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A is any place where buyers and sellers meet to trade products. The market price is the amount customers are charged for items and depends on and .

is the amount of a product customers are prepared to buy at different prices. is the amount of a product businesses are prepared to sell at different prices.

There are many different types of market. The goods market is where everyday products such as DVDs are traded. The commodities market is where raw materials such as wheat are traded.

Market prices change when supply and demand patterns change.

An increase in demand following a successful advertising campaign usually causes an increase in price.

An increase in supply when a new business opens usually causes a fall in price.

Changing market prices affect a firm's costs. When the price of commodities such as oil and electricity increases, a business finds its own costs of production rise. Higher costs are either:

to the consumer in the form of higher prices.

by the firm. This leaves prices unchanged but means lower profit margins for the company.

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Supply and demand - Economy - GCSE Business Revision - Other - BBC Bitesize

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A is any place where buyers and sellers meet to trade products. The market price is the amount customers are charged for items and depends on and . is the amount of a product customers are prepared to buy at different prices. is the amount of a product businesses are prepared to sell at different prices.

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Not your computer? Use Guest mode to sign in privately. Learn more about using Guest mode

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An introduction to the discipline of Politics

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Which IDEOLOGY (set of ideas/beliefs) do they presently follow?

What is the SYSTEM of government?

Who is the leader?

How did the leader come to power?

Are leaders elected?

How long has the leader been in power?

What are the main political parties?

What are the main ideological differences between the political parties?

Is there broad support for each party or are there divisions by geographic region, religious affiliation, socio-economic status, or race?

How do laws come into effect?

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We are a global collaboration of changemakers and disruptors questioning the status quo. Whether you represent an organization, a business, a government agency or are working independently towards a Wellbeing Economy, we can learn from one another and accelerate change together.

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We are a global collaboration of changemakers and disruptors questioning the status quo. Whether you represent an organization, a business, a government agency or are working independently towards a Wellbeing Economy, we can learn from one another and accelerate change together.

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Anarchism
Communism
Socialism
Liberalism
Conservatism
Fascism

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Scientific Revolution: Crash Course European History #12

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What ENTERPRISES does the state control?

Is education free?

Is education accessible to all?

To what age are children required to go to school?

Is healthcare free?

Is healthcare accessible to all?

Is there a minimum wage? How much is it per hour?

Have you noticed significant economic progress in your lifetime?

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Greek democracy and modern democracy

The architects of the first democracies of the modern era, post-revolutionary France and the United States, claimed a line of descent from classical Greek demokratia - 'government of the people by the people for the people', as Abraham Lincoln put it. But at this point it is crucial that we keep in mind the differences between our and the Greeks' systems of democracy - three key differences in particular: of scale, of participation and of eligibility.

First, scale. There were no proper population censuses in ancient Athens, but the most educated modern guess puts the total population of fifth-century Athens, including its home territory of Attica, at around 250,000 - men, women and children, free and unfree, enfranchised and disenfranchised. Of those 250,000 some 30,000 on average were fully paid-up citizens - the adult males of Athenian birth and full status. Of those 30,000 perhaps 5,000 might regularly attend one or more meetings of the popular Assembly, of which there were at least 40 a year in Aristotle's day. 6,000 citizens were selected to fill the annual panel of potential jurymen who would staff the popular jury courts (a typical size of jury was 501), as for the trial of Socrates.

An Athenian men's club

The second key difference is the level of participation. Our democracy is representative - we choose politicians to rule for us. Athenian democracy was direct and in-your-face. To make it as participatory as possible, most officials and all jurymen were selected by lot. This was thought to be the democratic way, since election favoured the rich, famous and powerful over the ordinary citizen. From the mid fifth century, office holders, jurymen, members of the city's main administrative Council of 500, and even Assembly attenders were paid a small sum from public funds to compensate them for time spent on political service away from field or workshop.

The third key difference is eligibility. Only adult male citizens need apply for the privileges and duties of democratic government, and a birth criterion of double descent - from an Athenian mother as well as father - was strictly insisted upon. Women, even Athenian women, were totally excluded - this was a men's club. Foreigners, especially unfree slave foreigners, were excluded formally and rigorously. The citizen body was a closed political elite.

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The architects of the first democracies of the modern era, post-revolutionary France and the United States, claimed a line of descent from classical Greek demokratia - 'government of the people by the people for the people', as Abraham Lincoln put it.

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By 1215, thanks to years of unsuccessful foreign policies and heavy taxation demands, England's King John was facing down a possible rebellion by the country's powerful barons. Under duress, he agreed to a charter of liberties known as the Magna Carta (or Great Charter) that would place him and all of England's future sovereigns within a rule of law. Though it was not initially successful, the document was reissued (with alterations) in 1216, 1217 and 1225, and eventually served as the foundation for the English system of common law. Later generations of Englishmen would celebrate the Magna Carta as a symbol of freedom from oppression, as would the Founding Fathers of the United States of America, who in 1776 looked to the charter as a historical precedent for asserting their liberty from the English crown.

Background and Context

John (the youngest son of Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine) was not the first English king to grant concessions to his citizens in the form of a charter, though he was the first one to do so under threat of civil war. Upon taking the throne in 1100, Henry I had issued a Coronation Charter in which he promised to limit taxation and confiscation of church revenues, among other abuses of power. But he went on to ignore these precepts, and the barons lacked the power to enforce them. They later gained more leverage, however, as a result of the English crown's need to fund the Crusades and pay a ransom for John's brother and predecessor, Richard I (known as Richard the Lionheart), who was taken prisoner by Emperor Henry VI of Germany during the Third Crusade.

Did you know? Today, memorials stand at Runnymede to commemorate the site's connection to freedom, justice and liberty. In addition to the John F. Kennedy Memorial, Britain's tribute to the 35th U.S. president, a rotunda built by the American Bar Association stands as "a tribute to Magna Carta, symbol of freedom under law."

In 1199, when Richard died without leaving an heir, John was forced to contend with a rival for succession in the form of his nephew Arthur (the young son of John's deceased brother Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany). After a war with King Philip II of France, who supported Arthur, John was able to consolidate power. He immediately angered many former supporters with his cruel treatment of prisoners (including Arthur, who was probably murdered on John's orders). By 1206, John's renewed war with France had caused him to lose the duchies of Normandy and Anjou, among other territories.

Who Signed the Magna Carta and Why?

A feud with Pope Innocent III, beginning in 1208, further damaged John's prestige, and he became the first English sovereign to suffer the punishment of excommunication (later meted out to Henry VIII and Elizabeth I). After another embarrassing military defeat by France in 1213, John attempted to refill his coffers-and rebuild his reputation-by demanding scutage (money paid in lieu of military service) from the barons who had not joined him on the battlefield. By this time, Stephen Langton, whom the pope had named as archbishop of Canterbury over John's initial opposition, was able to channel baronial unrest and put increasing pressure on the king for concessions.

