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Richard Dyer

In Dyer's star theory he goes on to explain that Stars have different masks, the masks they use in public and the masks that they use in the privacy of their own home. The masks pretty much say that they are really different to how they actually act in their own home, how he explains the creation of Stereotypes is through the different stars and the audience, the audience is looking for something similar to what they are and when a star comes along they basically try to imitate that star and they all follow the differing opinions of these stars.

Identities for stars are constructed differently from how they actually act, the media want to portray them as something completely different to what they are, that way they would be able to keep the attention of the masses on the differing way that each of them act. Stars have managers telling them what they can do and what they can’t do, if they usually do something that they have always done their managers would make them do something completely different so the masses would get that image of them and not how they really act, the media control the way stars act by printing out different things about them and people would believe the things that have been printed.

The stereotypes are maintained through the use of the different media outlets, many people believe what is printed or what the media has been telling them, if these rumours aren’t true there are possibilities that they would use these rumours to gain more attention for themselves, people who believe the media would never think that stars act a completely different way as to what they have been portrayed as.

Not all representations are negative but there are quite a lot of stereotypes about Women, children and so on, for women it is the stereotype where people believe that they are gold diggers if they marry a rich husband and don’t have a lot of money themselves, how women would kill their Husbands to get their money or where Women are framed for their Husbands deaths when they are rich and nobody will believe otherwise, believing that Women are gold-diggers is a stereotype that is commonly used In the media industry, then there are the ones that believe women are weak-minded and that they should leave the more difficult things to men, there are people who actually believe that women act a certain way and they stay firm in what they believe.

Identity negotiation refers as to who is who in their relationships and they are expected to remain faithful to the identity that they have assumed, like the stars that are in music videos, films, TV shows, plays and such they are expected to act a certain way and they conform to the way people expect them to act, people act one way in public and they act completely different in the privacy of their own homes.

People are able to challenge stereotypes by acting in a completely different way than what other people want them to act, the people who follow what the media say blindly, if people act a different way to what they expect then they would be confused, they didn’t act the way that people expect them to, by challenging the way that people expect them to act then they are evolving those stereotypes and they make people act differently.

Stereotypes enforce hierarchy when the media portrays them to act in a certain way others take it to heart and they actually act like that in real life, in films Men are stronger than Women and the message that they give with this is that they’re weak willed and need to be controlled, for women who give into this stereotype they believe that they should work around the house, not get a proper job all because they’re told not to by their boyfriends or husbands.

Laura Mulvey: Gaze

Laura Mulvey’s male gaze theory is about how the audience is put into the Point of view of a heterosexual man when they focus on the woman’s curves, how the curves are highlighted by moving in slow motion or deliberate camera movements and cut aways, eventually the audience would copy this and it would make them think that they could make their Girlfriends or wives look this beautiful, the perfume advertisements and such.

The assumed identity of the audience is Male as that is who the theory is about, as the theory is discussing the way that the camera points at a Woman and it states that it is a heterosexual male's gaze.

Women are still viewed this way in films and such though it is depending on what sort of stereotype they are pinning to the woman, they would make the woman look like a seductress or Temptress by the way she dresses or by the way that she looks.

The audience and spectator identify how the women look because it is aimed at a male audience and they believe that they would be able to get a woman as beautiful as the one that is shown on TV.

Scopophilia means love of watching, movie-making and movie-viewing have been analysed as scopophilic practices, observing the activities of the people on screen who have no idea that they’re being watched. Voyeurism is sexual pleasure from seeing others naked or engaged in certain activities and Exhibitionism is engaging in certain acts in front of others.

This can make gender representation more sexualised as men who again view Women like this and start to think that they would be able to get away with things like this with their own significant others.

Stuart Hall – Encoding Decoding

The people that encode the film and such are the people that make is as they know what they are making because they have the entire thing scripted out and the ones that Decode it are the audience because the audience don’t know what the directors or anyone else have scripted into the film and they don’t know why they would colour code it and such so they would have to figure it out themselves.

