to Akhushtal, among other goddesses, which means `Our Mother', and was closely associated with those deities concerned with fertility and childbirth.

Alaghom-Naom-Tzentel
The goddess of thought and intellect. She was also known as Ixtat-Ix.

Alom
One of the thirteen gods who participated in the creation of human beings. After the successful third attempt, he became known as Hunahpu-Guch.

Bacabs
The four gods of the winds and the directions who hold up the four corners of the world. In Yucatec Maya they are known as Muluc (of the east) Kan (of the south) Ix (of the north) and Cauac (of the west). Muluc and Kan generated positive energies while Ix and Cauac brought negative forces. This confluence of negative and positive energy enabled the early gods to create human beings and the physical and non-physical worlds. They are associated with the deities Acat, Akna, Backlum Chamm, and Chin.

Backlum Chaam
One of the Bacabs or an aspect of the Bacabs, he is the god of male sexuality.

B'alam
The Jaguar deities who protect individual communities against external threat. They also guard and protect people in daily life.

The B'alams
In the Quiche Maya tradition the Balams were the four gods who made possible the creation of man after two previous failed attempts. They were known as B'alam Agab (Night Jaguar) B'alam Quitze (Smiling Jaguar) Iqi B'alam (Dark Jaguar) and Mahucatah (Not Right Now). According to one myth, their fellow gods grew jealous of their abilities and so clouded their sight, rendering them mortal.

Bitol
One of the thirteen gods who participated in the creation of human beings. After the successful third attempt, he became known as Ixmacane (he is the early version of Ixmacane, a later god).

Bolon-D'zacab
The lightning god and patron of the harvest.

Bolontiku
A group of nine chthonic beings of the underworld, they were associated with regeneration.

Buluc-Chabtan
Also known as `God F', this deity is the god of war, violence and death to whom human beings were sacrificed regularly. In the Dresden Codices he is depicted as being eaten by maggots. He is further depicted setting homes on fire, killing people, and roasting them on skewers over a fire.

Cabaguil
One of the thirteen gods who assisted in the creation of human beings. His name means `Heart of the Sky'.

Cabrakan
Also known as Caprakan, he was the god of earthquakes and mountains. He was the son of the gods Vucub Caquix and Chimalmat and plays a significant role early in the Popol Vuh where he is defeated by the Hero Twins as is his brother Zipacna.

Cacoch
A creator god who presides over creativity and communication (especially relating to divine communications).

Cakulha
A lesser god of lightning bolts who, with his brother Coyopa, assist the supreme god of lightning, Yaluk, in creating the storms sent by the rain god Chac.

Camalotz
The servant of Alom who, after the second attempt at creation, beheaded most of the people in the world in order that the gods could begin again. His name means `Sudden Blood-letter'.

Cauac
One of the four Bacabs, Cauac controls the westerly direction and the west wind. Also known as Zac-Cimi.

Chac
The supreme god of storms and rain and associated with agriculture and fertility. He was known as the Lord of the Rains and Winds and maintained important water sources such as cenotes, wells, streams, and springs. He was widely popular and prayers and sacrifices were frequently offered to court his favor and that of the four, lesser, chacs. A lord of the sky, he was the sworn enemy of Camazotz of Xibalba and was thought of as a caring, if unpredictable, deity.

Chacs
These were four weather spirits, located at each of the corners of the world, who were under the command of the great god Chac and did his bidding.

Chac-Uayab-Xoc
The protector of fish and patron of fisherman.

Chamer
One of the gods of death and regeneration of Xibalba.

Chen
Also known as Chin, she was the goddess of maize, magic, and a councilor to the kings. She was also closely associated with homo-erotic relationships and homosexuality. According to the priest Las Cassas, she introduced homosexuality to the Maya nobles who encouraged their children to enter into homosexual marriages. She is associated with the moon and, sometimes, is depicted as a male deity.

Chicchan
These were four rain gods, from the four corners of the world, who were associated with the Bacabs.

Chin
Widely known as the Maya goddess of homosexuality. See Chen.

Chirakan-Ixmucane
A creator goddess who was formed out of four earlier creators and listed among the thirteen divinities who first engaged in the creation of human beings.

Cit-Bolon-Tum
One of two great healer gods (with Ahau-Chamahez).