With negotiations stalled early in 1215, civil war broke out, and the rebels-led by baron Robert FitzWalter, John's longtime adversary-gained control of London. Forced into a corner, John yielded, and on June 15, 1215, at Runnymede (located beside the River Thames, now in the county of Surrey), he accepted the terms included in a document called the Articles of the Barons. Four days later, after further modifications, the king and the barons issued a formal version of the document, which would become known as the Magna Carta. Intended as a peace treaty, the charter failed in his goals, as civil war broke out within three months.

After John's death in 1216, advisors to his nine-year-old son and successor, Henry III, reissued the Magna Carta with some of its most controversial clauses taken out, thus averting further conflict. The document was reissued again in 1217 and once again in 1225 (in return for a grant of taxation to the king). Each subsequent issue of the Magna Carta followed that "final" 1225 version.

What Did the Magna Carta Do?

Written in Latin, the Magna Carta (or Great Charter) was effectively the first written constitution in European history. Of its 63 clauses, many concerned the various property rights of barons and other powerful citizens, suggesting the limited intentions of the framers. The benefits of the charter were for centuries reserved for only the elite classes, while the majority of English citizens still lacked a voice in government. In the 17th century, however, two defining acts of English legislation-the Petition of Right (1628) and the Habeas Corpus Act (1679)-referred to Clause 39, which states that "no free man shall be...imprisoned or disseised [dispossessed]... except by the lawful judgment of his peers or by the law of the land." Clause 40 ("To no one will we sell, to no one will we deny or delay right or justice") also had dramatic implications for future legal systems in Britain and America.

In 1776, rebellious American colonists looked to the Magna Carta as a model for their demands of liberty from the English crown on the eve of the American Revolution. Its legacy is especially evident in the Bill of Rights and the U.S. Constitution, and nowhere more so than in the Fifth Amendment ("Nor shall any persons be deprived of life, liberty or property without due process of law"), which echoes Clause 39. Many state constitutions also include ideas and phrases that can be traced directly to the historic document.

Where Is the Original Magna Carta?

Four original copies of the Magna Carta of 1215 exist today: one in Lincoln Cathedral, one in Salisbury Cathedral, and two in the British Museum.

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By 1215, thanks to years of unsuccessful foreign policies and heavy taxation demands, England's King John was facing down a possible rebellion by the country's powerful barons. Under duress, he agreed to a charter of liberties known as the Magna Carta (or Great Charter) that would place him and all of England's future sovereigns within a rule of law.

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What to know about the Magna Carta on its 800th anniversary.

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Communism vs. Socialism: What's The Difference?

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Communism vs. Socialism: What's The Difference?

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Communism vs. Socialism: What's The Difference?

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Was Karl Marx right?

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Communism | The 20th century | World history | Khan Academy

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Capitalism and Socialism: Crash Course World History #33

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Liberalism: where did it come from and are its days numbered?

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Liberalism: where did it come from and are its days numbered?

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Liberalism: where did it come from and are its days numbered?

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The Rise of Conservatism: Crash Course US History #41

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Fascism and Mussolini | The 20th century

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Fascism and Mussolini | The 20th century

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Fascism and Mussolini | The 20th century | World history | Khan Academy

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When Capitalism is Great and Not-so-great

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When Capitalism is Great and Not-so-great

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When Capitalism is Great and Not-so-great

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Role of government - Economy - GCSE Business Revision - Other - BBC Bitesize

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Learn and revise about supply and demand in business with BBC Bitesize GCSE Business Studies.

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Chiefs of State and Cabinet Members of Foreign Governments

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The Central Intelligence Agency publishes and updates the online directory of Chiefs of State and Cabinet Members of Foreign Governments weekly. The directory is intended to be used primarily as a reference aid and includes as many governments of the world as is considered practical, some of them not officially recognized by the United States.

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Enlightenment Period: Thinkers & Ideas | HISTORY

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Enlightenment was a movement of politics, philosophy, science and communications in Europe during the 19th century.

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Please click below to access the Google slides.

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The Scientific Revolution and the Age of Enlightenment | World History | Khan Academy

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Totalitarianism, authoritarianism, and fascism are all forms of government-and defining different forms of government isn't as easy as it might seem.

All nations have an official type of government as designated in the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency's World Factbook. However, a nation's own description of its form of government can often be less than objective. For example, while the former Soviet Union declared itself a democracy, its elections were not "free and fair", as only one party with state-approved candidates was represented. The USSR is more correctly classified as a socialist republic.

In addition, the boundaries between various forms of government can be fluid or poorly-defined, often with overlapping characteristics. Such is the case with totalitarianism, authoritarianism, and fascism.

What Is Totalitarianism?

Totalitarianism is a form of government in which the state's power is unlimited and controls virtually all aspects of public and private life. This control extends to all political and financial matters as well as the attitudes, morals, and beliefs of the people.

The concept of totalitarianism was developed in the 1920s by Italian fascists. They attempted to spin it positively by referring to what they considered totalitarianism's "positive goals" for society. Still, most Western civilizations and governments quickly rejected the concept of totalitarianism and continue to do so today.

One distinctive feature of totalitarian governments is the existence of an explicit or implied national ideology-a set of beliefs intended to give meaning and direction to the entire society.

According to Russian history expert and author Richard Pipes, Fascist Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini once summarized the basis of totalitarianism as, "Everything within the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the state."

Examples of characteristics that might be present in a totalitarian state include:

Rule enforced by a single dictator

The presence of a single ruling political party

Strict censorship, if not total control of the press

Constant dissemination of pro-government propaganda

Mandatory service in the military for all citizens

Mandatory population control practices

Prohibition of certain religious or political groups and practices

Prohibition of any form of public criticism of the government

Laws enforced by secret police forces or the military

Typically, the characteristics of a totalitarian state tend to cause people to fear their government. Rather than trying to allay that fear, totalitarian rulers encourage it and use it to ensure the people's cooperation.

Early examples of totalitarian states include Germany under Adolf Hitler and Italy under Benito Mussolini. More recent examples of totalitarian states include Iraq under Saddam Hussein and North Korea under Kim Jong-un.

What Is Authoritarianism?

An authoritarian state is characterized by a strong central government that allows people a limited degree of political freedom. However, the political process, as well as all individual freedom, is controlled by the government without any constitutional accountability

In 1964, Juan José Linz, Professor Emeritus of Sociology and Political Science at Yale University, described the four most recognizable characteristics of authoritarian states as:

Limited political freedom with strict government controls imposed on political institutions and groups like legislatures, political parties, and interest groups

A controlling regime that justifies itself to the people as a "necessary evil" uniquely capable of coping with "easily recognizable societal problems" such as hunger, poverty, and violent insurgency

Strict government-imposed constraints on social freedoms such as suppression of political opponents and anti-regime activity

The presence of a ruling executive with vague, shifting, and loosely-defined powers

Modern dictatorships such as Venezuela under Hugo Chávez and Cuba under Fidel Castro typify authoritarian governments.

