# data[].attributes.body
Guba: a paradigm is a belief system accepted by a community or a basic set of beliefs that guides action.
Kuhn: the framework or worldview that guides researchers.

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"Interpretive frameworks" (pg 18)

# data[].attributes.body
a set of ideas or beliefs

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Guba: Asks, "What is the nature of the knowable or what is the nature of reality?
Kuhn: Ideology or doctrine, guiding values that inform a researcher’s attitude toward his or her research.

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Guba: Asks, "What is the nature of the relationship between the knower (inquirer) and the known (knowable).
Rudestam & Newton: refers to the study of the nature of knowledge.

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Guba: Asks, "How should the inquirer go about finding out knowledge"?
Jackson :The study of tools and procedures used to obtain knowledge within science.

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" The researcher's view of reality".

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What is the reality of the situation?

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How researchers know what they know.

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What is the connection between what is known and myself?

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The methods used in the process of research:  inductive, emerging, and shaped by the researcher’s experience in collecting and analyzing the data.

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How am I going to find the answer to the question that I am asking?

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Wildemuth:  based on the assumption that the method to be applied in a particular study should be selected based on the research question asked.
Scotland: a paradigm in which researchers use measurements to discover facts, but such facts are deemed falsifiable, which introduces the need for exhaustively testing hypotheses.

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Miller: Critical realism – all observation is fallible and has error and all theory can be revised. ‘Real’ reality but not perfectly understood.
Guba: "Critical realism: Although a real world driven by real natural causes exists, it is impossible for humans truly to perceive it with imperfect sensing and intellective  machanisms.

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"reflects a deterministic philosophy in which causes probably determine effects or outcomes" (Creswell, 2003, p.7).

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To critique positivism

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A single reality exists beyond ourselves "out there". Researcher may not be able to understand it or get to it because of lack of absolute.

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Not understanding "real" reality.

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Miller: Effort is made to reduce the researcher contamination. Truth can be studied and gotten closer to.
Ponterotto: acknowledges that the researcher may have some influence on that being researched, but objectivity and researcher–subject independence remain important guidelines for the research process.

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Reality can only be approximated. But it is constructed through research and statistics.

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remaining objective in the process.

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Ponterotto: attempt to simulate, as closely as possible, strict scientific methods and procedures where variables are carefully controlled or manipulated, and where the researcher’s emotional or expectant stance on the problem under study is irrelevant.
Onwuegbuzie: Time- and context-free generalizations are desirable and possible and real causes of social scientific outcomes can be determined reliably and validly via quantitative (and sometimes qualitative) methods.

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Use of scientific method and writing. Object of research is to create knowledge

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Based on pure methods and not my feelings or stance on the subject.

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Scotland: A paradigm in which researchers view knowledge and reality as socially constructed, which places an emphasis on contextual factors.
Schwandt: constructivism adheres to a relativist position that assumes multiple, apprehensive, and equally valid realities.

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Constructivists do not generally begin with a theory rather they "generate or inductively develop a theory or pattern of meanings" (Creswell, 2003, p.9) throughout the research process.

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To create a theory piece by piece.

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Miller: Relativism – no universal laws or absolute truths, reality is constructed. Because research is bound by the context all people’s values are important to the process because this informs the research.
Ponterotto: belief that there exists multiple, constructed realities (known as the relativist position), rather than a single true reality.

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Multiple realities are constructed through our lived experiences and interactions with others.

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Belief that there is no true reality but multiple ones.

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Rudestam & Newton: the view that what people may consider objective knowledge and truth are a result of perspective.
Ponterotto: maintains that reality is socially constructed and, therefore, the dynamic interaction between researcher and participant is central to capturing and describing the “lived experience”  of the participant

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Reality is co-constructed between the researcher and the researched and shaped by individual experiences.

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Your experience determines your view on the research topic.

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Guba: researcher is ensconced in the community and day-to-day life of her or his research participants.
Onwuegbuzie: Hermeneutical/ dialectical; impossible to differentiate fully causes and effects; inductive reasoning; time and context-free generalizations are neither desirable nor possible.

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More of a literary style of writing used. methods used include interviews, observing and analysis of texts.

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Being able to clearly understand why outcomes came to be.

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Kincheloe & McLaren: one of emancipation and transformation, one in which the researcher’s proactive values are central to the task, purpose, and methods of research.
Onwuegbuzie: to understand the relationship between societal structures (e.g. economic, political) and ideological patterns of thought that impede a person or group from identifying, confronting and addressing unjust social systems.

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Guba: Mix of historical materialism and Freudian psychoanalysis. All knowledge must be put in historical, social, and situational context.
Ponterotto: the relationship between researcher and participant is transactional and subjective; the relationship is also dialectic in nature, with the goal of inciting transformation in the participants that leads to group empowerment and emancipation from oppression

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Guba: researcher is ensconced in the community and day-to-day life of her or his research participants.
Onwuegbuzie:  Dialogic/dialectical.

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participants in this paradigm are involved in the research process, for example designing questions, collecting data, analyzing information and benefiting from research (Creswell, 2009, p. 9).

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Reality is known through the study of social structures, freedom and oppression, power and control.

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Miller: Relativism – Historical realism – a virtual reality shaped by context (e.g. race, social, gender etc) crystallized over time, dynamic. Scientists must remain flexible and open about their premises. Reflexivity is key, one must be situated within that which is studied. All theory can and should be questioned. Also, all theory should be acted upon. critical theory should improve understanding of society by integrating all the major social sciences, including anthropology, economics, geography, history, political science, psychology, and sociology.
Ponterotto: acknowledges a reality shaped by ethnic, cultural, gender, social, and political values. Critical theorists focus on realities that are mediated by power relations that are socially and historically constituted.