Cizin
Also known as, or associated with, the names Kisen, Yom Cimil, Yum Cimil, and Ah Puch, he was a god of death who lived in Xibalba (Metnal to the Quiche Maya) and is often pictured as a dancing human skeleton smoking a cigarette. He is further identified by his `death collar' of human eyes dangling from nerve endings. Cizin came upon one suddenly and without warning but was accompanied by a foul smell and so was called `The Stinking One'. Unlike the other death god aspects with whom he is associated, Cizin is not associated with regeneration or re-birth. He keeps the souls of evil people in the underworld where they are subjected to his torments and trickery. Post-conquest, he became closely identified with the Christian devil.

Colel Cab
An earth goddess who cares especially for the bees. She is still invoked by modern-day Maya Daykeepers in chants to ward off attacks on nests, remedy nest problems, and aid hive keepers with their bees.

Colop-U-Uichikin
God of the sky and particularly of eclipses.

Cotzbalam
A servant of Alom who followed after Camalotz after the failed second attempt at creation and devoured the bodies of the people who were beheaded. His name means`Crunching Jaguar'.

Coyopa
A lesser god of sound and of thunder who works with his brother Cakulha under the guidance of the supreme god lightning, Yaluk, to create the storms sent by the rain god Chac.

Cuchumaquic
A lord of Xibalba whose name means `Blood Gatherer'. He is the father of the goddess Xquic and grandfather of the Hero Twins, Hunahpu and Xbalanque.

Cum Hau
A god of death and regeneration who lived in Xibalba.

`E'
An agricultural god whose name is not yet known.

Ekchuah
A god also known as Ek Ahau and, earlier, as only `God M'. He presides over and protects travelers, merchants, and warriors and is depicted as a dark-skinned male carrying a bag over his shoulder. He is also recognized as the patron and protector of cacao and cacao products.

El Gran Dios
`The Great God' who was the god of the Christians and dwelled in the seventh level above the earth. In some stories he is associated with Hunab Ku. This figure is a late, post-conquest, addition to the Maya pantheon

`F'
A god of war associated with human sacrifice and repeated victories over Ekchuah. He is also known as Buluc-Chabtan. See Buluc-Chabtan.

Gucumatz
This god is one of the most important, if not the most important, in the pantheon of the Maya. The name Gucumatz (also Gukumatz) is the Quiche Maya designation for the god known to the Yucatec Maya as Kukulcan and most famously, in the Nahuatl language, as Quetzalcoatl (`the plumed serpent' or `the quetzal-featherd serpent') who was worshipped as early as the first century BCE at the great city of Teotihuacan. Gucumatz is identified as one of thirteen deities who shaped the world and created human beings. From Gucumatz, humans learned the rules of law, agriculture, literacy, the arts, medicine, architecture, construction, hunting, fishing, and all other aspects of civilization. He is said to have come from the sea, conveyed to the people his gifts and ruled wisely over them, and then returned to the sea, promising to come back one day. The god of all four elements, he was also the representation of the co-mingling of good and evil, light and darkness, and so became a central figure in many of the myths of the Maya and popularly depicted, in various forms, in virtually every city-state. As Kukulcan, he is the great plumed serpent who glides down the steps of El Castillo at Chichen Itza on the spring and autumn equinoxes and is thought to bring positive energy to the earth and to those present at his descent.

Gucup Cakix
This deity, also known as Vucub-Caquix (which means `Seven Macaw') is depicted in the Popol Vuh as an arrogant bird demon who pretended to be both the sun and the moon and thus threw life out of balance until he was defeated by Hunahpu and Xbalanque, the Hero Twins. He was the father of Cabrakan and Zipacna who were also overthrown by the famous twins.

Hacha'kyum
An astral god who created the stars by scattering sand into the sky. He was the patron deity of the Lacandon Maya.

Hero Twins
Hunahpu and Xbalanque (also given as Ixbalanque) are the two great mythical heroes of the Maya whose story is preserved in the Quiche Maya work `The Popol Vuh'. They were born of the virgin goddess Xquic after the severed head of their father, Hun Hunahpu, spit into her hand from a calabash tree in the underworld of Xibalba. Raised by their mother and grandmother the twins became great ball players, excelling at `the game of the gods', Poc-a-Toc. Once attaining manhood, they avenged themselves on the Lords of Xibalba, who had murdered their father and uncle, by accepting their invitation to the underworld where a series of traps and tests awaited them. They escaped the traps and snares set for them and defeated the forces of chaos and darkness. They then attempted to bring Hun Hunahpu back to life and, though they succeeded in putting his body back together and reanimating him, he could not return to the earth above. The twins promised him, however, that humans would pray to him for hope and comfort and he would be remembered and honored. The promise was kept as Hun Hunahpu became the Maize god, a dying-and-reviving god figure, who appears on earth as corn. Ascending from Xibalba, they meant to stop in the middle world of the earth but continued climbing up the World Tree and into paradise where, even then, they desired to climb higher and so became the sun and the moon (in another version the gods reward them for their victory by turning them into the sun and the moon). The Hero Twins have been thought to represent the legitimacy of the Maya ruling class, though this theory has been disputed. There is no doubt that their story was very popular among the Maya as the twins are depicted in art work throughout the region, often playing their famous game. Based upon these paintings, it seems clear there were many tales concerning the hero twins which have been lost and the Popol Vuh is the only surviving text of their story.