While the People's Republic of China under Chairman Mao Zedong was considered a totalitarian state, modern-day China is more accurately described as an authoritarian state because its citizens are now allowed some limited personal freedoms.

Totalitarian Vs. Authoritarian Governments

In a totalitarian state, the government's range of control over the people is virtually unlimited. The government controls nearly all aspects of the economy, politics, culture, and society. Education, religion, the arts and sciences, and even morality and reproductive rights are controlled by totalitarian governments.

While all power in an authoritarian government is held by a single dictator or group, the people are allowed a limited degree of political freedom.

What Is Fascism?

Rarely employed since the end of World War II in 1945, fascism is a form of government combining the most extreme aspects of both totalitarianism and authoritarianism. Even when compared to extreme nationalistic ideologies like Marxism and anarchism, fascism is typically considered to be at the far-right end of the political spectrum.

Fascism is characterized by the imposition of dictatorial power, government control of industry and commerce, and the forcible suppression of opposition, often at the hands of the military or a secret police force. Fascism was first seen in Italy during World War I, later spreading to Germany and other European countries during World War II.

The Foundations of Fascism

The foundation of fascism is a combination of ultranationalism-an extreme devotion to one's nation over all others-along with a widely held belief among the people that the nation must and will be somehow saved or "reborn." Rather than working for concrete solutions to economic, political, and social problems, fascist rulers divert the peoples' focus, while winning public support, by elevating the idea of a need for a national rebirth into a virtual religion. To this end, fascists encourage the growth of cults of national unity and racial purity.

In pre-World War II Europe, fascists movements tended to promote the belief that non-Europeans were genetically inferior to non-Europeans. This passion for racial purity often led fascist leaders to undertake mandatory genetic modification programs intended to create a pure "national race" through selective breeding.

Historically, the primary function of fascist regimes has been to maintain the nation in a constant state of readiness for war. Fascists observed how rapid, mass military mobilizations during World War I blurred the lines between the roles of civilians and combatants. Drawing on those experiences, fascist rulers strive to create a rabidly nationalistic culture of "military citizenship" in which all citizens are willing and prepared to take on some military duties during times of war, including actual combat.

In addition, fascists view democracy and the electoral process as an obsolete and unnecessary obstacle to maintaining constant military readiness. They also consider a totalitarian, one-party state as the key to preparing the nation for war and its resulting economic and social hardships.

Today, few governments publicly describe themselves as fascist. Instead, the label is more often used pejoratively by those critical of particular governments or leaders. The term "neo-fascist," for example, describes governments or individuals espousing radical, far-right political ideologies similar to those of the World War II fascist states.

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Totalitarianism, Authoritarianism, and Fascism: What Is the Difference?

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Totalitarianism, authoritarianism, and fascism are all forms of government-and defining different forms of government isn't as easy as it might seem. All nations have an official type of government as designated in the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency's World Factbook. However, a nation's own description of its form of government can often be less than objective.

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A List of Current Communist Countries in the World

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A List of Current Communist Countries in the World

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During the time of the Soviet Union (1922-1991), communist countries could be found in Eastern Europe, Asia, and Africa. Some of these nations, like the People's Republic of China, were (and still are) global players in their own right. Other communist countries, such as East Germany, were essentially satellites of the U.S.S.R. that played a significant role during the Cold War but no longer exist.

Communism is both a political system and an economic one. In politics, communist parties have absolute power over governance, and elections are single-party affairs. In economics, the party controls the country's economic system, and private ownership is illegal, although this facet of communist rule has changed in some countries like China.

By contrast, socialist nations are generally democratic with multi-party political systems. A socialist party does not have to be in power for socialist principles-such as a strong social safety net and government ownership of key industries and infrastructure-to be part of a nation's domestic agenda. Unlike communism, private ownership is encouraged in most socialist nations.

The basic principles of communism were articulated in the mid-1800s by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, two German economic and political philosophers. But it wasn't until the Russian Revolution of 1917 that a communist nation-the Soviet Union-was born. By the middle of the 20th century, it appeared that communism could supersede democracy as the dominant political and economic ideology. Yet today, only five communist countries remain in the world.

Laos (Lao People's Democratic Republic)

Laos-officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic-became a communist country in 1975 following a revolution supported by Vietnam and the Soviet Union. The country had previously been a monarchy.

Laos' government is largely run by military generals who support a one-party system grounded in Marxist ideals. In 1988 though, the country began allowing some forms of private ownership, and it joined the World Trade Organization in 2013.

Socialist Countries

While the world has just five truly communist countries, socialist countries (countries whose constitutions include statements about the protection and rule of the working class) are relatively common Examples include Portugal, Sri Lanka, India, Guinea-Bissau, and Tanzania. Many of these nations, such as India, have multi-party political systems, and several are liberalizing their economies, like Portugal.

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List of All the Communist Countries in the World

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During the time of the Soviet Union (1922-1991), communist countries could be found in Eastern Europe, Asia, and Africa. Some of these nations, like the People's Republic of China, were (and still are) global players in their own right. Other communist countries, such as East Germany, were essentially satellites of the U.S.S.R.

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Economic Systems and Macroeconomics: Crash Course Economics #3

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Here's a rundown of the various forms of government, with definitions provided by "The World Factbook." Absolute monarchy - a form of government where the monarch rules unhindered, i.e., without any laws, constitution or legally organized opposition.

Anarchy - a condition of lawlessness or political disorder brought about by the absence of governmental authority.

Authoritarian - a form of government in which state authority is imposed onto many aspects of citizens' lives.

Commonwealth - a nation, state or other political entity founded on law and united by a compact of the people for the common good.

Communist - a system of government in which the state plans and controls the economy and a single -- often authoritarian -- party holds power; state controls are imposed with the elimination of private ownership of property or capital while claiming to make progress toward a higher social order in which all goods are equally shared by the people (i.e., a classless society).

Confederacy (Confederation) - a union by compact or treaty between states, provinces or territories that creates a central government with limited powers; the constituent entities retain supreme authority over all matters except those delegated to the central government.

Constitutional - a government by or operating under an authoritative document (constitution) that sets forth the system of fundamental laws and principles that determines the nature, functions and limits of that government.

Constitutional democracy - a form of government in which the sovereign power of the people is spelled out in a governing constitution.

Constitutional monarchy - a system of government in which a monarch is guided by a constitution whereby his/her rights, duties, and responsibilities are spelled out in written law or by custom.

Democracy - a form of government in which the supreme power is retained by the people, but which is usually exercised indirectly through a system of representation and delegated authority periodically renewed.

Democratic republic - a state in which the supreme power rests in the body of citizens entitled to vote for officers and representatives responsible to them.

Dictatorship - a form of government in which a ruler or small clique wield absolute power (not restricted by a constitution or laws).

Ecclesiastical - a government administrated by a church.

