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(n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/genetically-modified-organisms-gmos-transgenic-crops-and-732/

Canada, H. (2020, February 18). Government of Canada. Retrieved from https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/genetically-modified-foods-other-novel-foods/labelling.html

Diehl, P. (2019, November 23). Genetically Modified Food Timeline and How We Got Here. Retrieved from https://www.thebalance.com/genetically-modified-food-how-did-we-get-here-375719

Plumer, B. (2015, July 22). What is genetically modified food? Retrieved from https://www.vox.com/2014/11/3/18092700/what-is-genetically-modified-food

Transgenic Crop. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/transgenic-crop

What are GM crops and how is it done?: Royal Society. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://royalsociety.org/topics-policy/projects/gm-plants/what-is-gm-and-how-is-it-done/

What is the difference between Transgenic and Genetically Modified? (n.d.). Retrieved from https://gmoanswers.com/ask/what-difference-between-transgenic-and-genetically-modified

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In the early 1970s, researchers discovered methods of transferring antibiotic-resistant genes from one type of bacteria to another. In the early 1990s, Calgene, Inc. developed the world's first genetically modified food which was a strain of tomato they named Flavr Savr, engineered to surpes the polygalacturonase gene to impede the vegetable's softening process after ripening. In 1998, after a U.K scientist Arpad Pusztai challenged the safety of GM foods on a British TV program, Flavr Savr tomato product sales plummeted and then went off the market by 1999.
In the 1990s, Hawaii's rainbow papaya production fell 40% due to a virus and GM saved the papaya. The market fell due to the negative perception of GM foods- Hawaii papaya sales to Japan were $15 million in 1996 and dramatically dropped to $1 million in 2010.
Due to the Flavr Savr tomato in the early 1990s, genetically modified foods have now been altered to be considered "safe" and we are able to use this technique on many other foods. The company started a huge science business that will benefit the world in many ways- and it is just the beginning.
Since then, Gm products like corn, soy, and cottonseed oil have become major commodities.
Now, 90% of the worlds GM crops are now grown in the U.S, Brazil, Argentina, India, and Canada. (Diehl, 2019)

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Canada and the United States both have a lot of regulations about GM crops, but have different processes as explained in the paragraphs above. They both have labeling that is required but was decided in different years. Canada demanded that all GM crops should be labelled in 2004. In the United States, there is a federal law that regulates GMO food labeling. It was enacted on July 29, 2016 when President Obama signed then Senate Bill 764.

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As Canada, there are a lot of rules and regulations about regarding the use of genetically modified crops. The regulation of crops are divided into three regulatory agencies, the Environmental Projection Agency (EPA), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the U.S Department of Agriculture (USDA). The EPA regulates bio pesticides and makes sure the toxins are safe for the environment. The FDA regulates the safety of the crop eaten by humans or animals. (FAS, 2011)

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Regulation of GM crops in the United States is divided among three regulatory agencies: the Environmental Projection Agency (EPA), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). Each of these agencies regulates transgenic crops from a different perspective.

EPA regulates biopesticides, including Bt toxins, under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA). If a crop is genetically engineered to carry a gene for a Bt toxin, EPA requires the developer to verify that the toxin is safe for the environment and conduct a food-safety analysis to ensure that the foreign protein is not allergenic. ¹

FDA is responsible for regulating the safety of GM crops that are eaten by humans or animals. According to a policy established in 1992, FDA considers most GM crops as "substantially equivalent" to non-GM crops. In such cases, GM crops are designated as "Generally Recognized as Safe" under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) and do not require pre-market approval. If, however, the insertion of a transgene into a food crop results in the expression of foreign proteins that differ significantly in structure, function, or quality from natural plant proteins and are potentially harmful to human health, FDA reserves the authority to apply more stringent provisions of FFDCA requiring the mandatory pre-market approval of food additives, whether or not they are the products of biotechnology. ⁹

The FDA Consultative Process

In 1997, FDA established a voluntary consultation process with GM crop developers to review the determination of "substantial equivalence" before the crop is marketed, such as assessing the toxicity and allergenicity of the gene product and the plant itself. If the data in the food-safety assessment are satisfactory, FDA notifies the developer that marketing of the crop may proceed.

