# data[].attributes.body
- A few of the most well known traditional food of the Kadazandusun people are hinava, noonsom, pinaasakan, bosou, tuhau, kinoring pork soup and rice wine chicken soup.
- Meanwhile, Tapai, tumpung, lihing, and bahar are some of Kadazandusun's well-known traditional beverages.

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1. “Baba-Nyonya Cuisine: 6 Dishes You Need to Try in Malaysia.” Rough Guides,

https://www.roughguides.com/article/baba-nyonya-peranakan/

2. yufan152000. “Baba-Nyonya Traditional Foods.” A Love Cross Two Culture, 14 Aug. 2016,

https://babanyonyaculture.wordpress.com/2016/08/14/baba-nyonya-traditional-foods/

3. Baba Nyonya Food the Best of Malaysian/Chinese Fusion. 2020,

https://theworldskitchens.com/baba-nyonya-food-of-malaysia/

4. Tan, Joycelyn. “This 63 Y/O M’sian Runs a Biz Making Nyonya Kuih That Even 5-Star Hotels Demand.” Vulcan Post, 17 Dec. 2020,

https://vulcanpost.com/726747/madam-yong-delight-nyonya-kuih-malaysia-supplier/

5. huangskitchen. “Nyonya Rice Dumplings Recipe (Zong Zi) 娘惹粽子.” Huang Kitchen, 17 June 2015,

https://www.huangkitchen.com/nyonya-rice-dumplings/

6. “Traditional Iban Food.” Donoe’s Blog, Donoe’s Blog, 14 Oct. 2010,

https://donoe.wordpress.com/iban/traditional-iban-food/

7. “The Iban Food.” Sarawak Ethnic Groups by TNT Synaesthesia, Sarawak Ethnic Groups by TNT Synaesthesia, 24 Nov. 2010

https://tntsynaesthesia.wordpress.com/iban/food/

8. “IBAN’S FOOD in SARAWAK.”

https://prezi.com/p/ehcipmkvzfa_/ibans-food-in-sarawak/

9. valeriecarlisleakjanin. “Delicious Iban Traditional Food in Sarawak. ‘Manok Pansoh.’” 1 Oct. 2012,

https://valeriecarlisleakjanin.wordpress.com/2012/10/01/delicious-traditional-food-in-sarawak-manok-pansoh/

10. KENALI MAKANAN TRADISIONAL PELBAGAI KAUM DI SABAH.

http://syaaiirraasuanii.blogspot.com/2017/11/

11. Heussaff, Erwan. “This Beef Soup Is Made with Burnt Coconut [Tiyula Itum from Mindanao].” The Fat Kid Inside, 31 Mar. 2021,

https://thefatkidinside.com/this-beef-soup-is-made-with-burnt-coconut-tiyula-itum-from-mindanao/

12. “Latok.” Wikipedia, 30 Nov. 2020,

https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latok

13. sharmalyn_malyn. Makanan Tradisi Suku Kaum Suluk,

http://nieralyn.blogspot.com/2014/05/makanantradisi-suku-kaum-suluk-1.html

14. “Hinava.” Wikipedia, 10 Mar. 2021, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinava

15. “Tuhau.” Wikipedia, 7 Feb. 2021, https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuhau

16. “Kadazan-Dusun.” Wikipedia, 7 Apr. 2020,

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kadazan-Dusun

17. Chong, Casey. “8 Traditional Dishes You Need to Try in Sabah.” TallyPress, 4 Jan. 2019,

https://tallypress.com/fun/8-traditional-dishes-you-need-to-try-in-sabah/

18. baqiahqiey. “Bajau Traditional Foods 1.” Nurhasanahbaqiah, 20 June 2015,

https://nurhasanahbaqiah.wordpress.com/2015/06/20/bajau-traditional-foods-1/

19. “Semporna Local Food to Try before You Die !!!” TripJalan, 17 Mar. 2020,

https://www.tripjalan.com/food-drink/semporna-local-food-to-try-before-you-die

20. “18 Makanan Tradisi Bajau (UNIK Dan SEDAP).” Saji.my, 5 Aug. 2019,

https://saji.my/18-makanan-tradisi-bajau-unik-dan-sedap

21. Ibrahim, Shalawati. “Preliminary Study of Unveiling Bajau Foods Characteristics in Papar, Sabah.”

https://www.academia.edu/11840602/Preliminary_Study_of_Unveiling_Bajau_Foods_Characteristics_in_Papar_Sabah

22. “Makanan Tradisi Suku Kaum Suluk - [PDF Document].”

https://fdokumen.com/document/makanan-tradisi-suku-kaum-suluk.html

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- Generally, the traditional food of the Bajau community is based on seafood and potato, as well as other huma crops. It can be divided into two main types, namely cooked food and food eaten raw (inta'an).
- Cooked food is prepared either fried, boiled, baked and grilled.