Emirate - similar to a monarchy or sultanate, a government in which the supreme power is in the hands of an emir (the ruler of a Muslim state); the emir may be an absolute overlord or a sovereign with constitutionally limited authority.

Federal (Federation) - a form of government in which sovereign power is formally divided -- usually by means of a constitution -- between a central authority and a number of constituent regions (states, colonies or provinces) so that each region retains some management of its internal affairs; differs from a confederacy in that the central government exerts influence directly upon both individuals as well as upon the regional units.

Federal republic - a state in which the powers of the central government are restricted and in which the component parts (states, colonies, or provinces) retain a degree of self-government; ultimate sovereign power rests with the voters who chose their governmental representatives.

Islamic republic - a particular form of government adopted by some Muslim states; although such a state is, in theory, a theocracy, it remains a republic, but its laws are required to be compatible with the laws of Islam.

Maoism - the theory and practice of Marxism-Leninism developed in China by Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung), which states that a continuous revolution is necessary if the leaders of a communist state are to keep in touch with the people.

Marxism - the political, economic and social principles espoused by 19th century economist Karl Marx; he viewed the struggle of workers as a progression of historical forces that would proceed from a class struggle of the proletariat (workers) exploited by capitalists (business owners), to a socialist "dictatorship of the proletariat," to, finally, a classless society -- Communism.

Marxism-Leninism - an expanded form of communism developed by Vladimir Lenin from doctrines of Karl Marx; Lenin saw imperialism as the final stage of capitalism and shifted the focus of workers' struggle from developed to underdeveloped countries.

Monarchy - a government in which the supreme power is lodged in the hands of a monarch who reigns over a state or territory, usually for life and by hereditary right; the monarch may be either a sole absolute ruler or a sovereign - such as a king, queen or prince - with constitutionally limited authority.

Oligarchy - a government in which control is exercised by a small group of individuals whose authority generally is based on wealth or power.

Parliamentary democracy - a political system in which the legislature (parliament) selects the government - a prime minister, premier or chancellor along with the cabinet ministers - according to party strength as expressed in elections; by this system, the government acquires a dual responsibility: to the people as well as to the parliament.

Parliamentary government (Cabinet-Parliamentary government) - a government in which members of an executive branch (the cabinet and its leader - a prime minister, premier or chancellor) are nominated to their positions by a legislature or parliament, and are directly responsible to it; this type of government can be dissolved at will by the parliament (legislature) by means of a no-confidence vote or the leader of the cabinet may dissolve the parliament if it can no longer function.

Parliamentary monarchy - a state headed by a monarch who is not actively involved in policy formation or implementation (i.e., the exercise of sovereign powers by a monarch in a ceremonial capacity); true governmental leadership is carried out by a cabinet and its head - a prime minister, premier or chancellor - who are drawn from a legislature (parliament).

Presidential - a system of government where the executive branch exists separately from a legislature (to which it is generally not accountable).

Republic - a representative democracy in which the people's elected deputies (representatives), not the people themselves, vote on legislation.

Socialism - a government in which the means of planning, producing and distributing goods is controlled by a central government that theoretically seeks a more just and equitable distribution of property and labor; in actuality, most socialist governments have ended up being no more than dictatorships over workers by a ruling elite.

Sultanate - similar to a monarchy, a government in which the supreme power is in the hands of a sultan (the head of a Muslim state); the sultan may be an absolute ruler or a sovereign with constitutionally limited authority.

Theocracy - a form of government in which a Deity is recognized as the supreme civil ruler, the Deity's laws are interpreted by ecclesiastical authorities (bishops, mullahs, etc.); a government subject to religious authority.

Totalitarian - a government that seeks to subordinate the individual to the state by controlling not only all political and economic matters, but also the attitudes, values and beliefs of its population.
Got a question? Send us an email and crack it. Follow Remy Melina on Twitter @RemyMelina

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What Are the Different Types of Governments?

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From absolute monarchy to totalitarianism, here's an alphabetical rundown of the various forms of government throughout the world.

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This is a list of countries categorized by system of government.

Presidential / Separated republics

Where a president is the active head of the executive branch of government and is independent from the legislature. The following list includes democratic and non-democratic states:

Full presidential systems

In full presidential systems, the president is both head of state and head of government. There is no prime minister.

Semi-presidential systems

In semi-presidential systems, there is a president and a prime minister. In such systems, the President has genuine executive authority, unlike in a parliamentary republic, but some of the role of a head of government is exercised by the prime minister.

Parliamentary republics

Where a prime minister is the active head of the executive branch of government and also leader of the legislature. However, there is also a president who serves as a symbolic head of state in some figurehead capacity. The following list includes democratic and non-democratic states:

Absolute monarchies

Monarchies in which the monarch is the active head of the executive branch and exercises all powers.

Constitutional monarchies

Where a prime minister is the active head of the executive branch of government and also leader of the legislature. The head of state is a constitutional monarch who only exercises his or her powers with the consent of the government and is largely a figurehead.

Semi-constitutional monarchies

The prime minister (or equivalent) is the nation's active executive, but the monarch still has considerable political powers that can be used at his/her own independent discretion.

Commonwealth realms

Constitutional monarchies, in which Queen Elizabeth II serves as head of state over an independent government. In each Realm, she acts as the monarch of that state, and is usually titled accordingly - for example, Queen of Australia. The Queen appoints a Governor-General to each country other than the United Kingdom to act as her representative. The prime minister is the active head of the executive branch of government and also leader of the legislature.

Theocracies

Non-democratic states based on a state religion where the head of state is selected by some form of religious hierarchy.

One-party states

Non-democratic states in which political power is concentrated within a single political party whose operations are largely fused with the government hierarchy.

People's Republic of China ( Communist Party) ( list)

Cuba ( Communist Party) ( list)

Eritrea ( People's Front) ( list)

Democratic People's Republic of Korea ( Workers' Party) ( list)

Laos ( Revolutionary (Communist) Party) ( list)

Syria ( Arab Socialist Ba'th Party) ( list)

Turkmenistan ( Democratic Party) ( list)

Vietnam ( Communist Party) ( list)

Military junta states

The nation's armed forces control the organs of government and all high-ranking political executives are also members of the military hierarchy.

Transitional

States which have a system of government which is in transition or turmoil and cannot be accurately classified.

Systems of Internal Governance

States in which the federal government shares power with semi-independent regional governments. In many cases, the central government is (in theory) a creation of the regional governments; a prime example is the United States.

States in which the central government has delegated some of its powers to self-governing subsidiary governments, creating a de facto federation.

Regionalized unitary

States in which the central government has delegated some of its powers to regional governments.

Chile (13 regions, each one divided into smaller provinces, which are sub-divided into several municipalities).

Italy (20 regions, five granted 'autonomous' status)

New Zealand (12 regions, 4 unitary authorities)

People's Republic of China (22 provinces, 5 autonomous regions, 4 municipalities, and 2 Special Administrative Regions: Hong Kong and Macau)

Philippines (79 provinces grouped into 17 regions, one granted 'administrative' status and one granted 'autonomous' status)

Serbia, significant autonomy granted to Kosovo.