Critics have raised questions about whether this voluntary consultation process provides adequate assurance that GM crops are safe. In particular, the use of food crops like corn for the production of non-food products, such as pharmaceuticals, does not fall under FDA's authority unless the gene product ends up contaminating a food crop, at which time the crop is considered adulterated and must be recalled. Because of this gap in regulatory authority, FDA may not perform appropriate oversight until it is too late. ⁶

In 2004, Senator Dick Durbin (D-IL) introduced legislation that would have required any product grown in a food crop to receive pre-market approval, whether or not it was intended to be eaten. Thus, before any pharmaceutical was produced in a food crop, FDA's Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition would conduct a food-safety analysis to ensure that accidental human exposure to the drug through the food supply will not cause health risks. ⁹

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U.S. Regulation of Genetically Modified Crops

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Regulation of GM crops in the United States is divided among three regulatory agencies: the Environmental Projection Agency (EPA), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). Each of these agencies regulates transgenic crops from a different perspective.

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"We do not allow the sale of genetically modified (GM) foods in Canada unless Health Canada's scientists are satisfied that they are safe and nutritious" (Gov of Canada, 2020)
There are a lot of rules and regulations in Canada about the use of genetically modified crops. To be able to be used, a manufacturer has to submit information to Health Canada, and is revised by, Codex Alimentarius Commission, World Health Organization, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, and Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. Health Canada says they have been assessing GM foods for more than 20 years and over 140 GM foods have been permitted for sale. If new information information arises they will review the data carefully and take appropriate action if needed. Health Canada says that "there is no current evidence to indicate that long-term studies are needed to ensure the safety of foods produced using this technology". (Gov of Canada, 2020)

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We do not allow the sale of genetically modified (GM) foods in Canada unless Health Canada's scientists are satisfied that they are safe and nutritious.

On this page

Safety assessment of GM foods in Canada

We do a thorough safety assessment of all novel GM foods to make sure that they are as safe and nutritious as foods already sold in Canada.

We have a clear safety assessment process that follows the " Guidelines for the Safety Assessment of Novel Foods." There are strict requirements for data and procedure.

Our scientific review considers:

the microbiological and chemical safety of the food

the potential of the GM food to cause allergic reactions

the potential for introducing new toxins into the GM food

how the GM food was developed, including any genetic changes made to any plant, animal or microorganism used in the product

how the GM food compares to an equivalent non-modified food, in terms of:

nutrition quality

what it is made of (for example, fats, proteins and carbohydrates)

The main steps in the safety assessment:

1. A manufacturer, importer or developer submits detailed information to Health Canada. They outline exactly how the product was developed.

2. If the data provided is not complete, Health Canada scientists will ask the developer for more information and scientific data. Some products that do not meet our strict criteria are either closed by Health Canada, or withdrawn voluntarily by the manufacturer before a decision is made.

3. Health Canada scientists may supplement the information submitted by the manufacturer with relevant published data from the larger scientific community.

4. Health Canada scientists assess all the information available. The reviews take into consideration all the available evidence before making a final decision about the health and safety of a new GM food.

The use of company-generated data to perform pre-market assessments of GM foods is a standard scientific method of evaluation used by regulators around the world.

While many studies published in scientific journals are the result of developer testing, a significant number of independent laboratories are also studying and publishing on the safety of GM foods.

The safety assessment process is based upon principles developed by international experts from the:

Codex Alimentarius Commission

World Health Organization (WHO)

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)

Comparative approach

One way to establish safety of GM foods is through a comparative approach. This approach allows regulatory agencies to identify potential safety and nutritional issues.

The comparative approach identifies all differences between the GM food and the closest unmodified food with a history of safe use. We assess the differences for potential impacts on all aspects of food safety. If the differences aren't found to impact food safety, then we conclude that the GM food is as safe as food that is already considered safe to eat.

The comparative approach to GM food safety assessment is used by regulatory agencies around the world in countries such as:

Japan

Australia

New Zealand

the United States

the European Union member states

Regulating GM foods in Canada

Health Canada has been assessing GM foods for more than 20 years. As of 2019, over 140 genetically modified (GM) foods have been permitted for sale in Canada.