Hobnil
A god of agriculture and prosperity and a member of a triad with the deities Ahluic and Chac.

Hozanek
A god of the south, associated with the Bacab Cauac and the color yellow. He is a son of the
great couple Itzamna and Ixchel.

Hun-Batz
One of the two stepbrothers of the Hero Twins (the other being Hun-Chowen) also known as `One Howler Monkey' and depicted as a howler monkey. Along with his brother, he is the patron god of artists and writers.

Hun-Came
Also known as Hun-Cane, he is a lord of the underworld who, along with Gucup Cakix, kill Hun Hunahpu, the father of the Hero Twins. He is later killed by them.

Hun-Chowen
One of the two stepbrothers of the Hero Twins (the other being Hun-Batz) he is depicted as a howler monkey. Along with his brother, he is the patron god of artists and writers.

Hunab-Ku
While Gucumatz was the most popular god, Hunab-Ku is considered the supreme deity of the pantheon of the Maya, known as `Sole God'. While some scholars have asserted his antiquity, he seems most likely a concept which arose following the Christianization of the Maya during the Spanish Conquest and closely resembles the Christian god. He is invisible and without form but can be apprehended through his aspect in the god Itzamna, referred to as his son. Hunab-Ku is the husband of Ixazalvoh, the divine mother, associated with water, life, and weaving. Some inscriptions refer to him as `The Eyes and Ears of the Sun' in substantiating the claim that, like the Christian god, he is ubiquitous and knows all.

Hun-Hunahpu
Also known as The Maize God, Huh Hunahpu died but was regenerated by his sons, and returns to life as maize (corn) and so is identified as a dying-and-reviving god figure. The father of the great Hero Twins Hunahpu and Xbalanque. Hun-Hunahpu and his twin brother, Vucub Hunahpu, were demi-gods who, after the creation of the world, became proficient in the `ball game of the gods', Poc-a-Toc. The lords of Xibalba, beneath the earth, became enraged by the noise of the twins and so devised a plan to get rid of them. They invited the young men to the underworld to play a game of Poc-a Toc. Before the game could begin, however, the twins were tricked by the Xibalbans and killed. Hun-Hunahpu's head was placed in the axis of a calabash tree which grew heavy with strange fruit. The young virgin Xquiq came upon the tree and, reaching for the fruit, was asked by the head to open her palm. Hun Hunahpu's head spat into the maiden's hand and she became pregnant with Hunahpu and Xbalanque. The head then sent the girl to live with his mother, Xumucane.

Hunahpu
One of the great Hero Twins who feature prominently in the myths of the Maya and in the text of the Quiche work, the Popol Vuh. Son of Hun Hunahpu amd Xquiq, Hunahpu is the god of the evening who restores the stars to the sky and, with his brother, Xbalanque, defeated the lords of Xibalba and created order on the earth. He is associated with the sun and, in some myths, is the sun himself.

Hunahpu-Gutch
The name which the god Alom took after the successful third attempt at creating human beings.

Hunahpu-Utiu
A deity among the original thirteen who assisted in the creation of human beings.

Hun-Nal-Ye
A god of salt water and the sea who was the patron of sharks.

Huracan
Also known as `Heart of the Sky' and `One-Leg', Huracan is a storm god. In the Popol Vuh he is the supreme creator of earth who thinks existence into being, participates in the creation of human beings, and sends the great flood to destroy his inferior creations. He is further referred to as Lord of the Whirlwind and credited as one of the gods (sometimes the sole god) to give fire to humans.

`I'
An early goddess of water presiding over the sea, springs, and wells whose name is unknown but is thought possibly to be `Ixik'.