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Reality comes about through the struggles of life.

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Kincheloe & Mclaren: Knowledge is constructed in order to better manage existence and taking part in the world.
Onwuegbuzie:  Knowledge is both constructed and based on the reality of the world we experience and live in; justification comes via warranted assertability

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To deeply analyze the research process.

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Reality is based on power and identity struggles.

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Reality being shaped by many things.

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Starting with assumptions of power and identity struggles, documenting them and calling for action and change.

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concerned with the opinions of the research participants..

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Reality is known through using many tools of research that reflect both deductive and inductive reasoning.

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Miller: A paradigm that assumes the need to employ all practical means to obtain knowledge, including the analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data.
Dewey: emphasises the active role of the researcher in creating data and theories. Experimentation in the world is pivotal.

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The pragmatic paradigm places "the research problem" as central and applies all approaches to understanding the problem (Creswell, 2003, p.11).

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Focusing on the research problem.

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my knowledge is based on my experiences.

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Blumer: humans acting in a world which is in a constant state of becoming.
Onwuegbuzie: Multiple realities (i.e. subjective, objective, intersubjective); rejects traditional dualisms (e.g. subjectivism vs. objectivism; facts vs. values); high regard for the reality and influence of the inner world of human experience in action; current truth, meaning and knowledge are tentative and changing.

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Goldkuhl: concerned with how knowledge is created.
Onwuegbuzie: Thoughtful/ dialectical eclecticism and pluralism of methods and perspectives; determine what works and solves individual and social problems.

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Reality is what is useful. It is practical and works.

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Research process involves both qualitative and quantitative approaches to data collection and analysis.

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Realizing that reality is just that: Real.

# data[].attributes.body
how did the thoughts come about?

# data[].attributes.headline
Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five approaches. London: Sage.

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Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five approaches. London: Sage.

# data[].attributes.headline
Goldkuhl, G. (2011). Pragmatism vs interpretivism in qualitative information systems research. European Journal of Information Systems, 21(2), 135-146. doi:10.1057/ejis.2011.54

# data[].attributes.subject
Goldkuhl, G. (2011). Pragmatism vs interpretivism in qualitative information systems research. European Journal of Information Systems, 21(2), 135-146. doi:10.1057/ejis.2011.54

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Guba, E. G. (1990). The Paradigm dialogue. Newbury Park, Calif: Sage.

# data[].attributes.subject
Guba, E. G. (1990). The Paradigm dialogue. Newbury Park, Calif: Sage.

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Kincheloe, J. L., & Mclaren, P. (2011). Rethinking Critical Theory and Qualitative Research. Key Works in Critical Pedagogy, 285-326. doi:10.1007/978-94-6091-397-6_23

# data[].attributes.subject
Kincheloe, J. L., & Mclaren, P. (2011). Rethinking Critical Theory and Qualitative Research. Key Works in Critical Pedagogy, 285-326. doi:10.1007/978-94-6091-397-6_23

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Kuhn, T. S. (2015). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.

# data[].attributes.subject
Kuhn, T. S. (2015). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.

# data[].attributes.headline
Onwuegbuzie, A. J., Johnson, R. B., & Collins, K. M. (2009). Call for mixed analysis: A philosophical framework for combining qualitative and quantitative approaches. International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches, 3(2), 114-139. doi:10.5172/mra.3.2.114

# data[].attributes.subject
Onwuegbuzie, A. J., Johnson, R. B., & Collins, K. M. (2009). Call for mixed analysis: A philosophical framework for combining qualitative and quantitative approaches. International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches, 3(2), 114-139. doi:10.5172/mra.3.2.114

# data[].attributes.headline
Ponterotto, J. G. (2005). Qualitative research in counseling psychology: A primer on research paradigms and philosophy of science. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52(2), 126-136. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.52.2.126

# data[].attributes.subject
Ponterotto, J. G. (2005). Qualitative research in counseling psychology: A primer on research paradigms and philosophy of science. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52(2), 126-136. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.52.2.126

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Rudestam, K. E., & Newton, R. R. (2015). Surviving your dissertation: a comprehensive guide to content and process. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publication.

# data[].attributes.subject
Rudestam, K. E., & Newton, R. R. (2015). Surviving your dissertation: a comprehensive guide to content and process. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publication.

# data[].attributes.headline
Scotland, J. (2012). Exploring the Philosophical Underpinnings of Research: Relating Ontology and Epistemology to the Methodology and Methods of the Scientific, Interpretive, and Critical Research Paradigms. English Language Teaching, 5(9). doi:10.5539/elt.v5n9p9

# data[].attributes.subject
Scotland, J. (2012). Exploring the Philosophical Underpinnings of Research: Relating Ontology and Epistemology to the Methodology and Methods of the Scientific, Interpretive, and Critical Research Paradigms. English Language Teaching, 5(9). doi:10.5539/elt.v5n9p9

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Wildemuth, B.(1993). Post-Positivist Research: Two Examples of Methodological Pluralism. (1993). The Library Quarterly, 63(4), 450-468. doi:10.1086/602621

# data[].attributes.subject
Wildemuth, B.(1993). Post-Positivist Research: Two Examples of Methodological Pluralism. (1993). The Library Quarterly, 63(4), 450-468. doi:10.1086/602621