A federacy is a country in which some substates function like states in a federation and others like states in a unitary state.

Denmark with 2 autonomous regions and 13 counties;

Finland with 1 autonomous province and 19 regions;

The Netherlands with 2 states and 12 provinces.

France with 1 sui generis collectivity and 26 régions, 4 collectivités d'outre-mer, 1 territoire d'outre-mer

see Unitary state

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list of countries by system of government

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List of countries by system of government

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This is a list of countries categorized by system of government. Where a president is the active head of the executive branch of government and is independent from the legislature. The following list includes democratic and non-democratic states: In full presidential systems, the president is both head of state and head of government.

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What does it take to go down as a great leader on the African continent? Perhaps it requires perseverance and dedication. What about responsibility? Surely, with enormous power comes great responsibility. The personalities we are about to explore had more to them than the above character traits. These African men and women had the highest sense of responsibility mixed with heavy doses of altruism.

Heroes and heroine of their times, these leaders were willing to put everything on the line to encounter the unknown and articulate change in Africa. Join us as we take a journey down memory lane to explore the 10 greatest African leaders of the contemporary era.

NELSON MANDELA

Nelson Mandela was one of Africa's finest citizens and statesmen. Prior to becoming president of South Africa (1994-1999), he sacrificed a great chunk of his life fighting against the apartheid political system in the country. As South Africa's first black president, his government tackled key racial systems that segregated and tore apart the country's diverse races. Mandela was a revolutionary who got imprisoned on several occasions for his activism. Upon his release, after 27 years behind bars, his African National Congress (ANC) party won the 1994 general election (South Africa's first free, multi-racial and democratic election). Affectionately referred to as "Madiba" (his traditional Xhosa clan name), Mandela forgave all his enemies and created reconciliation commissions (chaired by Anglican Archbishop Desmond Tutu) to probe past human rights violations. He won a Nobel Peace Prize in 1993 for his peace-loving life and the various projects and works to end the brutal decades of Apartheid in South Africa.

HAILE SELASSIE

Haile Selassie, also known as Ras Tafari Makonnen, was an Ethiopian ruler and emperor from 1916 to 1974. Undoubtedly, Selassie was one of the biggest sons of Africa whose name can never be erased from history. Even at a young age, Selassie showed promising intellectual capacity. His intelligence quickly earned him political appointments from the Ethiopian emperor. Selassie eventually became emperor of Ethiopia upon the death of his father-in-law. During his reign, several schools were constructed, social injustice fell, and the security forces of the state were strengthened. Selassie used his immense influence on the continent to push for a more united Africa. He went on to build an extensive network of ties with African communities in the diaspora as well as other Caribbean islands. Up to this day, some circles within those communities (particularly the Rastafari community) often regard him as the reincarnated messiah.

KWAME NKRUMAH

Kwame Nkrumah is a highly revered Ghanaian politician who led the country in 1957 (formerly Gold Coast) to gain independence from the country's colonial masters (Britain). One can conclude that he was the founder of Ghana, without being too wrong. Nkrumah was the first president and Prime Minister of Ghana. He was a Pan-Africanist who co-founded the Africa Union (A.U) (formerly the Organization of African Union). Nkrumah returned to Gold Coast after studying abroad for 12 years. He became a revolutionary who got arrested for causing political riots. His tenure as president saw massive developmental projects across the length and breadth of Ghana. Nkrumah's legacy in Ghana, and even beyond, is unparalleled.

JULIUS NYERERE

Julius Nyerere is another unforgettable hero of the African continent. He was the first president and Prime Minister of Tanzania (formerly Tanganyika). His rule as a statesman lasted from 1961 to 1985. As an intellectual who had masters degrees in economics and history, Nyerere was an African nationalist and a socialist. In 1953, Julius Nyerere co-founded the TANU (Tanganyika African National Union). As president of TANU, Nyerere piled a lot of pressure on Britain for self-rule and governance. His efforts finally paid off on 9th December 1961, as Tanzania gained independence.

PATRICE LUMUMBA

Lumumba was a revolutionary Congo politician who helped the country to gain independence. He was the first Prime Minister of the Republic of Congo (now called D.R. Congo) from July to September of 1960. He acquired Belgian citizenship and worked as the president of a Congolese trade union. When he came back to Congo, Patrice Lumumba founded the Congolese National Movement (MNC). Lumumba used Pan-African ideologies to push for independence for his country. Congo gained its independence from Belgium on June 30, 1961 largely due to Lumumba's struggle. He garnered a lot of public support for his excellent personality and good communication skills. Sadly, Lumumba was ousted from office by Colonel Mobutu and later assassinated in January, 1961. The Congolese nationalist and Father of Congolese Independence Movement was just 35 at the time of his brutal execution.

KOFI ANNAN

Kofi Annan's name cannot be skipped in any important list of African leaders. Even though he wasn't a mainstream politician, he was a world leader from Africa. Kofi Annan was a Ghanaian diplomat who led the United Nations (UN) as its 7th Secretary-General from 1997 to 2006. When he was in charge of the UN, Annan tackled the HIV/AIDS pandemic in Africa. He worked to resolve a lot of conflicts in the world. He and the UN were awarded a Nobel Peace Prize in 2006. His post-UN Secretary-General years were also very successful. He served as special envoys and headed several organizations in countries such as Syria and Myanmar. The Kofi Annan Foundation, a charitable and global policy think-tank, is just one of the numerous legacy works that owe its existence to Annan. In the early hours of 18 August 2018, news of Annan's death broke out. The distinguished diplomat passed away at the age of 80. Annan will be forever be etched into our memories as a great leader who tirelessly fought for global peace and hunger eradication.

THOMAS SANKARA

Thomas Sankara is widely regarded as one of Africa's political heroes. He was a revolutionary who became Burkina Faso's president from 1983-1987. Sankara was a strong Pan-Africanist and a supporter of Marxism. He is generally viewed as an icon of revolution or the Che Guevara of Africa. When he was 20, Sankara joined the army and got trained in Madagascar in 1970. That was where he observed how students revolted against the Madagascan government. This experience changed his life forever. Sankara returned to the Upper Volta in 1980. He went on to seize power in 1983 and changed the country's name from Upper Volta to Burkina Faso. Sadly Sankara's pursuit of growth, gender equality, and social justice came to an end in 1987. On October 15, 1987, Sankara was brutally assassinated at the age of 37 by his former friend (Campoare), in a military coup.

JOMO KENYATTA

His name is one of the biggest in the history of African politics. Jomo Kenyatta was an anti-colonial activist who rose to become the first president of Kenya. He was also the first Prime minister of Kenya (1963-1964). Kenyatta played a big role in ensuring that Kenya freed itself from colonial rule. He was the front line politician in the Kenya National African Union (KANU). His ideologies are that of a nationalist and a conservative. Kenyatta also promoted peace between the country's ethnic groups. He was the one who registered Kenya with the African Union.