Itzamna
Considered the founder of the Maya culture, patron and protector of priests and scribes, Itzamna is an extremely important and popular god. Like Gucumatz, he taught the people the arts of literacy, medicine, science, art, sculpture, and agriculture. He created and ordered the calendar and instructed humans in the proper cultivation of maize and cacao. He is a creator and healer who can resurrect the dead. In later, post-Colombian writings, he is referred to as the son of Hunab-Ku and takes on many of the characteristics associated with the Christ figure. He is associated with the prophet Zamna, who brought the sacred writings to the city of Izamal on the command of the great goddess and also with Kinich Ahau, the sun god. In one myth he is the father of the Bacabs.

Itzam-Ye
Also known as Itzam-Yeh, The Serpent Bird, The Celestial Bird, and The Way of Itzamna, Itzam-Ye was a deity in bird form which nested in the axis of the great Ceiba tree, the World Tree, which connected the underworld with the middle world (earth) and upper world. From its perch, Itzam-Ye could see all of creation and knew all the secrets of all three planes of existence. Images of the bird god in the sacred tree have been found throughout many Maya sites and, usually, engraved on temples and shrines where the Daykeepers would chant and cast the spells which protected the world from chaos and maintained order. Itzam-Ye was considered a master of the spiritual world and well versed in what, today, would be considered sorcery and magical arts.

Ixazaluoh
A goddess associated with water and weaving.

Ixazalvoh
The Divine mother and consort of Hunab-Ku, Ixazalvoh is the goddess of water, life, and weaving. She also presides over female sexuality and childbirth and is known for her powers in healing. Her oracles were considered important conduits for divine messages for the people.

Ixbalanque
One of the great Hero Twins whose adventures are told in the Popol Vuh. See Xbalanque.

Ixcuiname
The goddess of the four ages of womankind (though whether this means four time periods in which women have existed or the four stages in a woman's life of child, maiden, mother, crone is unclear). Her name is interpreted as `Four Sisters' or `Four Faces'. She has been associated with the four creator gods Alom, Bitol, Qaholom, and Tzacol and, through this relationship, became known as Chirakan-Ixmucane, one of the thirteen deities who created human beings.

Ixmacane
One of the thirteen gods who participated in the creation of human beings, his name is the final form of the deity originally called Bitol (although the same name has been applied to other gods in their `final form' following creation).

Ixmucane
One of the thirteen gods who participated in the creation of human beings according to one version of the myth. Also a version of the name Xumucane, the grandmother of the famous hero twins, who, with her husband, Xpiayoc, created humans from maize and are considered the oldest and wisest deities in the Maya pantheon.

Ixpiyacoc
The name of the creator god Tzacol who, after the successful third attempt at creating human beings split into two separate entities and became both Tzacol and Ixpiyacoc. Also a variant spelling of Xpiayoc, the husband of Xumucane, who helped in creating humans from maize.

Ixtab
Also known as `Rope Woman', Ixtab was the goddess of suicides and, particularly, those who died by hanging. She is depicted as the rotting corpse of a woman hanging from a noose in the heavens which appears in the Dresden Codex. As suicide was considered an honorable alternative to living among the Maya, self-inflicted death guaranteed one an instant passage to paradise, by-passing the dark and dangerous underworld of Xibalba. Ixtab would escort the souls of suicides to paradise where they would enjoy eternal pleasure surrounded by other blessed souls such as those who died in battle, in childbirth, as sacrificial victims, or on the ball court playing Poc-a-Toc.

Ix-Tub-Tun
A serpent deity who spits precious stones and is associated with rain.

`K'
The name by which the god K'awi (or K'awiil) was formerly known. K'awai is the patron god of royalty, kingship, and the nobility.

Kan
One of the principal Becabs, Kan known as the Upholder of the South.

Kan-Xib-Yui
One of the creator gods who is sometimes mentioned as one of the original thirteen who created human beings. Probably originally a local fertility deity who was included as a creator-god, he does not appear on all lists of the thirteen.

Kianto
Also known as Kiant, he is the god of unwelcome influences which were designated primarily as disease and foreigners.

Kichigonai
In the Quiche Maya tradition, Kichigonai is the creator of day and the god of light.

Kinich Ahau
The sun god known as `Face of the Sun' and sometimes referred to as Kinich Ajaw. He was a god of healing and medicine. The later god, Hunab Ku is thought to be a conflation of Kinich Ahau and the Christian God. In some early myths, Kinich Ahau is the consort of the goddess Ixazalvoh whereas post-conquest stories place the divine mother with Hunab Ku.

Kinich Kakmo
The patron god of the city of Izamal, a solar deity who was represented by a macaw.

