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Fiber evidence taken during the Stephen Lawrence Murder investigation.  GClark

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Explain the process of fiber and what it is /willie brown

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explains three methods of collecting/willie brown

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Home > 3. Evidence Collection > Hair and Fiber

The most common methods used to collect hair and fiber evidence include the following:

Visual collection. On some surfaces, hairs and fibers can be seen with the naked eye. Through use of clean forceps and paper (i.e., trace paper), the sample can be removed from the surface and placed into a clean piece of paper that can be folded and packaged in a paper envelope.

Tape lifting. Trace tapes are available for the collection of trace hair and fiber evidence. The tape is applied to the location of the suspected sample, removed and packaged.

Vacuuming. The area where the suspected samples are located is vacuumed and evidence is caught in a filtered trap attached to the vacuum. These samples are packaged in clean trace paper for submission to the laboratory. Vacuuming is the least desirable collection method because there is a risk of cross-contamination if the equipment is not properly cleaned between each use.

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Home > 3. Evidence Collection > Hair and Fiber The most common methods used to collect hair and fiber evidence include the following: Visual collection. On some surfaces, hairs and fibers can be seen with the naked eye.

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willie brown

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May 21, 2003 -- On the day she was abducted, 16-year-old Sofia Silva was sitting on her front porch in Spotsylvania, Va., doing homework. It was Sept. 9, 1996.

Five weeks later, investigators found her body in a nearby creek.

Eight months later, it happened again, in the same town, just 70 miles south of Washington, D.C. After getting off separate school buses near their home, Kati and Kristin Lisk disappeared. The bodies of the 12- and 15-year-old sisters were found five days later, floating in a river.

In both Spotsylvania cases, there were no witnesses and almost no evidence left behind. The only clues were a few tiny fibers and a couple of strands of hair.

Special Agent Doug Deedrick, an FBI trace evidence expert who was the lead forensic agent in the case, had a hunch all three slayings were linked. But the question was whether he could prove it.

One of the clues was some pink fibers found on Kati Lisk's body.

"I said, 'Pink fibers, I think they look like a bath rug of some type.' Everyone was looking for this pink bath rug for me," Deedrick said. "With Sofia, for instance, I had some dark blue acrylic fibers that I was looking for because I found the same types on Kati and Kristin. And when I turned Sofia's shirt inside out, I actually pulled off eight or nine blue fibers."

Serial Killer on the Loose

There was no doubt: There was a serial killer loose in Spotsylvania.

A task force consisting of the FBI, Spotsylvania County and state police chased more than 12,000 leads. Investigators compared evidence against items from more than 45,000 unsolved cases and checked DNA samples against 1.2 million genetic profiles. The FBI performed more than 10,000 examinations on the three hairs and 190 fibers recovered from the bodies.

But it would take authorities five years to find the killer.

The break came in June 2002, when a 15-year-old girl watering flowers in her front yard was abducted at gunpoint, in broad daylight, in Columbia, S.C. The kidnapper forced her to climb into a container, which he put into the trunk of a car.

He drove her to an apartment, where he handcuffed the girl and repeatedly raped her over 18 hours.

But while her captor was asleep, the girl managed to escape and lead police back to the apartment. The suspect, identified as 38-year-old Richard Marc Evonitz, was gone.

Police caught up to Evonitz two days later, on June 27, in Sarasota, Fla., where he was trapped after a brief, high-speed police chase. He shot himself in the head, leaving investigators to wonder: Was he the Spotsylvania serial killer?

News Clippings and Small Fingerprints

Police learned Evonitz had once lived in Spotsylvania. In his apartment, they found a 1997 newspaper clipping about the abduction of the Lisk sisters.

Deedrick, a 30-year veteran of the FBI, knew he had to go to South Carolina.

"In searching the apartment, I was keying in on items that might have been blue, dark blue, red," he said. Investigators dusted for fingerprints inside the trunk of one of Evonitz's cars.

"And I saw four fingerprints, it looked like four fingers, small," Deedrick said. "And they were in a position that indicated that probably somebody had been in the trunk."

Deedrick raced back to the FBI lab to examine the 600 pieces of evidence.

There were some forensic matches. The pink bath rug that Deedrick had been looking for for five years ago was among the discoveries. Police found it in the bottom of a box in Evonitz's linen closet.

Furry Handcuffs Provide Clue

"I [took] the fibers off and looked at them under a microscope - [they were] the same fibers that I found on Kati," Deedrick said.

Another key clue was the pair of handcuffs the South Carolina girl had been wearing when she escaped.

"Handcuffs by themselves didn't strike an interest to me, until you open the bag and you realize that they're furry handcuffs and there's fibers on them," Deedrick said. "And it looked black, but when you hold it up to the light, you can see that there's a real dark blue coloration to them."

The same dark blue as the fibers found on all three Virginia girls.

'The Right Stuff'

Finally, there were the fingerprints found on the trunk lid. They matched those of Kristin Lisk.

"Fingerprints were really the icing on the cake in this," Deedrick said.

Evonitz's DNA matched that of a head hair found in Kati Lisk's sock and two other hairs found on the two other slain girls.

In mid-August, police and the FBI announced that the Silva and Lisk murders had been solved. They were able to tell the families of the Spotsylvania victims that they now knew for sure that Evonitz was the killer.

"Early on, when I was talking with Patti Lisk, the mother of Kristin and Kati, I told her that when I get the right person, I'll know," Deedrick recalled. "And she reminded me of that some time later. And when I got the right stuff, I knew."

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Tiny Fibers Helped FBI Nab Serial Killer

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May 21, 2003 -- On the day she was abducted, 16-year-old Sofia Silva was sitting on her front porch in Spotsylvania, Va., doing homework. It was Sept. 9, 1996. Five weeks later, investigators found her body in a nearby creek. Eight months later, it happened again, in the same town, just 70 miles south of Washington, D.C.

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willie brown

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Hairs, Fibers, Crime, and Evidence, Part 2, by Deedrick (Forensic Science Communications, July 2000) _phillycornelius

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Hairs, Fibers, Crime, and Evidence, Part 2, by Deedrick (Forensic Science Communications, July 2000)

July 2000 - Volume 2 - Number 3

Hairs, Fibers, Crime, and Evidence Part 2: Fiber Evidence

Unit Chief
Trace Evidence Unit
Federal Bureau of Investigation
Washington, DC

Introduction | Fiber Evidence | Natural Fibers | Man-Made Fibers |
Fiber Color | Fiber Number | Fiber Location | Fabrics |
Fabric Type | Fabric Source Determination |
Fiber Transfer and Persistence | Nature of Contact |
Multiple Fiber Associations | Fiber Evidence: Assigning Significance

Placing a suspect at the scene of a crime is an important element in criminal investigation. This can be achieved through the location of textile fibers similar to those from the victim's clothing or the crime scene on the clothing of the suspect, or through the discovery of fibers like those in the suspect's clothing at the crime scene.

Textile fibers can be exchanged between two individuals, between an individual and an object, and between two objects. When fibers are matched with a specific source (fabric from the victim, suspect, and/or scene), a value is placed on that association. This value is dependent on many factors, including the type of fiber found, the color or variation of color in the fiber, the number of fibers found, the location of fibers at the crime scene or on the victim, and the number of different fibers at the crime scene or on the victim that match the clothing of the suspect.

Whether a fiber is transferred and detected is dependent on the nature and duration of contact between the suspect and the victim or crime scene, the persistence of fibers after the transfer, and the type(s) of fabric involved in contact.

Fiber Evidence

A fiber is the smallest unit of a textile material that has a length many times greater than its diameter. Fibers can occur naturally as plant and animal fibers, but they can also be man-made. A fiber can be spun with other fibers to form a yarn that can be woven or knitted to form a fabric. The type and length of fiber used, the type of spinning method, and the type of fabric construction all affect the transfer of fibers and the significance of fiber associations. This becomes very important when there is a possibility of fiber transfer between a suspect and a victim during the commission of a crime.

As discussed previously, fibers are considered a form of trace evidence that can be transferred from the clothing of a suspect to the clothing of a victim during the commission of a crime. Fibers can also transfer from a fabric source such as a carpet, bed, or furniture at a crime scene. These transfers can either be direct (primary) or indirect (secondary). A primary transfer occurs when a fiber is transferred from a fabric directly onto a victim's clothing, whereas a secondary transfer occurs when already transferred fibers on the clothing of a suspect transfer to the clothing of a victim. An understanding of the mechanics of primary and secondary transfer is important when reconstructing the events of a crime.

When two people come in contact or when contact occurs with an item from the crime scene, the possibility exists that a fiber transfer will take place. This does not mean that a fiber transfer will always take place. Certain types of fabric do not shed well (donor garments), and some fabrics do not hold fibers well (recipient garments). The construction and fiber composition of the fabric, the duration and force of contact, and the condition of the garment with regard to damage are important considerations.

An important consideration is the length of time between the actual physical contact and the collection of clothing items from the suspect or victim. If the victim is immobile, very little fiber loss will take place, whereas the suspect's clothing will lose transferred fibers quickly. The likelihood of finding transferred fibers on the clothing of the suspect a day after the alleged contact may be remote, depending on the subsequent use or handling of that clothing.