Dominant reading are the most common and widely accepted interpretations of given text.  Negotiated reading is when a member of the audience partly agrees with part of the product.  Oppositional reading is a mass-media text by a decoder whose social situation places them in a directly oppositional relation to the dominant code, who understands the preferred reading but does not share the texts code and rejects this reading.

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The uses and gratification theory is an approach to understanding why and how people actively seek out specific media to satisfy specific needs, it is a popular approach to understanding mass communication, this theory places more focus on the consumer or audience instead of the actual message itself ‘what people do with media’ rather than ‘what media does to people’, the theory also holds that audiences are responsible for choosing media to suit their needs and it suggests that different people search of specific media to satisfy certain needs like when they actively search for an action film or a horror film.

The uses and gratification theory is an alternative reading of the media controlling the audiences and instead this focuses on how the audiences are an active participants in the exchange of media and it wasn’t until the 1970’s that people made a connection to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and it also shows that people actively search out different pieces of media to suit their own needs rather than listening to the media and looking at what they are being told to look at, this uses and gratification theory originally came into play in the 1940’s but it underwent a revival in the 1970’s and 80’s.

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qt5MjBlvGcY&index=5&list=PL-of4HBxbY3hcTh7rl2edl3LVYDE6pB8D
The hypodermic needle theory is a media theory that suggests that the media are injecting media messages into the brain to make us feel and convey different views and emotions. This theory aims at the passive audience and it affects everyone, as there is no individual difference on which this theory can effect. Orson Welles developed this theory in the 1920s and 1930s and he discovered this by making a ‘war of the worlds’ broadcast saying that Martians are going to invade earth and this in turn created a mass hysteria due to the media and Orson Wells’ actions. This proved that this theory has some good credibility when it comes to it being proved. The audience is passive as it represents a wide range of audiences. The general effect of this theory is to say that the media makes people behave how the media wants them to behave. The problems are that to prove that this theory exists you need to change the minds of people to experiment on how they act.

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A1 - Media Representations in context
- How media products can construct reputations, the media messages conveyed and comparisons of representations across media products.

A2 - Introduction to theories of media representation
- How theories of media representation have helped to shape and define the concept
- Re-presenting (Hall): stereotyping (Dyer): audience and (Mulvey): positioning

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Section B - Understanding media messages

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Section B - Understanding media messages

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B1 - Constructing messages
B2 - Audience decoding
B3 - Semiotics : media language
B4 - Expectations and subversion of genre

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C1 - Camerawork
C2 - Lighting photography

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Section D - The effects of media messages

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Section D - The effects of media messages

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D1 - Effects of representation
- Positive and negatice effects
- copycat behavior (pos + neg)
- education and information
- socialisation
- Objectification
- Stereotypes and archetypes
- Impact on individuals, groups and society (changes in behaviour and attitudes)
- Reinforcement of an ideology (dominant, counter)
- Challenging dominant ideology

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- Horror
- Thriller
- Action
- Romance
- Sci-Fi
- Comedy
- Period drama
- Western
- Documentary / Factual

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New film genres are very hard to create, however new video game and music genres pop up all the time.
Film genres are normally derived from books.
Each genre has specific actors attached to them.
Iconography is when things become so known to one genre.
Audiences gain pleasure from recognising genres.
"Genre offers us emotional release"

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- Platform
- RPG
- F.P.S
- M.O.B.A
- Adventure
- Point and click
- Command line
- Visual novel
- Shmup / STG
- Puzzle

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- Historical change in genre
- Functions of genre

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Horror films were derived of what we were scared of, so before the second world war it was god, but after that it was humans, the horror became human beings and what they do to each other, this is the same for all of the genres.