`L'
A god of the evening, of darkness and night whose name is not yet known.

Mam
A title of respect meaning `Grandfather' and applied to a number of different Maya deities including earth spirits, mountain spirits, and the four Bacabs. The god known as Mam Maximon is a post-conquest god of travelers, merchants, witchcraft, and bad luck that was conflated with the Christian figure of Judas and in modern times is part of the celebrations surrounding Holy Week.

Manik
The god of sacrifice, of sacrificial victims, and of purifying suffering.

Mitnal
Also known as `Metnal' , this is the Quiche Maya word for the Underworld and corresponds with the Yucatec Maya vision known as Xibalba. According to the Popl Vuh, Mitnal was a dark land flowing with rivers of blood and pus and populated by deities with names such as Bloody Teeth, Bloody Claws, and Flying Scab, among others.

Mulac
One of the four Bacabs and known as `Upholder of the East'.

Naum
The god who created the human mind and consciousness.

Nohochacyum
A creator-destroyer deity, the brother of the death god Kisin (or possibly another earthquake god also known as Kisin). He is the sworn enemy of the world serpent Hapikern and it is said that, in the end of days, he will destroy Hapikern by wrapping him around himself to smother him. In some versions of this story, life on earth is destroyed in the process. He is related, in some stories, to Usukan, Uyitzin, Yantho and Hapikern, all of whom wish human beings ill. Also the brother of Xamaniqinqu, the patron god of travelers and merchants.

Och-Kan
Also known as Ochan and Ahacan, he is the great Vision Serpent of the Maya. A Daykeeper (shaman) would have to experience the Vision Serpent first hand in order to understand the realm in which he was dealing and finalize his initiation into the mysteries. Och-Kan's presence was announced by a herald god named Uc-Zip in the underworld of Xibalba.

Paddler Gods
Two deities who paddle the divine canoe through the underworld and up into the sky. They row on opposite sides of the vessel with Old Jaguar Paddler in the front and Old Stingray Paddler in the back. They participated in the building of the Cosmic Hearth for the gods at the beginning of creation and are thought to symbolize night and day, light and darkness, and the eternal dance of opposites. They are also seen as representations of the Milky Way.

Pawahtuun
A calendar deity associated with the four Bacabs and the end of the year. He positions himself at the four corners of the sky and thus holds up the world.

Poxlom
The god of diseases.

Qaholom
One of the gods who participated in the creation of human beings along with Alom, Bitol, and Tzacol.

Q'uq'umatz
See Gucamatz

Tecumbalam
The great bird sent to break the bones and rend the muscles of the human beings who displeased the gods and were destroyed in the great flood sent by Hurakan.

Tepeu
One of the creator gods who participated, sometimes with Gucumatz and Huracan, in creating human beings.

Tlacolotl
The god of evil, of those who practice evil, and of the dark places where evil plans are made. The Maya also attributed earthquakes to him.

Tohil
The god of fire who was the patron deity of the Quiche Maya city of Q'umarka.

Tzacol
One of the thirteen gods who participated in the creation of human beings. After the successful third attempt, he split into two separate deities, Tzacol and Ixpiyacoc.

Tzultacaj
Also known as Tzuultaq'ah, he was the god of mountains and valleys.

Uc-Zip
A herald god to the Lords of Xibalba who announced the coming of the great Vision Serpent Och-Kan.

Usukan
A fearsome god who hates human beings and has the earthquake as his servant in his attempt to destroy human life. His brother is Hapikern, the world-girdling serpent, who is also hostile to humanity. He is almost always listed along with Uyitzin and Yantho in what is known as the `Yantho Triad' of supernatural `villains'. Xamaniqinqu, the god of travelers and merchants, is another brother.

Uyitzin
One of the fraternal triad with Usukan and Yantho, three brothers who hate humanity and are the enemies of the god Nohochacyum, who is also sometimes depicted as their brother as is Xamaniqinqu.

Vision Serpent
A mystical snake-god who was of great importance to the Maya as he knew the secrets of the universe and could impart these secrets to a Daykeeper (shaman). See Och-Kan.

Voltan
A chthonic deity who was lord of drums. He is not to be confused with Votan which is a god often invoked in the modern day `New Age' movement but has no basis in fact in the ancient Maya pantheon. Voltan seems to have been a mortal who was deified for his great deeds and was married to the goddess Ixchel.

Vukub-Cakix
A giant bird god with emerald teeth who did battle with, and was ultimately defeated by, Hun Hunahpu and Vukub Hunahpu, the father and uncle of the Hero Twins. Also known as Vucub-Caquix.