Natural Fibers

Many different natural fibers originating from plants and animals are used in the production of fabric. Cotton fibers are the plant fibers most commonly used in textile materials, with the type of cotton, fiber length, and degree of twist contributing to the diversity of these fibers. Processing techniques and color applications also influence the value of cotton fiber identifications.

Other plant fibers used in the production of textile materials include flax (linen), ramie, sisal, jute, hemp, kapok, and coir. The identification of less common plant fibers at a crime scene or on the clothing of a suspect or victim would have increased significance.

The animal fiber most frequently used in the production of textile materials is wool, and the most common wool fibers originate from sheep. The end use of sheep's wool often dictates the fineness or coarseness of woolen fibers: Finer woolen fibers are used in the production of clothing, whereas coarser fibers are found in carpet. Fiber diameter and degree of scale protrusion of the fibers are other important characteristics. Although sheep's wool is most common, woolen fibers from other animals may also be found. These include camel, alpaca, cashmere, mohair, and others. The identification of less common animal fibers at a crime scene or on the clothing of a suspect or victim would have increased significance.

Flax fibers viewed with
polarized light

Man-Made Fibers

More than half of all fibers used in the production of textile materials are man-made. Some man-made fibers originate from natural materials such as cotton or wood; others originate from synthetic materials. Polyester and nylon fibers are the most commonly encountered man-made fibers, followed by acrylics, rayons, and acetates. There are also many other less common man-made fibers. The amount of production of a particular man-made fiber and its end use influence the degree of rarity of a given fiber.

The shape of a man-made fiber can determine the value placed on that fiber. The cross section of a man-made fiber can be manufacturer-specific: Some cross sections are more common than others, and some shapes may only be produced for a short period of time. Unusual cross sections encountered through examination can add increased significance to a fiber association.

Fiber Color

Color influences the value given to a particular fiber identification. Often several dyes are used to give a fiber a desired color. Individual fibers can be colored prior to being spun into yarns. Yarns can be dyed, and fabrics made from them can be dyed. Color can also be applied to the surface of fabric, as found in printed fabrics. How color is applied and absorbed along the length of the fiber are important comparison characteristics. Color-fading and discoloration can also lend increased value to a fiber association.

Fiber Number

The number of fibers on the clothing of a victim identified as matching the clothing of a suspect is important in determining actual contact. The greater the number of fibers, the more likely that contact actually occurred between these individuals.

Fiber Location

Where fibers are found also affects the value placed on a particular fiber association. The location of fibers on different areas of the body or on specific items at the crime scene influences the significance of the fiber association.

Fabric Type

How a fabric is constructed affects the number and types of fibers that may be transferred during contact. Tightly woven or knitted fabrics shed less often than loosely knit or woven fabrics; fabrics composed of filament yarns shed less than fabrics composed of spun yarns. Certain types of fibers also tend to transfer more readily.

The age of a fabric also affects the degree of fiber transfers. Some newer fabrics may shed more readily because of an abundance of loosely adhering fibers on the surface of the fabric. Some worn fabrics may have damaged areas that easily shed fibers. Damage to a fabric caused during physical contact greatly increases the likelihood of fiber transfer.

Fabric Source Determination

When a questioned fiber is compared to fibers from a known fabric source, a determination is made as to whether this fiber could have originated from the known fabric. It is not possible to say positively that a fiber originated from a particular fabric, although the inability to positively associate a fiber with a source in no way diminishes the significance of a fiber association. The wide variety of fiber types, fiber colors, and fabric types can make fiber associations very significant because the value of a fiber association depends on the type of fiber, the color of the fiber, the number of fibers transferred, the location of the recovered fibers, and other factors.

It could be very helpful to know the frequency of occurrence of a particular fabric and fiber, or how many fabrics with a particular fiber type and color exist, as well as who owns them. Such information, however, is extremely difficult to obtain. If the manufacturer of a fabric is known, the possibility exists that the number of fabric units produced could also be obtained, but this information is not always available. How many garments like this still exist, and where they are located, are still in question.

Once a particular fiber of a certain type, shape, and color is produced and becomes part of a fabric, it occupies an extremely small portion of the fiber/fabric population. Exceptions to this would be white cotton fibers and blue cotton fibers like those comprising blue jeans. There are other fibers that are common, but the majority of fibers of a particular type and color constitute a very small percentage of the total number of fibers that exist in the world.

Fiber Transfer and Persistence

Textile fibers are transferred to the surface of a fabric either by direct transfer (primary transfer) or indirect transfer (secondary transfer). The likelihood of transfer depends on the types of fabric involved in the contact and the nature and duration of the contact. Studies have shown that transferred fibers are lost rather quickly, depending on the types of fabrics involved and on the movement of the clothing after contact. For example, the clothing of a homicide victim would tend to retain transferred fibers for a longer period of time because the victim is not moving.

Emergency personnel, medical examiners, and investigators must handle the victim's clothing carefully to minimize fiber loss. Fibers transferred onto the clothing of an assault victim or onto the suspect's clothing will be lost if the victim and suspect move about, brush the clothing, or wash the clothing. It is difficult to predict precisely how many fibers might remain on the clothing of a living victim or suspect after a given period of time, but it is important for investigators to retrieve and preserve the clothing from these individuals as soon as possible.

Nature of Contact

The type of physical contact between a suspect and a victim can determine the number of fibers transferred and the value placed on their discovery. Violent physical contact of an extended duration will very often result in numerous fiber transfers.

Multiple Fiber Associations

Multiple fiber types found on different items of clothing or fabric from the suspect, victim, and crime scene greatly increase the likelihood that contact occurred between these individuals and the scene. Each associated fiber type is considered to be an independent event and multiple associations undermine a coincidence defense.

Fiber Evidence: Assigning Significance

Whenever a fiber found on the clothing of a victim matches the known fibers of a suspect's clothing, it can be a significant event. Matching dyed synthetic fibers or dyed natural fibers can be very meaningful, whereas the matching of common fibers such as white cotton or blue denim cotton would be less significant. In some situations, however, the presence of white cotton or blue denim cotton may still have some meaning in resolving the truth of an issue. The discovery of cross transfers and multiple fiber transfers between the suspect's clothing and the victim's clothing dramatically increases the likelihood that these two individuals had physical contact.

When a fiber examiner matches a questioned fiber to a known item of clothing, there are only two possible explanations:

The fiber actually originated from the item of clothing, or

The fiber did not originate from the item of clothing.

In order to say that the fiber originated from the item of clothing, the clothing either had to be the only fabric of its type ever produced or still remaining on earth, or the transfer of fibers was directly observed. Since neither of these situations is likely to occur or be known, fiber examiners will conclude that the fibers could have originated from the clothing or that the fibers are consistent with originating from the clothing. The only way to say that a fiber did not originate from a particular item of clothing is to know the actual history of the garment or to have actually observed the fiber transfer from another garment.

It is argued that the large volume of fabric produced reduces the significance of any fiber association discovered in a criminal case. It can never be stated with certainty that a fiber originated from a particular garment because other garments were likely produced using the same fiber type and color. The inability to positively associate a fiber with a particular garment to the exclusion of all other garments, however, does not mean that the fiber association is without value.

When one considers the volume of fabric produced in the world each year, the number of garments of a particular color and fiber type is extremely small. The likelihood of two or more manufacturers duplicating all aspects of the fabric type and color exactly is extremely remote. The large number of dye types and colors that exist in the world, coupled with the unlimited number of possible dye combinations, makes any fiber association by color significant. One must also consider the lifespan of a particular fabric: Only so much of a given fabric of a particular color and fiber type is produced, and it will eventually end up being destroyed or dumped in a landfill.

More than 100 billion pounds of fiber were produced in 1998. Approximately 40 billion pounds of cotton were used to produce textile products during 1998 ( Fiber Organon 1999), and although a great many of these fibers were used in the production of clothing, a large amount of cotton fiber was also used for other purposes, such as stuffing and padding material (batting), cotton swabs, and cotton balls. Much of the cotton used in clothing ends up undyed, as in white shirts, underwear, socks, and bed sheets, but often cotton is dyed many different shades of blue, red, green, and yellow. Much of the cotton fabric produced is also print-dyed, which imparts different color characteristics to the surface of the cotton fibers, and some cotton fabrics are dyed in such a way as to vary the color along the length of the fiber. The cotton fibers in fabrics can remain in a rough state or can be processed in different ways, such as by mercerization.

Figures 1 and 2 display generalized production totals for fabric, cotton, cotton fabric of a specific color, and cotton of a specific color. Although the piecharts depicted in these figures represent ratios of production rather than definitive sums, the significance of a cotton fiber match is evident given the nominal amounts of cotton fabric and colored cotton fibers produced compared to the total quantities of fabric and cotton fibers produced, respectively.

Another important consideration is coincidence. When fibers that match the clothing fibers of the suspect are found on the clothing of a victim, two conclusions may be drawn: The fibers originated from the suspect, or the fibers originated from another fabric source that not only was composed of fibers of the exact type and color, but was also in a position to contribute those fibers through primary or secondary contact. The likelihood of encountering identical fibers from the environment of a homicide victim (i.e., from his or her residence or friends) is extremely remote.

References

Table 2: Worldwide demand for certain fibers: 1994 to 1998, Fiber Organon (1999) 70(7): 107.