KENNETH KAUNDA

Kenneth Kaunda is a Zambian retired politician who became the country's first president from 1964-1991. As a teacher by profession, Kaunda gained a lot of political experiences when he served as a foreign affairs interpreter and adviser in 1949. He worked under Sir Stewart Browne who was a liberal white colonist. Kaunda later joined the African National Congress and took top positions. Leading the socialist United National Independence Party (UNIP), Kenneth Kaunda used peaceful protests and negotiations to secure independence for Zambia on October 24, 1964.

ELLEN JOHNSON-SIRLEAF

Africa's first female head of state's name cannot be omitted from this list. We still have some space to honor her and also to balance the political equation. Johnson-Sirleaf, commonly known as "Africa's Iron Lady", is a former Liberian president who was in office from 2006 to 2018. She is a Harvard graduate with an economics degree who fought hard from prisons and exile and became an inspiration to many young female politicians. By the way, she got a Nobel Peace Prize for laying a suitable foundation for women to establish their future.

The one thing that sets the above leaders apart was their unflinching pursuit of progress and peace on the continent. In spite of the enormous challenges that they faced, they always placed themselves at the forefront of developmental issues and prosperity in Africa. The numerous strides that Africa has made, in terms of gender equity and social justice, can firmly be attributed to the 10 great minds above.
You may also like: Most Ruthless African Dictators

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Greatest African Leaders of all Time - World History Edu

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What does it take to go down as a great leader on the African continent? Perhaps it requires perseverance and dedication. What about responsibility? Surely, with enormous power comes great responsibility. The personalities we are about to explore had more to them than the above character traits.

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Feb. 6 marks the 100th birthday of the late U.S. President Ronald Reagan. Few political figures in recent memory have matched the Gipper's charisma or enduring appeal. We look at other world leaders whose legacies have stood the test of time

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Feb. 6 marks the 100th birthday of the late U.S. President Ronald Reagan. Few political figures in recent memory have matched the Gipper's charisma or enduring appeal. We look at other world leaders whose legacies have stood the test of time

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This general category includes a selection of more specific topics.

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The second decade of the 21st century began with austerity measures to deal with the downturn caused by the global financial crisis and ended with populist governments and illiberal regimes throughout the world. The FT's 50 People of the Decade reflects these developments, with game-changing politicians and influential executives from banking and industry. The explosion in and dominance of computers and smartphones in every aspect of our lives is evident in the number of technology figures. And in a decade where individuals showed themselves to be capable of wrenching power from long-established institutions, those who have made advancements in science, broke new sporting records, protested bravely against persecution and called out institutional harassment could not be overlooked.

A panel of FT reporters finalised the list of individuals across politics, economics, business and technology and culture, media, science and sport. The list and profiles of a selection of them appear below:

Politics

Ethiopian prime minister

Turkish president

Brexiter who changed Britain

Nigel Farage has never won so much as a seat in the British parliament. Yet over the past decade, he has reshaped the country's politics. As leader of the UK Independence party, pressure from Mr Farage was a central part in David Cameron's decision to hold a 2016 referendum on leaving the EU. He then played a buccaneering - if controversial - role in the winning campaign. As support for a second referendum grew, Mr Farage this year established the Brexit party and used its success in European elections to prevent the Conservatives from wavering. Although Boris Johnson triumphed in the general election, a large part of his Brexit approach has been dictated by Mr Farage. Geoff Dyer

Tunisian street vendor whose death in 2010 set the Arab spring in motion

Few people have changed the face of US politics over the past decade more than Charles and David Koch, the billionaire owners of a Kansas-based private industrial empire who used their wealth to launch a hard-right revolution that laid the groundwork for Donald Trump's election in 2016. By financing dozens of anti-government causes and candidates, they helped lead a metamorphosis of the Republican party from a "big tent" coalition that once included pro-business moderates and multilateral internationalists into a more ideologically unified force that has shifted the American political debate further to the right than even Ronald Reagan was able to achieve in the 1980s. Peter Spiegel

French president

German chancellor

Indian prime minister

From his position as a judge in a provincial Brazilian city, Sérgio Moro spearheaded a corruption investigation that rocked Latin America's political establishment. The probe into bribes paid by construction group Odebrecht led to the imprisonment of former Brazilian president Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva and implicated four former or current presidents of Peru - one shot himself before police could arrest him. Last year Mr Moro became justice minister in the government of far-right president Jair Bolsonaro - a move into politics that has cast doubt on his independence as a judge, but which could set him up for a run at the presidency. Geoff Dyer

US president 2008-16

Russian president

It might come as a surprise that Mohammed bin Salman was only named as Saudi Arabia's crown prince in 2017. Since then he has announced a blizzard of social and economic reforms, including the $25bn December listing of oil company Saudi Aramco. But MBS, as he is known, has also escalated the war in Yemen, placed senior members of the Saudi royal family under arrest as part of an anti-corruption drive, and faced a storm of international criticism over the brutal murder of journalist Jamal Khashoggi in the country's consulate in Istanbul. Geoff Dyer

US intelligence whistleblower

Head of Iran's Quds force

No politician has travelled such a dramatic arc as Myanmar's de facto leader. Released from house arrest in 2010 after 15 years, Aung San Suu Kyi travelled to Oslo in 2012 to accept the Nobel Peace Prize she had been awarded in 1991. Although barred from the presidency, her party's triumph in 2015 general elections seemed to cement her legacy as a liberal hero who engineered the decade's most decisive transition from dictatorship to democracy. Yet in early December, she spoke in front of the International Court of Justice in The Hague to defend Myanmar against claims of genocide conducted against Rohingya Muslims - alleged crimes committed by the same military she once opposed. Geoff Dyer

US president

Hong Kong political activist

Chinese president

Malala Yousafzai is to girls' education what Greta Thunberg is to climate change. Born into a Pashtun family in the Swat valley, she began speaking out on the issue when she was 10. After Taliban militants occupied the valley, she started an anonymous blog defending the right of girls to attend school. In 2012, she was shot in the head at close range but was later transferred for treatment to the UK, where she has since lived. In an interview with the FT in the following year, she criticised those who "think Islam means women sitting at home in purdah or wearing burkas while men do jihad". David Pilling

Economics, business and technology

LVMH chairman and chief executive

Amazon founder and chief executive

Apple chief executive

JPMorgan chair and chief executive

European Central Bank president, 2011-2019

BlackRock's founder was already one of Wall Street's most influential operators when the global financial crisis struck, but it was the deal he struck in 2009 to acquire Barclays' asset management unit that catapulted him into the ranks of the world's most powerful people. The exchange traded fund unitwas particularly important, giving BlackRock access to the cheap, passive index-tracking investment vehicles that have exploded in popularity over the past decade. BlackRock is the industry's biggest player, helping boost its assets under management to almost $7tn. Robin Wigglesworth