Vukubcane
A Lord of the underworld Metnal (Xibalba) in the Quiche Maya work The Popol Vuh.

Ways
In the Maya belief, every day has its own energy and this energy will either aid or hinder one in one's path on a given day. The Ways (Wayobs) are any one of a class of protector spirits whose energy aids and directs one through the course of a day and, so, in life. Every person has a Way who tends to that individual spiritually. A Way may manifest itself physically as an animal to help guide someone and, in this aspect, they would be recognized as Totems or Totemic Guides. The Ways may also communicate through dreams in which a dreamer is brought to the Wayib (the Dreaming Place) where the individual soul may commune directly with their Way. Even the gods of the Maya have a Way attached to them which guides and directs the energy of the deity if that god is open to such guidance.

World Tree
The great Ceiba Tree of Life (also known as Yaxche) which has its roots in the underworld, grows up through the middle world (earth) and has its branches in paradise. The World tree grows up through the nine levels of Xibalba, passes through the earth, and continues on up through the thirteen levels to Tamoanchan (paradise). The base of the world tree grows from the cracked shell of the Cosmic Turtle and the limbs can be seen as the Milky Way in a north-south orientation. In the axis of the World Tree sits the bird-god Itzam-Ye who knows all the secrets of the three planes of existence.

Witzob
The Maya believed the gods lived on mountains and Witzob means `mountain' and signifies the holy mountain of the gods in Tamoanchan. The mountain was not considered simply as a mass of inert rock, however, but as a living thing imbued with the same spiritual energy that coursed through a human being and through all living things. Mountains, owing to their height, became manifestations of spiritual power and influence. The famous temples of the Maya, all throughout the region from Chichen Itza down to Altun Ha, are artificial mountains built specifically to make the patron god of that particular city, and his or her friends and attendants, feel at home.

Xamaniqinqu
The patron god of merchants and travelers, god of the north and the northern energies, and brother to Nohochacyum, Yantho, Usukun, and Uyitzin. He is also known as Xaman Ek.

Xbalanque
One of the great Hero Twins who feature prominently in the myths of the Maya and in the text of the Quiche Maya work, the Popol Vuh. The son of Hun Hunahpu and Xquiq, Xbalanque is considered the warrior twin who leads the way through the underworld and, with his brother Hunahpu, defeats the lords of Xibalba to create order on the earth. He is associated with the moon and, in some stories, is the moon.

Xecotcovach
A bird servant of the god Alom. His name means `Face Gouger' and he participated in the destruction of the inferior human beings of the second creation attempt by tearing out their eyes.

Xibalba
The Yucatec Maya term for the underworld which corresponds to the Quiche Maya word `Metnal'. The name means `Place of Fright' and was thought to be populated by the Xibalbans who were dark, secretive, dangerous and hostile to human beings. At death, the soul of the individual had to pass through Xibalba before reaching paradise and, if that soul were particularly unfit, would remain in Xibalba at the mercy of various deities like Cizen for an eternity. At the same time, however, it should be noted that a number of the Lords of Xibalba are associated with regeneration and re-birth and in no way should Xibalba be equated with the Christian concept of hell.

Xumucane and Xpiayoc
The parents of Hun Hunahpu and Vucub Hunahpu, grandparents of the Hero Twins, most ancient of the gods of the Maya pantheon, and the divine couple and first Daykeepers who helped to create human beings. According to the Quiche Maya, after the thirteen creator gods failed in their attempt to make human beings, they consulted with the much older gods, Xumucane and Xpiayoc to find out what they were doing wrong. They asked the ancient couple if wood could be a proper medium for the fashioning of humans. The two Daykeepers consulted the sacred calendar and said that wood seemed a workable material but, when the wooden humans were made, they were unacceptable. They could walk and talk but had no respect for the gods and could not consult the calendar; so the gods destroyed them in a great flood. Xumucane then ground white and yellow corn (maize) and washed her hands, saving the water to brew a sacred broth which gave life to the humans who were created from the maize, thus beginning human life on the earth. Xumucane is the great grandmother and Xpiayoc the great grandfather of all human beings. She is known as the divine mid-wife responsible for all births and he is the divine matchmaker in charge of arranging all marriages. As the first two Daykeepers they are closely associated with the sacred calendar.

Yaluk
The supreme lightning god who creates the storms sent by the rain god Chac. He is assisted by the two fraternal deities, Coyopa and Cakulha.