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Hairs, Fibers, Crime, and Evidence, Part 2, by Deedrick (Forensic Science Communications, July 2000)

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Hairs, Fibers, Crime, and Evidence, Part 2, by Deedrick (Forensic Science Communications, July 2000) July 2000 - Volume 2 - Number 3 Hairs, Fibers, Crime, and Evidence Part 2: Fiber Evidence Unit Chief Trace Evidence Unit Federal Bureau of Investigation Washington, DC Introduction | Fiber Evidence | Natural Fibers |

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willie brown

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ATF Trace Evidence Unit Reference Collections

Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (ATF)

Collections of various trace evidence samples; automotive paint pigments, human hair, animal hair, fibers, black spray paint, silicone adhesive, electrical tape, and duct tape. Collections include various automotive paint pigments, human hair, animal hair, fibers (hundreds), black spray paints (~10), silicone adhesives (30-50), electrical tape (30-40), and duct tape (20-30).

Collection can be accessed by emailing POC.

Some samples (i.e. human and animal hair) are steadily accumulated. Others (i.e. black spray paint, silicone adhesives) are collected for a specific case. Samples are collected from various sources, including volunteers, casework, and commercial vendors.

Physical samples.

Leonora Bender
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms,
and Explosives (ATF)
202.648.6146

Digital Automotive Image System (DAIS)

Automobile Identification

Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI) -- Digital Evidence Laboratory

A digital system, which fits entirely on one DVD, with photos and data of motor vehicles commercially manufactured in the last twenty years. Used in image analysis to provide opinions as to whether a car in a photo could be a particular make, model, or year car. Collection of images of make, model and year of cars. Includes front, side, and rear photos of motor vehicles and accompanying data. The software can generate "Be On the Lookout"-type posters and produce photo lineups. DAIS contains thousands of records.

User must request a DVD from the FBI. Database can then be downloaded from DVD and installed on an unlimited number of computers. The data is searchable by vehicle category, body style, number of doors, and other characteristics. CDs are available up request to law enforcement only.

Images are obtained per contract with Southwest Research Institute through TSWG.

Digital records.

EPA NEIC Asbestos Collection

Asbestos, Silicate Mineral

Private Collection, Owner works for EPA NEIC

Self-maintained, private collection of asbestos samples. Owner is willing and has provided samples to requesting parties on occasion. The collection contains 20-40 asbestos samples collected from mines in North America (Vermont, Quebec, North Carolina, Arizona), rockshops, and bookshops.

Contact the POC/Owner. Physical samples are available for some, but not all, of the collection's specimens. Currently only used internally and for educational purposes in court. Any outsider with a legetimate cause can request access.

Samples collected from caves, or purchases in rockshops and bookshops by the collection owner.

Physical samples.

Peggy Forney,
Collection Owner
National Enforcement
Investigations Center,
EPAC
Chemist
303.462.9110

European Collection of Automotive Paints (EUCAP)

Paint, Automobile Identification

The French Police Lab maintains the database; data analysis is performed by the Federal Criminal Police Force of Germany (BKA).

A searchable collection of paint samples removed from primarily salvage vehicles by law enforcement laboratory participants throughout Europe. Paint samples collected by European Law Enforcement Agencies.

The database can be accessed via the internet via a secure ID and password assigned by the French Police Lab.

FBI Lab - Fiber Library

Fibers

Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI) -- FBI Laboratory

Database of FTIR spectra of textile fibers used to identify fiber types. Database includes 86 records. Each record includes FTIR spectra. Physical samples of fibers are also held.

Library is stored in FBI's version of the OMNIC library search software (Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc.). Outside agencies can request FBI Trace Evidence staff to carry out analysis by contacting POC. No cost to access; outside labs and agencies can submit requests to FBI.

Most of the fiber samples were obtained from Collaborative Testing Services (a commercial company).

Digital records and physical samples.

FBI Lab - Forensic Automobile Carpet Database (FACD)

Fibers, Automobile Identification

Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI) -- FBI Laboratory

A collection of carpet fibers removed from vehicles. Fibers are entered into a centralized searchable database that is used to provide investigative make/model/year information. Collection includes about 800 samples of known automobile carpet fibers. Records include microscopic characteristics including cross-section, diameter, color as seen through microscope, IR microscopy, microspectrometry.

Sample is first analyzed and a search is carried out using a Microsoft Access database. The sample is then compared with physical samples of possible matches. Outside law enforcement agencies will be able to submit evidence for analysis by the FBI. No cost to access; outside labs and agencies can submit requests to FBI.

Fibers come from personally-owned vehicles, manufactures, and junkyards.

Digital records and physical samples.

Stephen Shaw
Federal Bureau
of Investigations,
FBI Laboratory
703.632.7706 stephen.shaw@
ic.fbi.gov

International Forensic Automotive Paint Data Query (PDQ)

Paint, Automobile Identification

Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP)-- Forensic Laboratory Services

The International Forensic Automotive Paint Data Query (PDQ) database is a centralized, searchable database of chemical and color information of original automotive paints. Search results provide make/model/year information. PDQ contains foreign and domestic automotive paint samples from ~13,000 vehicles and ~50,000 layers of paint. Most paint samples consist of four layers typically used for an automotive job. Contains majority of post-1973 vehicles marketed in the US.

Access is granted through a program updated and released by RCMP annually through a CD release. Law enforcement agencies interested in PDQ who are not already members can contact PDQ directly by email. Partnering agencies also have access to physical samples by request. Use of the PDQ is for bona fide law enforcement agencies only that perform forensic paint examinations as part of criminal investigations. "Payment" for access to the database is the submission of 60 samples to PDQ each year. In addition, users must sign a non-disclosure agreement.

Every accessing institution must submit 60 paint samples per year, these usually come from vehicles at body shops or junk yards or manufacturers. Samples are also collected directly from some automotive companies.

Samples are analyzed for their identifying chemical properties, and this information is stored digitally. Physical samples are available by request (see more information).

Email PDQ:

Mark Sandercock
Manager, Trace Evidence
Operations Support
National Centre for
Forensic Services -
AlbertaRoyal Canadian
Mounted Police
780.451.7418
mark.
sandercock@
rcmp-grc.gc.ca

Diana Wright
Federal Bureau
of Investigations,
FBI Laboratory
703.632.7418

Locke Scientific - GRIM Glass Standards

Glass

Locke Scientific (commercial)

Glass standards for GRIM.

Standards can be purchased for use in the laboratory.

Physical samples.

Susan Gross
Minnesota BCA
Chemistry Supervisor
651.793.2900
sue.t.gross@
state.mn.us

McCrone Microscopes & Accessories - Slide Sets

Reference Materials/ Standards

McCrone Microscopes & Accessories (commercial)

Microscope company stocks a number of slide sets that serve as reference collections for forensic analysis. Sets include a paint pigment set, particle set, fiber reference sets, white powder set, and an asbestos reference set. Paint Pigment Set - 50 samplesFiber Reference Set - 100 samplesAsbestos Reference Set - 25 samples; includes materials that contain asbestosParticle Reference Set - 100 samplesWhite Powder Set - 25 samples

Standard reference materials and slide sets can be searched and purchased on the website. Paint Pigment Set - $325.00; Fiber Reference Set - $725.00; Asbestos Reference Set - $450.00; Particle Reference Set - $725.00; White Powder Set - $300.00

Samples in each slide set are selected by based on most commonly seen specimen for each category.

Physical samples purchased from an online catalogue.

MicroTrace - SRM Collections

Reference Materials/ Standards

MicroTrace Scientific (commercial)

Company that sells reference material collections and slide sets. Reference materials include forensic fiber reference collection, natural fiber collection, hair and fur collection, forensic mineral analysis slide set, and automotive pigment reference collection. Reference Collections- Fiber Reference Collection: 200 traceable, authenticated synthetic fibers- The Arbidar Animal Hair and Fur Collection: 80 animal hair samples from around the world representing 49 genera- The Arbidar Natural Fiber Collection:80 samples representing a wide variety of natural fibers including vegetable fibers, animal fur fibers used in textiles, silks, and papersSlide Reference Collections:- Forensic Mineral Reference Collection: approximately 40 slides of minerals that are forensically significant- Automotive Pigment Reference Collection: approximately 40 slides of paint pigments from automotive manufacturers

Standard reference materials can be searched and purchased on the website. Cost varies by product; legitimate forensic laboratories can purchase.

N/A

Physical samples are available for purchase through the online catalog.

Microtrace LLC
790 Fletcher Drive
Suite 106
Elgin, IL 60123-4755
847.742.9909

National Automotive Paint File (NAPF)

Paint, Automobile Identification

Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI) -- FBI Laboratory

A physical collection of automotive paint panels acquired and maintained by the FBI's Chemistry Unit for use in casework. NAPF is a physical collection of paint color standards and/or full system paint panels (as a vehicle would be painted, not just the top coats). It contains approximately 14,000 automotive paint panels.

NAPF is used in an investigation to make a physical comparison of evidentiary paint chips to known paint colors to aid in identifying possible vehicle makes and models in hit-and-run investigations. The FBI Lab may be able to provide small samples of specific vehicle colors to other law enforcement agencies if that agency has some knowledge of the specific color or model they are seeking.

Automotive manufacturers provide these physical samples free of charge to the FBI Lab for all vehicles available for purchase in North America. This does not include commercial vehicles such as trucks, buses, motorcycles or RVs.

NAPF is not a database; physical samples are available.