To date:

all of the GM foods we have reviewed are as safe and nutritious as non-GM foods

we have not found any verifiable scientific evidence that shows GM foods are less safe than traditional varieties

we have not found a study that caused us to change our conclusions about any assessed GM food product

If new information concerning the safety of GM foods does arise, we will:

review the new data carefully

take appropriate action if we identify any risks or concerns from eating GM foods

Internationally, scientists have concluded that GM foods pose no more risk to human health than non-GM foods. In fact, GM foods are subject to a far higher level of regulatory oversight and scientific requirements than traditional organisms.

Risks of GM techniques in the food supply

The risks of GM techniques in the food supply are the same as for foods produced by conventional means. These include potential risks from:

toxic compounds

allergenic compounds

However, techniques used to produce GM foods may:

permit the transfer of genetic material from unrelated species

transfer a gene from an organism expressing a protein that has no history of use as a food

The safety assessment:

gives assurances that toxic or allergenic compounds are not transferred along with the desired trait when new DNA is introduced into an organism

assures that any genetic changes made to an organism do not increase the level of allergenic compounds or anti-nutrients which are naturally present in some organisms consumed as food

Long-term effects of GM foods

Using GM techniques does not introduce unique risks into the food supply. As a result, the potential for long-term effects from these foods are no different than for conventional foods that have been a safe part of the Canadian diet for a long time.

Furthermore, there is no current evidence to indicate that long-term studies are needed to ensure the safety of foods produced using this technology.

Some foods may require additional considerations to address long-term health effects if the GM techniques result in:

changes that create significantly different nutrient combinations

other novel food characteristics not previously encountered in the food supply

In such cases, long-term studies may be included in the safety assessment of these products.

Canada's international involvement with GM food safety

Health Canada was involved with the Ad Hoc Intergovernmental Task Forces on Foods derived from Biotechnology. The Task Forces were created by the Codex Alimentarius Commission to:

develop general principles for risk analysis of foods derived from biotechnology

provide specific guidance on the safety assessment of such foods

The work of the Task Forces led to a number of documents being adopted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission, including:

Principles for the Risk Analysis of Foods Derived from Modern Biotechnology (2003)

Guideline for the Conduct of Food Safety Assessments of Foods Derived from Recombinant-DNA Plants (2003)

Guideline for the Conduct of Food Safety Assessment of Foods Produced Using Recombinant-DNA Microorganisms (2003)

Guideline for the Conduct of Food Safety Assessment of Foods Derived from Recombinant-DNA Animals (2008)

Health Canada's safety assessment approach is consistent with guidance documents adopted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission.

Health Canada also participates in the work of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Working Group for the Safety of Novel Foods and Feeds. This OECD Working Group is intended to promote the same standards for safety assessments and regulations of novel GM foods and feeds around the world.

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The safety of genetically-modified (GM) foods

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We do not allow the sale of genetically modified (GM) foods in Canada unless Health Canada's scientists are satisfied that they are safe and nutritious. We do a thorough safety assessment of all novel GM foods to make sure that they are as safe and nutritious as foods already sold in Canada.

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This is a really long video, but what he says is really interesting and he talks about what people see vs don't see about GM plants. This may change your opinion if you are for or against this technology.

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This is a really long video, but what he says is really interesting and he talks about what people see vs don't see about GM plants. This may change your opinion if you are for or against this technology.

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GMO controversies - science vs. public fear: Borut Bohanec at TEDxLjubljana

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This article has a lot about the advantages and disadvantages

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This article has a lot about the advantages and disadvantages

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(explains in detail)