US philanthropists

Netflix co-founder, chair and chief executive

Silicon Valley is no stranger to big promises, but Elizabeth Holmes captivated the tech world with her promise to revolutionise blood testing. Needles and venous draws would be consigned to history, replaced by her proprietary finger-prick "nanotainer", which could purportedly test for all manner of illnesses with a tiny speck of blood. Better still, her technology was so painless and simple that people would be tested in their local drugstore or supermarket, potentially helping them catch serious illnesses such as cancer. A string of hagiographic profiles in the US media followed, along with hundreds of millions of dollars of investments into her company, Theranos, bestowing it, at one point, with a $9bn valuation. But the technology did not work, and Ms Holmes allegedly duped her investors. She now faces a criminal trial, having been charged with nine counts of wire fraud and two counts of conspiracy to commit wire fraud, which she denies. David Crow

Whether you prefer to style her the youngest self-made billionaire on earth or Gen Z's first billionaire, the 22-year-old founder of Kylie Cosmetics sold a majority stake in her firm to Coty Inc for $600m in November, just in case anyone thought selling lipstick to teens on Instagram was a sideline. A tender nine years old when her family's reality show Keeping Up With The Kardashians began, she was 16 when she used the money from modelling to invest in a cosmetics line, going on to launch a small range of lipsticks and lipliners in 2015. Her only stumble has come from a three-year battle to trademark the name Kylie in the US, blocked by objections from a Ms Minogue. The dispute has now been resolved and both Kylies sell cosmetics. Janine Gibson

Travis Kalanick's frustration one snowy December night in Paris that he couldn't simply "push a button and get a ride" from his phone inspired the creation of ride-hailing service Uber. What began as a high-end limousine service in San Francisco is now a regular habit for more than 100m people worldwide. Burning through more than $15bn of venture capital, Mr Kalanick's pugnacious approach set a new template for "gig economy" ventures in the past decade: asset-light yet also capital-intensive, exploiting legal loopholes to drive rapid growth. However, Mr Kalanick's rule-breaking also enabled bad behaviour within the company and left bad blood with regulators that his successors are still scrambling to fix. Tim Bradshaw

Bank of Japan governor

IMF managing director, 2011-2019

Alibaba co-founder

Italian business leader

The shale energy revolution that transformed the US into the world's leading oil and natural gas producer involved hundreds of exploration and production companies, geologists, engineers and financiers. No one embodied its headlong growth like Chesapeake Energy's Aubrey McClendon, a persuasive industry advocate who built up the largest acreage position in the country. Soaring debts financed Chesapeake's rapid growth, making it an early case study of the sector's struggles to deliver returns to investors. McClendon was replaced as Chesapeake chief executive in 2013 after a scandal involving his personal borrowings. A second act was cut short in 2016 when he died in a car crash aged 56. Gregory Meyer

Tesla founder and chief executive

The French economist's vital analysis of the roots and consequences of inequality - Capital in the Twenty-First Century - helped shape the debate about wealth distribution in the aftermath of the financial crisis. The book, which won FT Business Book of the Year in 2014, gave intellectual grounding to the political movements across the world that grew in response to the rapid accumulation of wealth by the super-rich in an age of austerity and quantitative easing. Josh Noble

Huawei founder and chief executive

EU commissioner for competition

YouTube chief executive

Facebook founder, chairman and chief executive

CULTURE, MEDIA, SPORT AND SCIENCE

British natural historian and broadcaster

American biochemist

The 46-year-old film producer is the mastermind behind the Marvel superhero movie and TV franchise that has come to dominate the entertainment industry and generate tens of billions of dollars at the box office. His success reoriented Hollywood around an all-consuming obsession with superheroes and space adventures, culminating in the record-breaking 2019 hit Avengers: Endgame. The franchise, in which a wide range of characters and storylines were meticulously interwoven by Feige and his team, redefined the superhero genre for a new generation, and helped Disney to not just withstand the threat from new rivals in Silicon Valley, but to fight back. Josh Noble

Rose McGowan once said she knew she was "destined for a big and strange life". Yet even she might not have predicted the role she would play in #MeToo, one of the decade's most influential social movements. In 2016, the outspoken film star posted a series of tweets claiming an unnamed "studio head" had once raped her. The boss was rumoured to be Hollywood producer Harvey Weinstein, so Ms McGowan was among the first women The New York Times called when it launched its 2017 investigation into Mr Weinstein, who has denied all allegations of non-consensual sex. At first Ms McGowan balked at talking to the paper, claiming it had "sexism issues". But the story she eventually told helped to bring down Mr Weinstein and launch a movement that continues to reverberate today. Pilita Clark

The battle to be crowned football's Greatest of All Time has been a key driver for the global marketing machine that football has become, attracting billions of new fans, particularly in Asia, and with it vast sums in sponsorship and broadcasting rights deals. The intense rivalry between the Argentine and Portuguese superstars has played out in the Spanish league, the Champions League and the World Cup - and on countless games consoles across the planet. One of the pair has been named as the world's best player in nine of the past 10 years. Josh Noble

News Corp founder

Mr Rodchenkov, star of the doping movie Icarus, was the mastermind turned whistleblower of Russia's massive state-sponsored doping programme that delivered 34 tainted Olympic medals across five Olympic Games, until it was uncovered with his help after the 2014 winter games in Sochi. The exposure shook global sports, underlined the lengths countries were willing to go for sporting success and has ultimately resulted in Russia's banfrom the next Olympics and football World Cup. Henry Foy

The singer-songwriter has sold 37.3m albums and been named artist of the decade by both the American Music Awards and Billboard. But her power extends far beyond her record sales. She was 16 when she released her first album in 2006, since then she has sued a radio DJ for groping her and waged war and won against both Spotify and Apple Music over royalties paid to artists on streaming services. The first battle took three years, the second 24 hours. Arguably the only person to have bested her was Kanye West in a spat over whether she had agreed to a crude reference to her in his lyrics, a feud which spawned a record-breaking album, Reputation. Scooter Braun and The Carlyle Group are currently learning how it feels to be one of Swift's exes as she seeks to frame a battle over her masters as a fight for artists' rights. Don't bet against her. Janine Gibson

US tennis superstar
Who did we miss? Who would you add? Share who you think have been the most influential people of the decade in the comments below. We may round up and publish a selection on FT.com
Read our Fifty Faces of 2000-09

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The second decade of the 21st century began with austerity measures to deal with the downturn caused by the global financial crisis and ended with populist governments and illiberal regimes throughout the world. The FT's 50 People of the Decade reflects these developments, with game-changing politicians and influential executives from banking and industry.

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On 1 April, the prime minister of Sint Maarten addressed her nation's 41,500 people. Coronavirus cases were rising, and Silveria Jacobs knew the small island country, which welcomes 500,000 tourists a year, was at great risk: it had two ICU beds.