Diana Wright
Federal Bureau
of Investigations,
FBI Laboratory
703.632.7418

National Forensic Tape File (NFTF)

Tape

Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI) -- FBI Laboratory

The National Forensic Tape File is used for determining the manufacturer and/or product for duct tape sourcing requests and is also a repository for samples used in the FBI duct tape and electrical tape discrimination studies. ~500 tape samples stored in-house in plastic bags and plastic bins in a storage cabinet. Physical properties and/or chemical composition can be searched in SLICE software to determine potential manufacturer/product candidates, and then those candidates can be pulled out of NFTF for a direct comparison to the unknown sample.

The Florida Department of Law Enforcement (FDLE) and FBI both use SLICE software to interact with digital tape records. - FDLE and FBI are willing to share their digital records with other forensic scientists that have SLICE and are willing to share/exchange samples.- For a laboratory without the SLICE software, the FBI can conduct the analysis for them as long as it adheres to the case acceptance policy. Case Acceptance Policy: Usually if it's a case that has FBI jurisdiction, they will accept it and perform the analysis. If the lab has its own capabilities, then it must do the analysis itself (but FBI and FDLE will share/exchange data and samples).

Manufacturers provide rolls free of charge (majority of samples) or samples are purchased. A new roll is assigned a sequential number, put into a storage cabinet, its paperwork is filed, and then it is analyzed and data is put into SLICE.

Digital records can be shared through the SLICE software. Physical samples are maintained in-house.

Andria Mehltretter
Federal Bureau
of Investigations,
FBI Laboratory
703.632.7415
andria.
mehltretter@
ic.fbi.gov

Polyethylene Repository & Information Database for Evdience (PRIDE)

Plastic Bags

Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI) -- FBI Laboratory

Repository of polyethylene reference samples. Examples include trash bags and sandwich bags. Database can be used to determine the possible manufacturer of a bag used at a crime scene. Collection includes approximately 1,000 samples of polyethylene bags.

There is a standalone system at the FBI Laboratory Questioned Documents Unit. The QDU will search the system to fulfill outside requests. Outside agencies submit the questioned specimen for QDU to do analysis. No cost to access; outside law enforcement agencies can submit requests to the FBI.

Samples were obtained as part of a research project for development of the database. Additional samples are provided by the program manager. Submitted samples are not added to PRIDE because manufacturer information is unknown.

Digital records and physical samples.

Meg McHenrymarguerite.mchenry [at] ic.fbi.gov (marguerite.
Federal Bureau
of Investigations,
FBI Laboratory
703.632.7283

mchenry@
ic.fbi.gov)

Contacts if agencies have questions:

FBI Questioned
Documents Unit:
703.632.8444

FBI Evidence Control: 703.632.8360

Powder Diffraction File (PDF)

Powders

International Center for Diffraction Data (ICDD)

Database of powder diffraction data for the identification of crystalline materials. The database can be purchased in different versions. Collection includes 715,953 total records, broken down into numerous libraries that the user can purchase depending on user needs (basic version, advanced version, and mineral and organics add-ons). Diffraction, crystallographic, and bibliographic data are kept on each data set. Select physical properties are also kept.

PDF can be purchased as a standalone version on user's PC (depending on version). User must first purchase a license (1 year for advanced version, 5 years for basic version). For sales information, call the number listed or visit the website. Pricing information for various packages appears on the brochure. Product may be purchased after agreeing to the licensing terms.

The following institutions are collaborative partners on PDF:- International Center for Diffraction Data (ICDD); Newtown Square, PA- Cambridge Crystallographic Data Centre (CCDC); Cambridge, UK, Cambridge Structural Database (CSD)- National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST); Gaithersburg, MD- Fachinformationszentrum Karlsruhe (FIZ); Karlsruhe, Germany, Crystal Structure Database (ICSD)- Material Phases Data System (MPDS); Vitznau, Switzerland, Linus Pauling File (LPF)

Digital records.

TireGuides, Inc. - Tread Design Guide

Impressions

Tire Guides, Inc. (commercial)

Database of tire tread designs utilized to provide investigative lead information on possible make and model for unknown impressions. The Tread Design Guide shows tread patterns for all types of tires sold in the U.S.*A comprehensive Visual Identification of all types of Tire Tread Pattern Designs.*Covers Passenger, Light Truck and Medium Truck vehicles.*Includes Off-Road and Agricultural Tread Patterns.*Also covers Motorcycle and retread tire tread designs.*Provides information on how to read a tire sidewall and on the different Tire Sizing Systems.*Gives detailed information on Speed-Rating and Load Indexes as well as lug nut torque and tightening sequences.*Back Issues available.

The individual guides can be purchased as a hardcopy book. A computerized version is also available. Contact Tire Guides Inc. by phone or through the URL. Price Quantity (from website)$28.00 1 - 4 $27.00 5 - 9 $25.00 10 - 24 $24.00 25 - 99

Tread patterns and other information compiled for tires sold in the U.S..

Digital records.

Tire Guides Inc. -
Tire Information Center
1101 South Rogers Circle
Ste 6
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2748 561.997.9229
tireinfo@
tireguides.com

TSWG Sponsored FIU Glass Database

Glass, Elemental Analysis

Florida International University, sponsored by the Technical Support Working Group

The database assesses the relative frequency that two glass samples from different sources would have the same elemental profile. The purpose of this database is to provide glass examiners a view of the frequency of occurrence of elemental composition for ~700 different glass samples originating from different sources. The database contains elemental analysis data for 12 elements for ~ 700 glass samples from manufacturers, distributors, and vehicle junkyards. Samples include: containers, float, headlamp, and vehicle glasses.

The database is not designed to be searched for casework in the way that other forensic databases (i.e. PDQ) but rather, it is to be used by researchers to estimate the probability of a random occurrence of elemental composition for different glass sources. Two plasma mass spectrometers are used to perform an elemental analysis of glass. Freely available to agencies and researchers with a reasonable cause.

Samples are collected from manufacturers, distributors, and vehicle junkyards. The data was collected from a single laboratory (FIU) as part of a research project.

Digital data records.

Dr. Jose Almirall, Professor
Department of Chemistry
and Biochemistry,
Florida International
University
305.348.3917

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ATF Trace Evidence Unit Reference Collections Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (ATF) Collections of various trace evidence samples; automotive paint pigments, human hair, animal hair, fibers, black spray paint, silicone adhesive, electrical tape, and duct tape.

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shows hoe fiber is collected in a crime scene _phillycornelius

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How to Collect Hair & Fiber Evidence at a Crime Scene

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phillycorn

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A detective working a missing persons case undoubtedly knows how to make the most of databases such as the Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) and the Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS), but does he or she know how to investigate a paint chip, a tire track, an ink sampling, or a piece of glass?

Many government and private forensic databases can help both law enforcement investigators and the scientists who support their work in the lab. To help spread the word about the existence of these tools, the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) funded West Virginia University to gather the following basic information.[1]

Integrated Ballistic Identification System: IBIS

Maintained by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives' National Integrated Ballistic Information Network, this forensic database contains bullet and cartridge casings that have been retrieved from crime scenes and test-fires of guns found at a crime scene or on a suspect. One limitation of this database is that there must be a suspected gun to make a comparison. Because the database contains information on bullets and casings-and not on specific guns-a test-fire bullet from a gun must be compared to a bullet found at a crime scene, for example, to determine whether a bullet came from a specific gun. Any image of a casing or bullets must be sufficiently clean-that is, be clear, show characteristics, and have little glare-for a comparison to be valid.

How does IBIS work? Technicians use forensic imaging technology to enter bullet and casing evidence into IBIS. New images are correlated against data, and technicians are alerted to possible matches. At that point, a firearms examiner uses a comparison microscope to perform a manual examination. For more information, see www.atf.gov.

Paint Data Query: PDQ

Maintained by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), PDQ contains the chemical compositions of paint from most domestic and foreign car manufacturers and the majority of vehicles marketed in North America after 1973. The PDQ software is free to agencies that supply a minimum of 60 paint samples per year. The database information comes from the street (more than 60 percent from body shops and junkyards) and from manufacturers. In 1998, RCMP entered into agreements with the German Forensic Institute and the Japanese National Police Agency, which resulted in 1,500 samples being added to the database each year. Not all manufacturers, however, are willing to divulge the chemical composition of paint used on their vehicles. If a particular sample has not been entered into the database from the street, it would not be possible to obtain a match.

How does PDQ work? Each paint layer-an automotive paint job usually consists of four-is examined to determine the spectra and chemical composition. The chemical components and proportions are coded into the database. These known samples are compared against a paint sample from a crime scene or a suspect's vehicle to search the make, model, and year of manufacture of a vehicle involved in a hit-and-run or other criminal activity. For more information, see www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca.

National Automotive Paint File

This Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) database contains more than 40,000 samples of automotive paint from manufacturers.

How does the database work? Paint chips from cars can be compared to samples in the database. Undercoats help to narrow down possible manufacturers. For more information, contact the FBI's Laboratory Division at 202-324-3000.

Glass Evidence Reference Database

This database contains more than 700 glass samples from manufacturers, distributors, and vehicle junkyards. It is housed by the Technical Support Working Group, an interagency group that includes the U.S. Department of State and the U.S. Department of Defense. Although it cannot determine the source of an unknown piece of glass, the database can assess the relative frequency that two glass samples from different sources would have the same elemental profile.