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All films and video games which are the same genre are basically the same thing done over and over in the same genres, so why do we watch them? Because humans get pleasure out of identifying parts of genre. (We also like to spot differences in games and movies.) It's because we're so familiar with it and we use them to follow plot. (Plots are linked to the genre.) eg. part of the plot of a martial arts film is that there is a big boss and a princess and they have to get rescued. This is something that we feel a little worried about but with our knowledge of genre we always know that they will be fine.
The pleasure that we get from genre is knowing that all the things that we expect must be in there somewhere and we enjoy working out how to get them, and once its completed they are all there. We get great pleasure and great emotional release with it, almost like being able to peek at your Christmas presents.
People like to make predictions and if they are correct they get a lot of pleasure from it, and enjoy being able to figure it out half way through.
We also get pleasure from going "ooh that shouldn't be like that" and this is called subversion, going from one genre to another.

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Sub Genre: Focus on a particular variation of genre
Polysemic Genre: One text multiple genre (Rocky Horror Picture Show Hamilton)
Appropriation: taking a character, element or technique from another genre.
Intertextuality: Referring to another genre from within the film

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Other pleasures can be derived from sharing our experience of genre with others within an 'interpretive community' which can be categorized by its familiarity with a certain genre, for example joining fan clubs, and finding people who share similar interest to us in genre.

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- Narratives are stories ( That include beginning, middle and end ) - the narrative is the way that the events are presented to the audience.
- What's important is who gets to select that story, who gets to decide what elements are important.
- News stories are selected by the dominant culture and their sections become the recognised story. What gets left out is just as important as what gets put in. Even documentaries do this, which means that even them aren't real and are just one persons.
- Todorov looked at stories and that they all constructed in a similar way
- The classic narrative structure has three parts, (equilibrium, disequilibrium and neo equilibrium)
- Propp is a soviet folklorist, he looked at narrative and saw each different character and saw that they were in every single movie.
- In the middle of each one there are scenes and fragments. (for example cutscenes in games)
- Sandbox doesnt follow the overarching narrative as you can arrive there by any part of the game.
- Soap operas are examples of multistrand narrative
-Barthes theorised that there are certain themes and devices that are commonly used in films and books, and he called these modes of address and narrative codes. Examples include: narration (which other characters cant hear and they tell intimate details)
- Enigma is a problem that must be solved which the audience knows but the actor doesn't
- Binary opposites are like good and bad and they extend to things like femininity and masculinity and these are used in narratives
- Audiences like classic narrative, and will always look for it, however there is alternative narrative where the audience gets great pleasure from trying to put the narrative together. David linch and Quinten Tarratino are both famous for it. This is called avant guard.
- In films like momento we still have all the narrative codes but they're just mixed up

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- Semiotics is the creation of meaning through signs and symbols, invented by a guy called Sassure made this word.
- Texts: in media studies we use the word text to refer to anything that is produced. they are made up of the english language which is made up of letters and words, media texts are made up of visual symbols which are put together to make meaning or codes, and we learn to read them at a young age.
- Semiotics is the science of the symbol, it offers a tool that we can use to decode the meaning of media texts
- Signs are when we look for meaning in a media text, it is made up of a signifier which is the text which carries the meaning, and signified, the meaning or idea, the sign and symbol work together, which made it signified.
- But what is signified, when we look for meaning we look at what it signified in the sign, our reading of what is signified is dependant on our cultural background, meaning in visual analysis is split into symbols and codes.
Symbols are visual signs that have shared meanings for those that use them, and we can categorise them in three different types: iconic (pictures) arbitrary/symbolic the word, and indexical symbol, a product of the thing that links to it.
Visual codes are items that the film maker uses to create specific meanings, there are many codes, and some of the most widely used are, colour codes; technical codes; non verbal codes and dress codes
Anchorage is the fixing or limiting of a set of meanings to an image, usually achieved by a caption underneath a photograph, so that you can only match those up rather than getting your own idea from the photograph.
Only 20% of the meaning that you communicate to others are words
The distance between people is interpersonal distance.
The size of a glass is an indexical code for alcohol, most likely to be spirits
- you wont find your answer at the bottom of a glass, yet hes looking at the alcohol

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It's a way of defining something about you that came across as the equality act. There is a law not to discriminate against anyone because of age, being trans, being married or in a partnership, being pregnant, disability, race, religion, sex, or sexual orientation
Representation in the media is used to describe the way in which the media present:
certain events
certain groups of people
protected characteristics
Representing and re-presenting an event or story - the most important element of the story is selected and told.
Any media that you see is a representation of what happened and not reality
Stereotypes is a form of representation

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- from Roland Barthes, we have denotation and connotation
denotation is what we see, not applying any meaning to the image, this is what is actually in the image
connotation is what meaning we attach to the image
Codes:
Enigma=Where the problem must be solved, often the audience knows the solution but the actor does not. This also makes us feel anxious with different emotions.