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I am for using genetically modified foods/ transgenic crops. Yes, I am aware that there are some concerns but they are not all proven true - some are assumptions and predictions. Since this technology is relatively new, there will be concerns. This practice has been happening for thousands of years naturally already, and I think with the use of technology, there can be some really useful and productive plants that will be developed. The world wants to make everything as efficient as possible, so why wouldn't we do the same with food? If we have the choice to make food grow faster, taste better, repel insects and diseases, grow bigger, why wouldn't we? I also think we should do this due to the population just getting bigger and bigger - this results in the demand of food increasing. Having GM plants, will help farmers be able to have a higher production of crops that will be able to feed more people. As we know, the global warming due to the production of green house gases has been a rising concern in society today. Due to GM plants requiring less time, chemicals, labor, tools- this will also help with limiting green house gas emissions, soil erosion, and environmental pollution. Also, since plants are able to be grown in larger areas and places that were not able to accommodate crops before, there will be more oxygen produced. (Connectus, 2018) A really amazing thing that GM crops can do is create more nutritious foods in terms of vitamins and minerals. This helps people get the nutrients they need and at the same time can help third-world countries with malnutrition. Imagine, just a little change in the DNA in a food, can help millions of people to get the nutrients that will help them live a full life! Not only that, since there will be more crops produced, the price of food will go down making it more affordable for people to buy. Lastly, using genetically modified foods, can lead to so many new foods being made that we would never have experienced, or, we would have to wait thousands of years to let the process happen naturally. Plants are now being able to be grown in climates and soils that have never been able to before and I am so interested in seeing what scientists can create with this technology!

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(Since genetically modified foods are relatively still a new process the long term disadvantages are not yet discovered)
1. More likely to trigger allergic reactions
2. Can contribute to developing cancer
3. Not totally safe to eat - it is proven that they may cause diseases and even death. Example -butterflies and mice cannot survive with these foods at all. (C onnectus, 2018)
4. It could affect the way people are able to defend illness - make them resistant to antibiotics
5.  Lower the level of biodiversity due to when removing a certain pest that is harmful to crops, we could also be removing a food source for a certain species.

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1.  Faster growing plants for our rapidly increasing population
2.  Less use of pesticides
3. Tastier food
4. More nutritious food
5. Increased supply of food with reduced costs and longer shelf life
6. Require fewer environmental resources due to more disease and drought resistant plants

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What is the done to the DNA and how is it involved

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What is the done to the DNA and how is it involved

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The first stage in making a GM plant requires transfer of DNA into a plant cell. There are only two methods in order to transfer the DNA. One of the methods is to coat the surface of small metal particles with the relevant DNA fragment, and bombard the particles into the plant cells. The other method is to use a bacterium or virus. For GM plants, the bacterium most frequently used is called Agrobacterium tumefaciens. The gene of interest is transferred into the bacterium and the bacterial cells then transfer the new DNA to the genome of the plant cells. The plant cells that have successfully taken up the DNA are then grown to create a new plant. This is possible because individual plant cells have an impressive capacity to generate entire plants. (Royal Society, 2016)

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Here is a video that explains genetically modified foods; cisgenic vs transgenic

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Here is a video that explains genetically modified foods; cisgenic vs transgenic

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What Is a Genetically Modified Food? - Instant Egghead #45

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There are many different examples as this technique is very popular and used by many people - mainly farmers. One example is the organism corn. In order for corn to have the genetic conferred trait of being insect resisted, there has to be a genetic change in the organism. In this example, it is done through the expression of insecticidal protein Cry1Ab from Bacillus thuringiensis. ( Phillips 2008) By doing this to the organism, they will not be eaten by insects that tend to kill the crop.

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Transgenics is the brand of biology that’s concerned with transgenic organisms. Transgenic engineering refers to the movement or insertion of a gene into an organism that normally does not have a copy of that gene, unlike genetic engineering which only increases, decreases or removes a gene that is already present in the organism. Transgenic engineering can be either natural or induced. (Hannah, 2016) In conclusion, they are very similar, and one could say they are almost exactly the same process.

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Most transgenic crops are created to make plants resistant to different herbicides or insects. Others are engineered to become more resistant to disease and drought. Still, other transgenic crops are designed to have more nutrients or fewer toxins. Transgenic crops are highly regulated. In the United States, before a crop is allowed to go to the marketplace, the EPA, FDA, and USDA all provide oversight. (Clark, 2016)

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Genetically modified food is food produced from plants or animals whose DNA has been altered through genetic engineering. Genetic engineering is the process of manipulating an organism’s genes directly. For example, transplanting DNA from other organisms. Genetically modified foods have been on the US market since 1994. (Plumer, 2015)