How does the database work? Two plasma mass spectrometers are used to perform an elemental analysis of glass. For more information, e-mail [email protected] .

TreadMark™

The number of shoe prints at a crime scene can be so large that the process of impression recovery becomes very time-consuming. TreadMark™ is a commercial product that uses four parameters-pattern, size, damage, and wear-to identify individual outsole impressions. These are then compared with shoe print data from two sources: suspects in custody and crime scenes. A match could yield the name, date of birth, criminal record number, places of interest, and similar offenses for possible suspects.

How does TreadMark™ work? Impressions from a crime scene are obtained using the current recovery methods of photograph, gel lift, dust lift, and adhesive lift. These are input directly into the analytical system by high-resolution digital imaging. The same procedure is used with an impression of a suspect's shoe print: It is photographed using a high-resolution digital camera, and these impressions (along with the offender's details) are input into the analytical system, where the operator can measure, analyze, and compare crime-scene and suspect images. Both image sources can be searched within themselves and against each other, allowing such images to be transmitted to other users.

SoleMate

This commercial database contains information-manufacturer, date of market release, an image or offset print of the sole, and pictorial images of the uppers-for more than 12,000 sports, work, and casual shoes. Sold on DVD, the product is updated and distributed to subscribers every 3 months. One limitation is that different manufacturers often use the same sole unit. Therefore, it may be difficult to determine the exact make and model of a shoe. The software links such records, however, so that all footwear that might match a crime-scene print can be considered.

How does SoleMate work? The pattern of an unidentified shoe print is assigned a set of codes to isolate basic features, such as circles, diamonds, zigzags, curves, and blocks. Options, with variations, are presented pictorially, which allows an investigator to code features that best match the shoe print. These codes form the database search, with results presented in descending order of pattern correlation.

Forensic Information System for Handwriting: FISH

Maintained by the U.S. Secret Service, this database enables document examiners to scan and digitize text writings such as threatening correspondence.

How does FISH work? A document examiner scans and digitizes an extended body of handwriting, which is then plotted as arithmatic and geometric values. Searches are made on images in the database, producing a list of probable "hits." The questioned writings, along with the closest hits, are then submitted to the Document Examination Section for confirmation.

International Ink Library

The collection-maintained jointly by the U.S. Secret Service and the Internal Revenue Service-includes more than 9,500 inks, dating from the 1920s. Every year, pen and ink manufacturers are asked to submit their new ink formulations, which are chemically tested and added to the reference collection. Open-market purchases of pens and inks ensure that the library is as comprehensive as possible.

How does the library work? Samples are chemically analyzed and compared with library specimens. This may identify the type and brand of writing instrument, which can be used to determine the earliest possible date that a document could have been produced. If the sample matches an ink on file, a notation is made in the database. The U.S. Secret Service generally provides assistance to law enforcement on a case-by-case basis. For more information, contact 202-406-5708.

Ident-A-Drug

The Therapeutic Research Center, a private company, publishes a computer program and book to help identify drugs in tablet or capsule form. To make an identification, sufficient information about the unknown drug must be available.

How does Ident-A-Drug work? Data used for comparison purposes contain codes that are imprinted on tablets and capsules, information on color and shape, the national drug code (NDC #), and drug class. Schedule information is shown if the drug is a narcotic or in one of the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration schedules. For more information, see www.therapeuticresearch.com.

PharmInfoNet

This free Internet database contains information on prescription drugs, including uses, marketing and availability, and common side effects.

How does PharmInfoNet work? To perform a search, the generic or brand name of the drug must be known, which may not be possible if only a portion of the drug exists or the drug is not marked with a name.

RxList

Another free Internet database of prescription drugs is RxList.com.

How does RxList work? As with PharmInfoNet, the name of the drug must be known. Information in the database may not be current because new drugs are created regularly and new side effects are discovered. Search results include patient summaries; side effects and interactions; and links to public health, policy, and economic information. For more information, see www.rxlist.com.

Ignitable Liquids Reference Collection: ILRC

Maintained by the National Center for Forensic Science, this database and associated liquid repository allows a laboratory to isolate an ignitable liquid of interest for inclusion in an inhouse reference collection. Designed for screening purposes only, it parallels-but does not replace-American Standard Testing Materials requirements for an inhouse reference collection. A laboratory does not need to adopt the ILRC classification system to use this database.

How does ILRC work? Users enter the name of the liquid into the searchable database. The database can also be organized by classification of the liquid for quick reference. Users can then purchase samples of the liquid. Commercial samples are obtained directly from manufacturers and distributors. The products are then repackaged for distribution using the product name and sent to forensic science laboratories. For more information, see www.ncfs.org.

ChemFinder

This free Internet-based database contains information from manufacturers on chemicals, including chemical structures, physical properties, and hyperlinks.

How does ChemFinder work? Searches are conducted using a chemical name, Chemical Abstract Service (CAS) registry number, molecular formula, or weight. For more information, call 800-315-7300 or see http://www.cambridgesoft.com/databases/login/?serviceid=128.

Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System: IAFIS

This FBI-maintained database contains:

Fingerprints acquired after arrest at the city, county, State, and Federal levels.

Fingerprints acquired through background checks for employment, licensing, and other noncriminal justice purposes (if authorized by State or Federal law).

Latent prints found at crime scenes.

Although IAFIS offers electronic search and storage capabilities, it has some limitations. The database contains the fingerprints of only a small percentage of the population. Moreover, to make a comparison, the latent print must be of sufficient quality to identify certain individual characteristics. For example, the cores and deltas must be present in the print to determine the orientation of the print.

How does IAFIS work? The database receives data electronically, in hard copy, or in machine readable data format. IAFIS accepts, stores, and distributes photographs, including the results of remote 10-print and latent searches. These are returned electronically to the requesting agencies with a list of potential matching candidates and their corresponding fingerprints for comparison and identification. For more information, see https://www.fbi.gov/services/information-management/foipa/privacy-impact-assessments/iafis or contact the FBI's Criminal Justice Information Services Division at 304-625-2000.

Combined DNA Index System: CODIS

This FBI-run database blends forensic science and computer technology into a tool for solving violent crimes. CODIS enables Federal, State, and local crime labs to exchange and compare DNA profiles electronically, thereby linking crimes to each other and to persons convicted of a crime. CODIS uses two indexes: (1) the Convicted Offender Index, which contains profiles of persons convicted of a crime, and (2) the Forensic Index, which contains profiles from crime-scene evidence.

How does CODIS work? Searches are performed to find a match between a sample of biologic evidence and a profile of a person convicted of a crime. Matches made between the Forensic and Offender Indexes provide investigators with the identity of a suspect. DNA analysts in the laboratories share matching profiles, then contact each other https://www.fbi.gov/services/laboratory/biometric-analysis/codis.

About This Article

This article appeared in NIJ Journal Issue 258, October 2007.

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Forensic Databases: Paint, Shoe Prints, and Beyond

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A detective working a missing persons case undoubtedly knows how to make the most of databases such as the Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) and the Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS), but does he or she know how to investigate a paint chip, a tire track, an ink sampling, or a piece of glass?

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https://www.thoughtco.com/famous-murder-cases-4140296 - Z.Duncan

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From serial killers to celebrity victims, some sensational murder cases grab our collective imagination and won't let go, like the unsolved Oakland County murders. The following is a look at a handful of the most infamous murder cases in recent American history. Some of the killers have been caught, tried, and punished. Other cases remain open and may never be solved.

In the late 1960s, a charismatic drifter with delusions of rock and roll grandeur named Charles Manson coerced a number of young women and men, many of whom were vulnerable teenagers, to join a cult called " The Family."

The group's most infamous murders took place on in August 1969. On the night of August 8, directed by Manson, several of his "family members" invaded a home in the northern hills of Los Angeles. Over the course of the night and into the next morning, they killed five people, including director Roman Polanski's wife, Sharon Tate, who was eight-and-a-half months pregnant at the time and Abigail Folger, heir to the Folger Coffee fortune. The next night, Manson family members continued their spree, murdering supermarket executive Leno LaBianca and his wife Rosemary.

Manson was indicted and convicted along with the family members who'd carried out the murders at his behest. Manson was sentenced to death, however, he was never executed. He lived the rest of his life in prison and passed away in 2017 of a heart attack.

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10 of the Most Famous Murder Cases in Recent American History

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From serial killers to celebrity victims, some sensational murder cases grab our collective imagination and won't let go, like the unsolved Oakland County murders. The following is a look at a handful of the most infamous murder cases in recent American history. Some of the killers have been caught, tried, and punished.

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https://www.sofeast.com/resources/importer-guide-to-9-types-of-packaging/ - Z.Duncan

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As a buyer, why be concerned with the different types of packaging?

The different types of Packaging provide a protective layer for products made from many common materials and are unique in that they provide both protection during shipping and storage, but also act as a sales and marketing tool, as well.

Anyone importing goods from abroad needs to understand which of the different types of packaging may be best suited to their products and budget and this guide will introduce you to 8 common packaging materials, dunnage, and packaging with very specific roles, such as for electronic products or components. We'll also introduce their approximate costs, benefits, drawbacks, and other information such as how 'green' they are.

Note, the packaging described is more appropriate for smaller, non-industrial items and products.