Action=in order for the balance to be restored the main character must battle and defeat his enemies.

Maguffin=a quest that the characters have to do but we never find out in the film.

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Girl sat on couch and other rabbit woman is ironing in the background, a male rabbit in a suit enters with a lough laugh track while the mother continues ironing. The girl daughter? says she is going to find out some day. The woman ironing goes when will you tell him. The man asks for calls. A woman asks for the time. The man stands and says he has a secret, the woman ironing says there have been no calls. He says he is not sure. He says a coincidence and the woman reminds him it is friday.

The way the episode is filmed along with the laugh track added makes you assume that the series is a sitcom like series, that contrasts with the bleak and serious characters. You could assume that the girl sat down was the daughter of the woman stood up ironing, (dress codes) due to her younger style of dress and the mother doing the responsible duties. From that you would assume that the man in the suit is the father of the family (due to the old look of the house and the primitive iron you would assume that it's maybe set in the 50's or 60's) which means in that era the male of the house would be the one to work while the women stayed at home. The whole clip is a satire of the sitcom genre. The boring chatter and bland daily life actions of the characters contrasts with sitcoms in real life.

What symbols can you identify?
One iconic symbol used is rabbits they can be used to symbolised comfort, and vulnerability, fertility, sentiment, desire, and procreation. David Lynch can also separate our feeling of humanity to the rabbits. By using animals it's signifying that these people aren't even human, they are simply rabbits so we shouldn't care about them as week.
What codes can you identify?
indexcial codes - the laugh track - makes you think of comedy
non verbal codes - interpersonal distance between all rabbits in the scene, there is a lot of it. Showing the distance there must be in the relationships between these three.

the soundtrack - slow dark and depressing

How is the sign created?

How is meaning signified?

How should the clip be understood?

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protective characteristic defines you and your equalities. Types of discrimination - age, being or becoming a transsexual person, being married or in civil partnership, pregnant or having a child, race, religion, sex and sexual orientation. These are called protected characteristics. Your protected from discrimination at work, in education, as a consumer, when using public services, when buying or renting property and as a member or a guest. You are legally protected from discrimination by the equality act. Representation in the media is a term used to describe the way in which the media present: certain events, certain groups of people and protected characteristics. its about the mechanism behind what you see. Selection\presentation - tell the most interesting facts and only use that to tell the story otherwise you may lose the audiences interest. you reorganise and edit the information so that it has more impact. What you have done is to give you own representation of the events you witnessed. It can never be reality. Stereotypes are a shortcut to character. All the director has to do is prompt the audiences recognition of the stereotype through the use of verbal or dress codes or something subtle such as lighting. Different groups of people can be represented in different ways. Same applies of course to the representation of race, black men for instance can be recognised as a gangster. Women are not well represented in media. Studies from Guy Cumberbatch have shown this.

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Equality act that protects people from discrimination or stereotypes.
A way of defining something about yourself.
-you are protected from discrimination if-
associated with someone who has a prottected characteristic.
-complained about discrimination or supported someone else claim.
Examples
-religion
-race
-age
-sexuality
-Gender
-disability
-marriage or civil partnership
-Being pregnart
-Lack of Religion or belief
-sex/sexual orientation
-transexual person/becoming transexual
Are illegally protected by the law 2010.
Do you have a protective Characteristic?
-gender
-sexuality
-disability

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It says that women are just objects and men have the power
Everything is written and made by men and therefore contains representational bias and these have come to dominate Hollywood film making.
The male gaze may be seen by a feminist either as a manifestation of unequal power between the gazer and the gazed, or a conscious or subconscious attempt to create the inequality

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Mulvey is a Freudian theorist. This division is not enough to secure male pleasure, visually female characters are forced to conform by using or wearing objects of oppression which are used to ''replace'' the missing phallus (cigarette, stilettos, a dress) narratively the female character that doesn't conform is punished for or saved by the male character (rom com's)

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What impact is video game violence said to have on?