Yantho
A deity hostile to humanity and linked to his brothers, Usukun and Uyitzin, in a triad, usually mentioned together, who despise human beings and take joy in human distress. They are associated with earthquakes and destruction and are brothers to the benevolent Nohochacyum, the god of merchants and travelers, Xamaniqinqu, and the world-girdling serpent, Hapikern.

Yaxche
The World Tree also known as The Tree of Life. See World Tree.

Yumbalamob
Protecting spirits who inhabit the first level just above the earth and are the guardians and protectors of Christians. In the daylight they are invisible but, at night, they position themselves by the crosses which the faithful have erected outside of their homes and stand guard. Wielding obsidian knives, they cut through the winds which would harm a Christian village and, also with these knives, fend off the dangers of the surrounding jungle and send messages to each other.

Yum Caax
The god of the woods, of nature, of cacao, plants, and of the hunt. Also known as Yom Caax, Yum Kaax, Yum Ka'ax, he was regularly invoked by farmers before clearing the land for cultivation. He is regarded as a benevolent god who protects the plants and animals for human use and sustenance. He is able to either guide a hunter's arrow to a great kill or turn the arrow back on the hunter if proper obeisance and respect has not been given.

Yum Cimil
One of the Lords of Xibalba and closely associated with Ah Puch and Cizin. Like Cizin, he wears a collar of dangling eyes and is depicted as skeletal with bones adorning his meager clothing.

Yumchakob
Also known as Nukuchyumchakob, these are white-haired, elderly deities in charge of dispensing rain. The Yumchakob are kindly disposed toward human beings and love to smoke cigars. They are associated with Kukulkan and, according to some scholars, the great god was once one of their number before descending to earth. In post-conquest Yucatan they were depicted as dwelling in the sixth level above the earth just below El Gran Dios, the Christian god.

Zac-Cimi
One of the four Bacabs. See Cauac.

Zipacna
An arrogant giant whose story is told in the Popol Vuh. He was the son of Vucub Caquix and Chimalmat and the brother of Cabrakan and, like the rest of his family, was known for his arrogance. He is famous for two events: the tale of the Four Hundred Boys and his death at the hands of the Hero Twins, Hunahpu and Xbalanque, which they accomplished by dropping a mountain on him. See Four Hundred Boys.

Zotz
The god of bats, caves, and patron of the Tzotzil tribe. Also known as Zotzilaha and Sotz.

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The Mayan Pantheon: The Many Gods of the Maya

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The pantheon of the Maya is a vast collection of deities who were worshipped throughout the region which, today, comprises Yucatan, Quintana Roo, Campeche, Tabasco, and Chiapas in Mexico and southward through Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador and Honduras.

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The religious ceremonies consisted of a procession with prayers, songs, dances and music. The kings made self-sacrifices such as lobe bleeding or tongue piercing and the greater the pain, the more the act was considered to be of greater value to the gods. The Maya also practiced human and animal sacrifices, often by beheading and then ripping out the heart. They also smoked Copal, a resin whose smoke carried prayers and offerings to the gods to heaven.

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Templo y ceremonia maya en Apocalypto (Mel Gibson, 2006)

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Religious symbols were very important: characters, animals and motifs were sculpted to make offerings to the gods. The colour jade evoked water and vegetation, and red symbolized the sun, blood and life.

The link with nature was very strong. For the Maya, humans were created in clay and wood with a drop of blood from the gods. These are the threads of corn. The animals of the forest are very important and have several meanings: the jaguar is the most respected animal and is the lord of the Earth while the harpy eagle is the lord of the sky. They also have a particular link with hunting animals such as peccaries, wild pigs, fish... and are very present in Mayan art such as the bat representing the night or the snake linking the living and the spirits.

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The Maya cities were rather well organized: in the center, there are official buildings like temples, royal acropolis, stadium ... and around this center are the houses of the nobles and minor temples, and outside the city are the modest houses of the people. The classical Mayan architecture thus decomposes into 2 parts: a large public space and a private space relegated to the background.

Pyramids are the most famous visual elements of the Mayan culture, and the majority of the temples are step pyramids surmounted by a sanctuary and sculpted or painted in bright colours. The Maya would have built their temples vertically to get closer to the gods but also served to glorify the ancient kings. In addition to the pyramids, the Maya erected stelae, which are standing and carved stones that were used to commemorate past events.

As far as mathematics is concerned, the Maya developed a system of numbers based on 20. The 1 is represented by a dot and the 5 by a horizontal bar. For numbers above 20, there is a box reserved for the number of tens and another box for the number of units.