KEY for Approximate Cost and Environmentally-Friendliness

The following types of packaging and dunnage are rated for cost and environmentally-friendliness on a scale of 1 to 3, with 1 being lower and 3 higher.

Cost = 💰. Environmentally-friendliness = 🌿.

Let's look at some of the typical packaging materials that can be used as primary consumer packaging in packaged goods, such as containers for drinks or cosmetics, as well as transport and industrial packaging for smaller products, and their features and benefits.

1. Rigid Boxes

We return to our friend the Apple iPhone box. It's made from a type of cardboard called a 'rigid box.' It isn't only Apple that uses this style of packaging, though. Many premium smaller items such as watches, jewelry, cosmetics, and fashion accessories will come in one of these rigid boxes which are often configured as you see in the example to be a kind of 'gift box' including different types of containment for multiple parts.

They're made from highly condensed paperboard that is 4 times thicker than that used in a standard folding carton (which will likely be a plain brown collapsible type of box which is noticeably quite light in weight). You'll notice that they usually have a very rigid structure when you knock on them; they're also noticeably dense and heavy.

They benefit importers by being highly customizable, as they are able to be printed, have a glossy/ matte lamination exterior, be given an AQ coating, varnished, have flocking, be gold / silver hot-stamped (with foil), and/or embossed.

In terms of cost, design and protection come at a price and they're one of the more expensive packaging types in comparison to corrugated cardboard boxes and paperboard boxes, hence being used for premium items.
Benefits Drawbacks

Paperboard is most similar to thick paper rather than cardboard and is an affordable packaging choice for small products.

This is why it's seen used in anything from fast food packaging, to product display boxes used in supermarkets for boxed packaged goods.
What it lacks in rigidity, it makes up for in its readiness to be manipulated, cut, folded, and printed or colored with a variety of finishes.

It's made from wood pulp and can be made from 100% recycled material. Depending on its final application, 1-ply or multiple-ply forms exist, although, for packaging which is meant to provide protection to small consumer goods and is likely shaped to fit, a multi-ply form will be more appropriate as it is stronger than single-ply which can flex quite easily.

Price-wise, in general paperboard is inexpensive as you would expect of paper, although it can still be printed and given a premium finish or texture and so is relevant for use retail packaging.

If coated with an antistatic chemical, it can even be used to package electronics safely, too.
Benefits Drawbacks

Chipboard packaging is a type of paperboard and not to be confused with MDF (Medium-density fibreboard). In a similar process to MDF, the chipboard is made from reclaimed paper (instead of wood) which is compressed together into the chipboard and bonded with glue or resin.

Aside from being very sustainable and always made with recycled material, the chipboard has very similar features to paperboard. It is easily manipulated and also inexpensive.

It usually comes in two colors, brown or white, and its strength is dependent on the density of the chipboard. The denser it is, the stronger and more rigid it will become, but still, it won't usually approach the levels of the rigidity of a rigid box. If it's given a finish it's also possible to print on it.

It is generally a lightweight material, and to give you an example of common chipboard packaging, think of bagged packaged goods like cereal - their boxes are chipboard! So, arguably, it's one of the most common packaging types of them all. However, heavy-duty chipboard which is far denser can be used for shipping boxes, too.
Benefits

Inexpensive

Has a large variety of applications

Can be made by hand and doesn't require machinery to construct

Recyclable and uses 100% sustainable material (paper), so is a 'green' choice

Great for products and goods of almost any shape and size

Easy to cut and alter into many forms

Available in both light and heavyweight forms

Can be antistatic to protect electronics

Can be printed

Drawbacks

This is what we know as 'cardboard' and is very commonly used for shipping/export cartons and boxes used for storing items, but is also used in retail packaging, boxed packaged food products, and even for takeaway pizza cartons!

More fluted layers will equal a stronger, more rigid package (and higher costs, too).

Cardboard is generally made with recycled paper which makes it reasonably inexpensive and sustainable.

It is possible to cut and shape cardboard and many boxes are flat-pack which are shaped and ready to construct into the packaging's final form by hand. In some cases, it is also used to create mock versions of prototype components and products, such as furniture.
Benefits

Inexpensive

Incredibly wide usage

Can be made by hand and doesn't require machinery to construct

Recyclable and uses 100% sustainable material (paper), so is a 'green' choice

Easy to cut and alter into many forms

Protects electronics when given an antistatic coating

Can be printed and provided in a variety of finishes: matte/gloss laminate or varnish, embossed, etc.

Great for products and goods of almost any shape and size

Drawbacks

5. Cotton

Sought after for its soft, breathable properties, cotton makes great garments, but as soft and quality-looking fabric, it would be appropriate to package premium or sustainable goods.

Cotton is widely available in different grades and while it's unlikely the finest 'Long Staple' types would be required for packaging, even so, a soft cotton bag has a premium feel and is reusable and sustainable if the cotton is responsibly sourced.

There is almost no limit to the customizability of, say, a cotton bag, and it can be dyed and printed to be very brand-appropriate or attractive for consumers to then use again in the future. This all adds to its appeal as a premium packaging type.
Benefits Drawbacks

Non-organic or irresponsibly-sourced cotton is not very green as it has high water, pesticide, and fertilizer demands and usage

Limited as to what they can be used to package, as cotton bags do not provide much protection from the external environment

Plastic has its detractors, perhaps rightly as its environmental impact grabs more and more headlines, but it is an excellent packaging material that has all but replaced 'traditional' materials like glass, ceramic, and wood in most applications.

Versatile enough to be crafted into heavy-duty shipping/export cartons (as seen above) or delicate retail packaging like this thermoformed plastic blister pack:

Plastics and packaging go together because plastic is durable, strong, resistant to moisture and dirt (anti-fouling), and can be formed into almost any shape thanks to processes such as injection molding. Despite being very durable, many plastic boxes are also recyclable if they're made from the right kind of polymer.

Unlike cardboard, plastics create air and watertight containers, meaning that as well as standard items, they're also suitable for food storage and packaging for food items (think how many ingredients are packed in airtight plastic).

Most plastics are affordable, too, oftentimes more so than natural materials from renewable sources.
Commonly used plastics in packaging
Plastic is usually given a number from 1 to 7 inside a small recycling circle. Here's what each number is. Bear in mind when selecting the plastic that the lower the number, the more readily recycled the plastic is.

1. PET (Polyethylene terephthalate) - transparent, glossy, and very tough. Great for protection and commonly used in drinks bottles.

2. HDPE (High-Density Polyethylene) - hard and tough with a waxy exterior. Commonly used for detergent bottles.

3. PVC (Polyvinyl chloride) - can be soft or hard depending on additives. Used in clothing, wire sheaths, windows, pipes, and more.

4. LDPE (Low-Density Polyethylene) - waxy and slippery to the touch, tough. Commonly used for postal poly bags, sandwich bags, and packing materials.

5. PP (Polypropylene) - light and hard, this can be seen in woven bags, bottle caps, barrels, drink cups, auto parts, and more.

6. PS (Polystyrene) - usually colored white, polystyrene is brittle but tough, and is a good insulator. Used in toy fillings, molded packing (see later in the dunnage section), and for single-use food containers and cutlery.

7. Other types of plastics - these plastics are generally not easily recycled, therefore are not a good choice for brands who are looking for a greener option. One important option here is EVA (Ethylene Vinyl Acetate), a versatile foam that comes in sheets or expanded foam blocks and in many colours. Waterproof, rubbery, and durable, it's used in dunnage as it absorbs impact, repels water, and insulates products well.

What plastics are recyclable?
Unless you're using bioplastics, all plastics are made from non-renewable fossil fuels like oil and natural gas so they score low on the scale for sustainability. As a rule, though, most plastics can be recycled and the numbered scale from 1 to 7 describes how easy this is. The plastics with lower numbers (1 & 2 for example) can be very readily recycled, and in this case, they're far less harmful to the environment than those which are harder to recycle, or simply not recycled most of the time. A good example is PET (1). This is widely recycled and there is no reason for this plastic to end up in landfills, whereas PS (6) often ends up in landfills as it can only be recycled effectively if 100% clean. If it picks up dirt or contaminants (which it is prone to doing) it will be rejected and dumped.

The ubiquitous postal 'polybag' is also a form of plastic, low-density polyethylene or LDPE, and is much loved by retailers who ship products by mail because it's soft and tough at the same time:

If the item can fit inside it, it can contain it, although due to its thin and flexible nature, don't expect too much protection for the item. It is, rather, a good way to enclose the item and protect it from tampering (they're usually sealable) and the elements instead of providing the protection of a box.

It goes without saying that plastic can come in a variety of colors, perhaps matching one's brand, and it can also be clear which is useful in retail packaging where products are stored safely but can be seen by shoppers.
Benefits

Inexpensive

Lightweight or rugged

Durable, airtight, and waterproof

Can be printed on or painted

Takes many forms, from thick boxes to delicate films

Relatively easy to recycle in some cases (PET, HDPE, and PP, for example)

Can sometimes be reused, such as ground up and formed into new plastic products

Drawbacks

The strength of this packaging is that it is 100% vacuum sealed from the outside environment, and so it provides complete protection for moisture, dust, and any other source of contamination (mold, bacteria, etc). This is why it's so popular as food or ingredient packaging.

If it is specially made to be conductive for use in electronics, then it will also protect against ESD by preventing an electrostatic build-up.