It is said to impact how people are in schools, with bullying and people assuming that things are more violent than they actually are rather than simply taking an accidental push as an accident, and also how people are acting to other people, with the experiments ran that show that people will pick a more violent response than usual when playing violent video games, and finally that they will have a decreased response to actual violence, to a point where it can even be inappropriate.

Stereotypes/archetypes.

It is stereotyped that people who are male and young play video games, but actually half of the video game players are female, and a lot of them are around 30, so this stereotype is incorrect.

Individuals, groups and society (changes in behaviour, attitudes)

Older people tend to have a worse view on video games because of the media and how it is trying to prove the hypodermic needle theory, however through education it is found that in small enough doses video games actually help.

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Is very good at seeing people as individuals.
However the media escapes blame for any extreme violent or sexual content that they are responsible for making.

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What part of the process does an editor work in?
- Post production

What tasks does the editor do?
- They give final edits to the work and make sure that everything is up to scratch, it is their job to make sure that the edit is flawless.
Responsibilities:

receiving a brief, and maybe an outline of footage and/or a shot list, script, or screenplay;

assembling all raw footage, with camera shots either recorded or transferred onto video tape in preparation for inputting into the computer;

inputting uncut rushes and sound, and synchronising and storing them into files on the computer;

digitally cutting the files to put together the sequence of the film and deciding what is usable;

creating a 'rough cut' (or assembly edit) of the programme/film and determining the exact cutting for the next and final stages;

reordering and fine-tuning the content to ensure the logical sequencing and smooth running of the film/video.

How much does an editor get paid?
£60,000 a year

What qualifications do they need?
They need to be able to demonstrate that you have the necessary skills, and so a degree or HND that offers film or media production experience may be helpful. The following subjects are relevant:

communication and media studies;

fine art/visual art;

graphic design;

information technology/multimedia;

photography/film/television.

Prominent female editor:
Thelma Schoonmaker

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editing is an artform
pre 1950, recorded onto film, used projectors to play back
post 1950, film was converted using electrical impulses and saving them onto magnetic tape
1990 to present, digital revolution

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Continuity editing: Editing that is invisible and almost looks like it was never done - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7yR-i82mb_o
Non continuity editing: Editing that is visible on purpose - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cy78LNZFMIE&list=PL958C33912EE1CC3A

180 degree rule: The recording shouldn't be done past 180 degrees of the previous shot - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HinUychY3sE
Cutaway: Where it cuts away from the original thing to show something else - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SPMPYfrLdJs
(Reverse) Shot: Where the shots go back and fourth between people - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5UE3jz_O_EM
Eyeline match: where the eye lines match even when the shot is changed - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnpqCx8O_Y
Action match: A method on cutting across the shot to make sure that they match - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eou7A-e2e4I
Cross cutting: Cutting back and fourth between two scenes that are happening at the same time - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KmptU7vEkNU
Flashback/forward: When a scene goes from the present to the past or future - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i--XvXxvApY
Intercutting -  Cutting to different scenes to show everyones reactions during a situation - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V81dvWrwy40
Parallel editing - cutting between two scenes that happen at the same time - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CQgtu2rEGvM
Elliptical editing - Cutting out unnecessary actions to make screentime shorter - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BvIsJd3Byic
Montage - Showing a bunch of things happening in a period of time - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v81osfu1K0o

Continuity cuts - Combining  components from a single shot - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qoaw7iTPlZc

Jump cuts - cutting from one scene to another to make it look like it jumped - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K2GPBBxFpEw