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And for writing they used glyphs, phonograms and logograms. It was the scribes who made the codexes from vegetable fiber or cut directly on the buildings.

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The Maya precisely followed the evolution of celestial objects such as the Moon, the sun, eclipses, or Venus, which they associated with war and hunting. And the temples were used as observatory by being oriented in relation to these stars. In fact, they were highly developed in astrology and thought that reading the stars could predict the future. They were able to determine a religious calendar of 260 days and a civil calendar of 365 days.

They also practiced certain sports such as the ball game also called Pok-ta-Pok. It's a field bounded by two terraces with sloping walls. In the center and on each of the 2 sides were large rings through which the rubber ball (the Kik) had to pass. We played in teams from 1 to 12 players and had to send the ball back into the rings with a part of the body that differed from region to region, without letting the ball fall back.

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Art is also important in Mayan culture and huge frescoes were painted representing different elements of their lives. They also played a lot of music such as trumpets or drums made of clay or turtle shells. They also wove from agave plant fibres to make large cloths.

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2/ What were the frailties of the Maya system that doomed them to failure?  Description of the collapse of the Maya civilization illustrating 4 of the 5 points of view of the collapse of Jared Diamond.  

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2/ What were the frailties of the Maya system that doomed them to failure?  Description of the collapse of the Maya civilization illustrating 4 of the 5 points of view of the collapse of Jared Diamond.  

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These 4 points are:
·      Damage of their environment

·      Climate change

·      Hostilities among Mayas themselves

·      Political/ Cultural factors

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Mayas didn't live in a tropical jungle as we could imagine, because they were not situated on the equator. We refer to it as a “seasonal tropical rainforest” but it can also be a “seasonal desert” depending on how we look at it.

-       There’s a rainy season from May to October

-       And a dry season from January to April
Mayas' diet was 70% corn based, therefore they relied on their harvests to live. (Mayas also ate meat but the quantity of meat available was low, so it was mainly a luxury for the elite). Mayas who lived in the north of the peninsula were agriculturally less productive than those who were in the south. They had to face multiple crop failures due to the dryer weather. However, the wet southern peninsula had severe water problems, which is an ironic paradox, but it is because of the elevation surfaces that increases from north to south it was easier for the Mayas in the north to reach water at deep sinkholes called cenotes.

Mayas however were great craftsmen and environmental sculptors so population in the south created their own cisterns and reservoirs by excavating or modifying natural depressions in order to collect and store the rainwater.
Mayas used a slash-and-burn agriculture system; therefore, they would use massive deforestation in order to have more space for their crops. Nonetheless, this caused a decrease on the usable farmland by the time of their collapse. And consequently, they didn’t have enough food to nourish all the population.
All the new systems and canals they made and the huge cleaning tracts of forest might have worsened the impact of natural climate change.

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Mayas used a slash-and-burn agriculture system; it means, they were causing massive deforestation in order to have more space for their crops. However, by the time of their collapse, this caused a decrease in the usable farmland. And therefore, they didn’t have enough food to feed all the population.

Mayas had to live through multiple droughts. Normally, they would just move to other areas that weren’t affected by the drought but by the time of their collapse, all the lands were fully occupied, and they didn’t have anywhere else to go. Kings and nobles failed to recognize their problems because they were focused on short-term concerns such as enriching themselves, war, competition between each other, etc.

click on the link for a short summary :

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jimy0OmXuYo

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Maya’s society was divided into small kingdoms that could never unify to create a big empire like Aztects or Incas did.

Long before the resources problems, the Mayan kingdoms were regularly at war with each other.

These wars were very violent, but, unlike the conquistadors, their aim was not to kill people, but to overthrow a leader, capture humans for sacrifices or later to expand their territories for agricultural purposes.

When food stocks shrank, the Maya sought to expand their farmland. The conquest of these lands increased rivalries among the mayan kingdoms.

Wars started to increase and so have the number of prisoners. The Mayas believed that human sacrifices to the god of rain chaak or the god of agriculture would increase the harvest.

Here's a video that explains the most important wars between the cities Tikal and Calakmuk.

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Before the 9th century drought, competition between the Mayan tribes led their chiefs to build the greatest monuments and neglect the popular and agricultural problems. The Mayan chiefs were demigods, they had power over weather and crop yields. So during the droughts when yields were at their lowest, the population revolted. The king’s influence diminished, which resulted in full on societal disintegration and competition for resources.