It is fairly delicate, so is more commonly used as packaging in environments where the packages won't take a lot of abuse, such as in a retail store's shelves. The vacuum sealing process will naturally condense the products inside in many cases and so foil sealed bags are a good choice for storage of items where space is an issue.
Benefits Drawbacks

Plastic is not the greenest option and the foil lining makes these bags hard to recycle with other plastics

Is associated with basic food packaging and so not good for premium products

Can't provide protection against impact, dropping, crushing, etc

Not a great choice for fragile or rectangular-shaped goods

Jute is a fibrous material sourced from the Corchurous family of plants which are usually grown in warm and wet climates. It is the second most common textile behind cotton.

Usually used for bags, twine, matting, and sacks, Jute is an increasingly popular packaging material due to its sustainability.

As you can see in the image, reusable shopping bags are often made from jute, and the strong fiber is a hard-wearing textile which can take a lot of punishment over time. On its own, jute looks very rustic and is usually used in agricultural packagings, such as coffee sacks, floor matting, and even acoustic insulation, so it's not, perhaps, the first choice as packaging for premium goods. But if you consider sustainable living products, such as an artisanal soap, for example, a small jute gift bag would be appropriate and welcomed by consumers who are looking for 100% sustainable products and packaging.
Benefits Drawbacks

9. Envelopes / Bubble Mailers

Envelopes and bubble mailers are a convenient and easy way to package and ship smaller items and products such as computer components, clothing, gadgets, etc.

Primarily made from paper, they're a low-cost packaging option and, in the case of bubble mailers, the integrated bubble wrap which lines the envelope provides a good amount of insulation and protection for the goods inside.

For vendors who need to send a lot of products by post, envelopes are a low-cost packaging option that won't add much to your costs.

The good thing is that there are many configurations to suit your needs, such as card-backed envelopes (which prevent bending), peel and seal, self-sealing, gummed, and more. Peel and seal envelopes, in particular, are quite secure as the sealant strip is very strong. If willing to spend a little more, envelopes can be customised, too, with your logo, branding, colors, etc.

As long as they provide adequate protection, consumers who appreciate eco-friendly brands will be pleased to receive recyclable paper or card envelopes (think of Amazon's card wallet-style envelopes, for example) which they can recycle themselves at the kerb.
Benefits

Available in numerous sizes (common envelope sizes are C4 - A4 size, C5 - A5 size, C3 - A3 size)

Bubble mailers can provide enhanced protection without the need for bulky boxes

Low cost

Standard paper/card envelopes are recyclable and sustainable

Envelopes can be customised with branding, logos, etc

Bubble mailers are waterproof, making them suitable for deliveries where the envelope may be in the rain

Some bubble mailers can be split apart by consumers, allowing easier recycling of the separate paper and bubble wrap components

Drawbacks

Only provide limited protection, not good at withstanding extreme heat or moisture

Many bubble mailers aren't easily recyclable

Potentially not the most premium feel or image

Can lack security

Not a great choice for fragile or rectangular-shaped goods

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We'll explore some specifics about electronics packaging, too, as small electronic items such as PCBs, mobile phones, and other computer components have some specific needs from their packaging as electronic products and components are both expensive and fragile.

Types Of Electronics Packaging

Electronics packaging needs to not only provide the standard protections outlined in the last section about common packaging types, but also protect against electrostatic discharge (ESD), high-frequency noise, and extremes in temperature; all of which electronics are particularly susceptible to.

Creating effective electronics packaging for your products does require some design work, or at least working with a packaging provider who is experienced and familiar with your product types.

For example, the outer packaging may be a rigid or cardboard box, but inside the products may be packed into conductive dunnage such as cardboard dividers, anti-static foam inserts, or molded plastic blisters that hold them in place and insulate them from shock, impact, etc.

Here are some key types of specifically conductive packaging that is used to protect electronics against ESD and other damage:

Anti-static bags - these bags come in 2 types:
1. Dissipative antistatic bags - PET bags which are coated to enable them to dissipate any static build-up. The coating tends to make them pink or red.
2. Conductive antistatic bags - these bags resemble the foil layered bags as they have a metallic layer as well as being made from plastic with a dissipative coating. The metallic layer shields the component or product within by preventing an electromagnetic field from being formed via the Faraday Cage Effect.

Coated antistatic cardboard - as packaging is transported cardboard boxes and dunnage can create static electricity when moving around due to the friction created when 'rubbing' against one another. Cardboard or paperboard used for electronics packaging is commonly given an antistatic chemical or sheet coating that does not allow this to occur. Since cardboard can be shaped into various containers, such as bins, boxes, and files, there are a large number of electronic components or devices that can benefit from this kind of electronic protection.

Antistatic plastic foam - this foam is typical dunnage for electronics and is a polyurethane (PUR and PU) foam coated or blended with a dissipative antistatic chemical. In the same way as coated cardboard, it will resist and dissipate any static electricity formed during transit and handling. Oftentimes a buyer can recognize this foam due to its pink color (due to the anti-static chemicals/coating) in comparison to other polymer foams (such as the soft EVA foam mentioned earlier) which may not be used to protect electronics.
Plastics are clearly very versatile and these anti-static foams come in many densities and can be produced in sheets, blocks, or even molded into caps and cradles to fit and secure specific products inside their shipping package without the risk of ESD damage.

Electronics Packaging 'Musts'

To summarise, electronics packaging should be providing the following:

Prevention of outside contamination, for instance from dust or ionic contaminants

Resistance against heat, cold, and humidity or moisture

Protection from radiation

Anti-static protection

The ability to stop mechanical damage to products and components (for instance, it should meet International Safe Transit Association (ISTA) drop-test requirements)

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Many of the types of packaging and dunnage we've explored so far are most relevant to e-commerce sales, but many importers are also selling their products in retail stores, too.

So, for retail sales, what should also be considered?

Why 'in-store' sales are so important, even in 2021 and beyond

According to McKinsey when concerning the decision to buy:

"Consumers want to look at a product in action and are highly influenced by the visual dimension: up to 40 percent of them change their minds because of something they see, learn, or do at this point-say, packaging, placement, or interactions with salespeople."

If we consider in-store financial transactions, too, bricks and mortar make a difference. Forbes makes the point:

"Consumers spend significantly more per visit in-store than online.. This compares to only 54 percent of respondents spending more than $50 when shopping online.
The trend was validated yet again in a recent First Insight Report which found that 71 percent of all shoppers surveyed spent $50 or more when shopping in-store
Emotion plays a role in shopping behavior. There is a human side of in-store shopping and shoppers crave that visceral experience."

So, if the act of simply 'being' in a store has an emotional effect on consumers when it comes to what they can see, learn, and do with the products they're considering purchasing, it follows that the retail packaging is a key component of their buying process.

Looks can make a difference

Do you prefer the pure white high-quality rigid box of a new iPhone, or the brightly-coloured PET plastic packaging belonging to a cheaper Android phone?

Both phones essentially do the same job, but the packaging speaks to the perceived quality of the device inside.

When considering your retail packaging, you'll focus on:

Packaging Type - Does the packaging type suit your product and its niche on the market? Think: "Would the consumer be happy to receive this packaging, to see it, and to touch it?"

Quality - It probably doesn't make a lot of sense to spend big on high-quality packaging for a low-cost product. However, packaging quality is often a signal about product quality, so you need to think about the perception you want to convey.

Color/Branding/Marketing - The retail packaging is an excellent opportunity to sell the product, so, is the branding correct, does the color match that of your brand or product, does the packaging tell the consumer the key points they need to understand in order to buy?

Product Visibility - Is it of value to include a plastic window in a box so the customers can see the product in situ, or perhaps to use a clear plastic pack so everything is easily seen? For some textile products, it is also common to allow customers to touch the product.

Protection - This packaging may not need to be as durable as the shipping carton, but it should still protect your products from small impacts likely to occur in store or on the way home, such as drops from a low height.

Green Credentials - As you'll see in the following section, packaging's green credentials are scrutinised by consumers who are increasingly turning to reusable & sustainable packaging. If your retail packaging is non-recyclable or contains so much plastic consumers will cringe seeing it on the shelf, it could be time for a rethink.

Inner sections / Dunnage - You'll need to consider how to hold your product in place in its packaging. Perhaps you'll use a cardboard divider to create helpful sections for the product and its accessories or colorful fancy tissue for dunnage within the packaging?

Retail packaging can (and should) be multipurpose

It's common to find retail packaging which fulfils numerous objectives: protection, display, and marketing, so this needs some thought and importers usually start mapping this out during the product development phase.

Let's look at a couple of good examples of retail packaging for small consumer products:
Plastic clamshell packaging
You can see that it fulfils the following needs for retail packaging:

It's a sturdy plastic, probably PET, that provides plenty of protection.

The consumer can see the product perfectly.

The packaging contains cardboard inserts which provide buying information and branding.

The packaging is able to either stand on a shelf or be hung on a hanger display.

Plus, it's reasonably green and inexpensive given that it's highly recyclable plastic.

Blister packs
We also see similar properties in plastic and card blister packs used for cheaper products like disposable batteries :

Don't forget the display box

Many brands also provide a display box for their products. This is especially common for smaller off-the-shelf products which are quite 'grabbable' - let's say an item like a nice writing pen.

The display is enormously important from a marketing standpoint, as it allows you to have your own branded area in a store. There's no coincidence that Coca Cola and Pepsi products have their own refrigerators in store and don't share one - because that's their version of 'branded display.'