Fade in and fade out - where a scene fades in or out to black or white - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3bup_zehvBo

Wipe - to wipe to another clip from a corner or the bottom - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lVW_fdPVQHQ

Dissolve example - one scene dissolving into another - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rt5mcZFYLng

Slow motion - where things go slow to show a time that is faster that wouldn't normally be able to be shown - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LRo-L9zYf-M

Fast motion - Where things are sped up to show a passing of time - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nKG0V67eGFc

Freeze frame - Where things are frozen to show something like shock - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BlkJ9fshc5A

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What is continuity editing? Why do we use it?
It is editing which is seamless, which removes the editing from it to make it look invisible. We use this because we want to make sure that the films look realistic

What is a jump cut? Who has used the effect?
It is where the editing is visible because of it jumping from one scene to another, first done by Georges Méliès

What is montage? What different types are there?
A montage is a bunch of different scenes thrown together into one showcase, there are ones that show off certain things, and others that give an idea of someone doing a long task like working out.

What effect does montage produce?
It gives the idea of time passing while still showing the audience exactly what has happened

What is linear editing?
It's a video editing post production process where people select, arrange and modify images and sound in a predetermined and organised sequence.

What does non linear editing mean?
Its a video or audio editing that preforms non destructive editing on material, like the editing that we use now

When did digital editing become the norm?
Some say it was around 1970, but it really came in at around 1990

What are the advantages and disadvantages of non linear editing?
The advantages are that it is quicker and that if any mistakes are made there is no need to start over, however the disadvantages are that it can be less precise.

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3 point lighting is there because you are in an artificial environment, because it gives off a perfect light every time, where there is no natural light, mimicking natural light.
What is the purpose of the key light?
It is the main light, usually the brightest, it has the most influence on how the screen looks. It is placed so that there is some shadow on the side of the face and light on the other.
What is the purpose of the fill light?
This is the secondary light that is placed on the other side of the subject, its a lot softer and less light.
What is the purpose of the back light?
Its purpose is to provide definition, and gives subtle highlights around the subjects outlines.
What is high key and where is it used?
It is soft and natural light that emulates sunlight and being outside, it is used a lot in musicals and reality TV.
What is low key and where is it used?
It is scheduled light often used in horror films or other over exaggerated films to make it more dramatic.

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http://www.mediacollege.com/lighting/three-point/simulator.html

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All lights

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Key lights only

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Hair lights only

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Hair light and high ISO

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Static

This means that the camera is still.

Pan/Whip pan

A pan shot goes from one side of the shot to the other, whereas a whip pan is the same, but it goes so fast it’s blurred.

Tilt

Where the camera rotates up and down, tilting the camera.

Track

Where the camera follows a certain subject.

Dolly

Where the camera travels along a track, which records the shot as it moves.

Crane

A camera on a moving crane takes a crane shot.

Hand held

This is where someone holds the camera, and a steady cam can be used to make sure that it doesn’t look wobbly.

Zoom

This shot is where someone zooms in on something, giving the illusion that it’s getting closer.

Aerial

A very zoomed out wide shot taken from the air.

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EWS - Extreme wide shot
VWS - Very wide shot
WS - Wide shot
MS - Mid shot
MCU - Medium Close up
CU - Close up
ECU - Extreme Close Up
CI - Cut in (a close up shot of something visible in the main scene)
CA - Cutaway (a shot of something away from the main scene)
Two shot (with two people in)
OSS - Over the shoulder shot
Noddy shot - The type of shot included in news
POV - Point of view
Weather shot - Shows the weather

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Low, below the head
Eye level
High, above the head
Worms eye, from way below
Canted, tilted
Birds eye, from way above

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Aspect ratio - Width and height
Rule of thirds - Someone is in one of the thirds of the camera, the sides or the middle
Depth of field, how much is in focus and how much isn't, such as the background being out of focus
Focus pull - Where you change focus during a shot

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Warm
Cold
Black and white
Multi or monochromatic
Exposure
Filters

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Green/Blue screen
CGI