Jacobs did not want to impose a strict lockdown, but she did want physical distancing observed. So she spelled it out: "Simply. Stop. Moving," she said. "If you don't have the bread you like in your house, eat crackers. Eat cereal. Eat oats. Eat ... sardines."

The 51-year-old Caribbean premier may not have the global profile of Angela Merkel or Jacinda Ardern, but her blunt message exemplified firm action, effective communication - and showed another female leader getting the job done.

From Germany to New Zealand and Denmark to Taiwan, women have managed the coronavirus crisis with aplomb. Plenty of countries with male leaders - Vietnam, the Czech Republic, Greece, Australia - have also done well. But few with female leaders have done badly.

Ardern, 39, New Zealand's premier, has held Kiwis' hands through the lockdown, delivering empathetic "stay home, save lives" video messages from her couch and communicating daily through non-combative press conferences or intimate Facebook Live videos, her favourite medium.

Her insistence on saving lives and her kindness-first approach - urging New Zealanders to look after their neighbours, take care of the vulnerable, and make sacrifices for the greater good - has won her many fans, while her emphasis on shared responsibility has united the country.

Choosing to "go hard and go early", Ardern imposed a 14-day quarantine on anyone entering the country on 14 March and implemented a strict lockdown two weeks later, when fewer than 150 people had been infected and none had died. New Zealand has recorded just 18 deaths; public trust in Ardern's government is greater than 80%.

In Germany, Angela Merkel has been hailed for direct but uncharacteristically personal public interventions, warning that up to 70% of people would contract the virus - the country's "greatest challenge" since 1945 - and lamenting every death as that of "a father or grandfather, a mother or grandmother, a partner ..."

Thanks to extensive testing from the outset, plenty of intensive care beds, and the chancellor's periodic forthright reminders that Covid-19 was "serious - so take it seriously", Germany has so far recorded fewer than 5,000 deaths, a far lower figure than most EU countries.

With a doctorate in quantum chemistry, Merkel's clear, calm expositions - a clip of her explaining the scientific basis behind the government's lockdown exit strategy was shared thousands of times online - have also helped propel public approval of the fourth-term chancellor's handling of the crisis above 70%.

In nearby Denmark, meanwhile, the prime minister, Mette Frederiksen, acted equally firmly, closing the Scandinavian country's borders as early as 13 March, and following up a few days later by shutting all kindergartens, schools and universities and banning gatherings of more than 10 people.

That decisiveness appears to have spared Denmark the worst of the pandemic, with fewer than 8,000 confirmed cases and 370 deaths. Frederiksen's no-punches-pulled speeches and clear instructions to the nation have been widely praised.

She even managed to show a sense of fun, posting a clip on Facebook of herself doing the dishes while singing along to the 1980s Danish popsters Dodo and the Dodos during the nation's weekly TV lockdown singalong. The Scandinavian country's youngest-ever prime minister, whose approval ratings have doubled to more than 80%, has now begun easing its lockdown.

Taiwan's president Tsai Ing-wen responded equally fast, activating the country's central epidemic command centre in early January and introducing travel restrictions and quarantine measures. Mass public hygiene measures were rolled out, including disinfecting public areas and buildings.

In all, Taiwan adopted 124 control and contain measures in weeks, making a full lockdown unnecessary. It has reported just six deaths, and is now dispatching millions of face masks to the worst-struck parts of the US and Europe. Tsai's warm, authoritative style has won her plaudits, even from political opponents.

Norway, with 7,200 cases and 182 deaths, this week began relaxing its restrictions by reopening kindergartens. The prime minister, Erna Solberg, told CNN she had made a point of "letting scientists make the big medical decisions", adding that she thought her country's early lockdown and thorough testing programme had been key.

Following an example set earlier by Frederiksen, Solberg also took the unusual step of directly addressing the country's children, telling them in two press conferences - from which adult journalists were banned - that it was "permitted to be a little bit scared" and that she, too, missed being able to hug her friends.

Meanwhile, Iceland, under the prime minister, Katrín Jakobsdóttir's, leadership, has offered free testing to all citizens, not only those with symptoms, and has recorded 1,800 cases and 10 deaths. Some 12% of the population has taken up the offer, and an exhaustive tracing system has meant the country has not had to close schools.

The world's youngest head of government, Finland's prime minister, Sanna Marin, also moved decisively to impose a strict lockdown, including a ban on all non-essential travel in and out of the Helsinki region. This has helped her country contain the spread of the virus to just 4,000 cases and 140 deaths, a per-million toll 10 times lower than that of neighbouring Sweden.

Not all the women who have excelled in the corona crisis are national leaders. Jeong Eun-kyeong, the unflappable head of South Korea's centre for disease control, has become a national icon after overseeing a "test, trace, contain" strategy that has made the country the world's coronavirus role-model, with daily infections in single digits and a death toll of less than 250.

Jeong, a former rural doctor dubbed "the world's best virus hunter", has delivered no-nonsense daily press conferences, including demonstrating the ideal way to cough. While these have won praise, her work ethic - she has left an emergency operations bunker only for quick visits to a food truck - has prompted concern for her health.

Whatever conclusions we may draw from these leaders' performances during the pandemic, experts caution that while women are "disproportionately represented to a rather startling degree" among countries managing the crisis well, dividing men and women heads of state and government into homogenous categories is not necessarily useful.

Complicating factors may be at play. Kathleen Gerson, a professor of sociology at New York University, notes, for example, that women leaders are more likely to be elected in "a political culture in which there's a relative support and trust in the government - and that doesn't make stark distinctions between women and men. So you've already got a head start".

In addition, it may be harder for men to escape "the way they are expected to behave" as leaders, Gerson told The Hill website. And since the very best leaders are both strong and decisive and capable of displaying feeling, women could, perhaps, "lead the way in showing that these are not competing and conflicting attributes, but complementary - and necessary for good leadership", she said.
Topics

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Why do female leaders seem to be more successful at managing the coronavirus crisis?

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On 1 April, the prime minister of Sint Maarten addressed her nation's 41,500 people. Coronavirus cases were rising, and Silveria Jacobs knew the small island country, which welcomes 500,000 tourists a year, was at great risk: it had two ICU beds. Jacobs did not want to impose a strict lockdown, but she did want physical distancing observed.

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On Sept. 15 Helle Thorning-Schmidt led her political alliance to victory in Denmark, paving the way for her to become the country's first female Prime Minister. In honor of female politicians kicking through glass ceilings, TIME takes a look at 13 women who have made it to the top

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Top Female Leaders Around the World - TIME

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On Sept. 15 Helle Thorning-Schmidt led her political alliance to victory in Denmark, paving the way for her to become the country's first female Prime Minister. In honor of female politicians kicking through glass ceilings, TIME takes a look at 13 women who have made it to the top

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Political ideology and economics | US government and civics | Khan Academy

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Ideology and social policy | US government and civics | Khan Academy

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Indicators for Measuring Wellbeing in Iceland

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Indicators for Measuring Wellbeing in Iceland

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Getting it Right for Every Child