So, what kind of display might you include?

There are a few possibilities, including:

Display box

Branded hangers (for clothing)

Shipping carton that acts as a display (for instance, the front tears off leaving an aperture where consumers can grab the product)

Many display boxes are made in branded cardboard and come as a flat-pack which can be erected in the store. Here's how that looks:

(Note: this is a 'stock image' purchased on Shutterstock, not a real product, as we can never share specific information about what we design/source for our customers.)

Conclusion

As we mentioned above, the different types of packaging can have differing purposes. For instance, they can be purely functional (protection and information) or can be a major part of the customer experience (sometimes costing more than the 'product' itself).

In most cases, the packaging really is an integral part of the product. It should not be decided or designed at the very end for several reasons. It can add to the product 'impact' and help achieve better differentiation in the marketplace. And the design and custom manufacturing & printing can take more than a month - sometimes longer than the 'bare product' itself for particularly high quality packaged goods.

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9 Types of Packaging - Guide for Importers - Sofeast

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The different types of Packaging provide a protective layer for products made from many common materials and are unique in that they provide both protection during shipping and storage, but also act as a sales and marketing tool, as well.

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https://info-savvy.com/database-forensics-and-its-importance/ - Z.Duncan

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Infosavvy Security and IT Management Training

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Database Forensics and Its Importance in this currently, the majority of the applications use high-performance databases to manage the data. While, the organizations are implementing robust security mechanisms to protect the databases, hackers are introducing sophisticated ways to attack them, resulting in sensitive data exposure.

Database forensics deals with the examination of databases and its associated metadata. The process involved in database forensics is similar to the ones followed in computer forensics.

Databases act as the primary source of electronic evidence for every organization irrespective of its size and complexity. On the occurrence of an unexpected incident, a forensic examiner produces this evidence in the court of law, regardless the size of the databases. As a part of an investigation, the investigator may examine the time stamps to check and validate the activities carried out by the user/users on the database contents. They can also analyze the transactions in the Transaction Log Data Files (.ldf) to see if any user/users performed fraudulent activities on the database. A server hosting databases may contain cached information in its RAM. Forensic investigators may even examine this information using live analysis techniques.

Forensic database specialists have quite difficult task when it involves working through corrupted databases, as against standard c, which affect fragmented "normal" data because it is found on a standard disk drive . this is often because standard file systems allocate a header and a footer bit to a file, allowing the reconstruction of the file, in some cases, by using information from the metadata within the file system. However, databases don't have static headers or footers, and are actually scattered across multiple different identifiers. As a result, special tools and techniques are required for this highly specialized forensic work, and therefore the Certified Computer Forensics Examiner (CCFE) is a superb certification to assist you get there.

What Database Systems Are Mostly Commonly utilized in Forensics?

This comes right down to database popularity among businesses, companies and individuals. There are many different DBMS systems to settle on from, but the five hottest database companies are listed below, as per DB-ENGINES.COM . Here are the highest five, along side their DB schema types:

Oracle (Relational management System)

MySQL (Relational management System)

Microsoft SQL Server (Relational management System)

PostgresSQL (Relational management System)

MongoDB (Document Stores)

As you'll see, electronic database management systems hold the lion's share of the highest spots within the DBMS stakes, and one can therefore infer that there's indeed healthy demand for these DB types. this is often primarily due to the convenience with which applications and web interfaces can interact with these data stores, with ODBC drivers being made publicly available for many of the DBMS systems listed here.

For this reason, as a professional CCFE, you'll end up within the enviable position of being suited to any situation where a forensic specialist is required within the field of IT. you'll be briefed on the simplest legal and ethical principles, the way to conduct yourself during an investigation, the fundamentals of forensic science and scientific principles, digital forensics, application forensics (in which you'll find database forensics) and hybrid and emerging technologies.

The CCFE therefore offers you an excellent entry point into the planet of cybersecurity and forensics, and may be a must for anyone looking to further their understanding of digital forensics in an IT-heavy environment.

Questions related to this topic

1. Why is a forensic copy important?

2. What are databases useful for?

3. What computer forensics do?

4. What is database short note?

5. What is Database Forensics and Its Importance?

This Blog Article is posted by
Infosavvy, 2nd Floor, Sai Niketan, Chandavalkar Road Opp. Gora Gandhi Hotel, Above Jumbo King, beside Speakwell Institute, Borivali West, Mumbai, Maharashtra 400092

Contact us - www.info-savvy.com
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Database Forensics and Its Importance | Info-savvy

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Database Forensics and Its Importance in this currently, the majority of the applications use high-performance databases to manage the data. While, the organizations are implementing robust security mechanisms to protect the databases, hackers are introducing sophisticated ways to attack them, resulting in sensitive data exposure.

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https://www.iaaievidenceguide.com/single-fibers-small-pieces- fiber#:~:text=Use%20the%20following%20procedure%20to%20collect%20single%20fibers,with%20evidence%20tape.%20Initial%20and%20date%20the%20tape. Z.Duncan

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Fibers are among the most commonly transferred trace evidence. They can be of considerable evidentiary value in linking individuals to crime scenes.

When possible, collect the entire item that the fiber is on and allow the laboratory to recover the fiber.

1. Photograph the fiber and its substrate item, if any, in place.

2. Wear new, unused, clean latex or nitrile gloves.

3. If fibers can be seen, you should collect and secure the fiber at the scene, thus eliminating the chance the fiber may be lost when the item is moved (see step 4 for collection and packaging of fibers). Then, if the entire item can be transported, it should collected so that the laboratory can examine the item for more fibers or other trace evidence. Prepare appropriate packaging of sufficient size by labeling it with identifying information, including case number, date, exhibit number, a brief description, and your name. Carefully place the item in the container. Seal the container with evidence tape. Initial and date the tape.

4. Use the following procedure to collect single fibers and small pieces of fabric off a substrate:

5. Other ways of collecting questioned fibers (particularly if the fibers are not visible) from surfaces can be tape lifting or vacuuming.

6. Store the item in a secure location, such as a locked evidence van or your vehicle, until you are able to transport it to the laboratory. Please note that special storage may be required if the fabric or clothing may bear biological evidence, which should not be left in a hot car. Consult your laboratory for assistance.

​

If the fiber or small piece of fabric will also be examined for ignitable liquid residue, please consult the laboratory for the proper collection procedure. Items should not be air-dried or packaged in an air-permeable container if they will be examined for ignitable liquid residue.

​

Questioned fibers can be examined for class characteristics such as color, fiber type, cross-sectional shape, etc. Some fibers may indicate an end-use (eg.: carpet-type fibers, Kevlar). If a known piece of cloth, clothing or other object made of or containing fibers is submitted, the questioned fiber(s) can be compared to the known sample.

​

Source:

Crime Scene and Evidence Collection Handbook. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, 2005

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Single Fibers and Small Pieces of Fabric | Evidence Collection

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Fibers are among the most commonly transferred trace evidence. They can be of considerable evidentiary value in linking individuals to crime scenes. When possible, collect the entire item that the fiber is on and allow the laboratory to recover the fiber. Photograph the fiber and its substrate item, if any, in place.

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# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Fibers are among the most commonly transferred trace evidence. They can be of considerable evidentiary value in linking individuals to crime scenes.

When possible, collect the entire item that the fiber is on and allow the laboratory to recover the fiber.

1. Photograph the fiber and its substrate item, if any, in place.

2. Wear new, unused, clean latex or nitrile gloves.

3. If fibers can be seen, you should collect and secure the fiber at the scene, thus eliminating the chance the fiber may be lost when the item is moved (see step 4 for collection and packaging of fibers). Then, if the entire item can be transported, it should collected so that the laboratory can examine the item for more fibers or other trace evidence. Prepare appropriate packaging of sufficient size by labeling it with identifying information, including case number, date, exhibit number, a brief description, and your name. Carefully place the item in the container. Seal the container with evidence tape. Initial and date the tape.

4. Use the following procedure to collect single fibers and small pieces of fabric off a substrate:

5. Other ways of collecting questioned fibers (particularly if the fibers are not visible) from surfaces can be tape lifting or vacuuming.

6. Store the item in a secure location, such as a locked evidence van or your vehicle, until you are able to transport it to the laboratory. Please note that special storage may be required if the fabric or clothing may bear biological evidence, which should not be left in a hot car. Consult your laboratory for assistance.

​

If the fiber or small piece of fabric will also be examined for ignitable liquid residue, please consult the laboratory for the proper collection procedure. Items should not be air-dried or packaged in an air-permeable container if they will be examined for ignitable liquid residue.

​

Questioned fibers can be examined for class characteristics such as color, fiber type, cross-sectional shape, etc. Some fibers may indicate an end-use (eg.: carpet-type fibers, Kevlar). If a known piece of cloth, clothing or other object made of or containing fibers is submitted, the questioned fiber(s) can be compared to the known sample.

​

Source:

Crime Scene and Evidence Collection Handbook. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, 2005

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Single Fibers and Small Pieces of Fabric | Evidence Collection

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Fibers are among the most commonly transferred trace evidence. They can be of considerable evidentiary value in linking individuals to crime scenes. When possible, collect the entire item that the fiber is on and allow the laboratory to recover the fiber. Photograph the fiber and its substrate item, if any, in place.