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- Kilau–Kilau, also known as a traditional Bajau Kinilau, means "Borneo's sushi variants."
- The food was given this name because its main ingredient, fish, should be cooked rather than eaten raw.
- Also when eaten raw, the fish flesh is healthy and clean when combined with vinegar and lemon.

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CARA MUDAH MEMBUAT KINILAU | KILAU | HINAVA | JOM VISIT SABAH BAH ( MAKAN IKAN MENTAH )

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- A popular food of the Sabah Bajau tribe.
- Sagol is a Bajau word that means "mixed" or "mixture."
- Sagol can also be cooked in two types of cuisine that is ‘ Sagol cleaning (no gravy) and wet Sagol (there are gravy).

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- Tehe-tehe is a type of seafood that is famous among the Bajau community of the East Coast of Sabah.
- It is a sea urchin that can be as a dish and its scientific name is Echinoidea or pig bamboo.
- In addition to its delicious taste, it is also very nutritious and also good for health.

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- The Bajau people make this putu as a substitute for rice.
- It is usually eaten with clams, tayum, teas, sagol, grilled fish and some other seafood.
- This dish is said to be able to open the appetite for those who have problems with poor appetite.

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Makan LATOK, SAGOL, KILAU | Pertama kali cuba makanan ORIGINAL BAJAU SEMPORNA SABAH!

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- Ambuyat is a dish made from the sago palm's inner trunk.
- It is typically eaten for lunch with a fermented sour sauce and a variety of vegetables on the side.
- Ambuyat is traditionally prepared for special occasions where it serves as a substitute for rice.

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Cara-Cara Membuat Ambuyat / Tepung Sagu | How To Prepare Sago Flour Borneo Traditional Food

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- Based on the article, once upon a time, ambuyat was served as a daily menu and a mandatory meal during special days such as weddings and tribal celebrations.
- The village head of Patau Patau 2 Labuan which is Rahman said, ambuyat is more comfortable to eat by using local chopsticks known as candas.
- "It's delicious to eat while it's still hot and chopped with grilled fish, boiled fish or side dishes," she said during a demonstration to make ambuyat.
- Usually, said Rahmah, ambuyat is eaten together among people, thus strengthening the friendship and relationship between the family and the villagers.

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- Hinava is a popular native dish of the Kadazan-Dusun people of Sabah, Malaysia.
- It's made with tuna, lime juice, bird's eye chilli, sliced shallots, and grated ginger.

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- Tuhau is a dish served among the Kadazan-Dusun in Sabah.
- It is made from a local wild ginger of the same name or its scientific name Etlingera coccinea.
- This dish is usually eaten with fish or can be eaten alone.

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- The Suluk tribe is famous for their traditional food which has become a special food every time there is a festival held such as weddings, feasts and so on.
- Among the types of food made by the Suluk tribe are Tiyula Itum, Sinagul, Tiyula Istah and many more. The cakes are like tabit-tabit, ja, pitis, wadjit, food, durul, patulakan, bibingka, patolakan and others (Suluk Sandakan Ethnic Culture, e.d.).

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- In Suluk or familiar known as Tausug community, tiyula means "soup" while itum means "black". It is basically known as beef black soup.
- Tiyula itum is a popular dishes especially during wedding, Hari Raya and all kinds of ocassions in Suluk culture.
- In fact, Tiyula itum is a dish typically served to royalties.

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You Should Make This Beef Soup with Burnt Coconut (Filipino Tiyula Itum)

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- Latok is a Sabahan cuisine from the Suluk and Bajau Laut tribes in Sabah made from grape seaweed.
- It can be eaten raw or served with a mixture of musk lime, onion and rice chilli as an appetizer.

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Latok pernah menjadi tular di media sosial apabila ramai masyarakat Malaysia memuat naik video berkongsi pengalaman mereka menikmati rumpai laut ini.

Bagi masyarakat di Semenanjung, mungkin ramai yang masih tidak biasa mendengar atau ada juga yang tidak pernah mencuba, tetapi jika korang ke Sabah, latok terkenal dan dijual di kebanyakan pasar di sana.

Dalam istilah saintifik, latok dikenali sebagai Caulerpa lentillifera, iaitu sejenis rumpai laut. Rumpai laut ialah tumbuhan laut yang dikenali sebagai alga, dan berbeza mengikut pigmen warna aslinya seperti merah, hijau, atau perang. Latok ialah sejenis rumpai laut berwarna hijau. Oleh kerana biji-biji latok menyerupai buah anggur, ia turut digelar sebagai umibudo (anggur laut) dalam bahasa Jepun.

Rasanya yang masin dinikmati bersama sos buatan sendiri menjadikan makanan ini unik dan ia juga merupakan makanan tradisi di Sabah terutamanya bagi masyarakat Bajau dan Sulu. Latok biasanya dimakan sebagai ulam bersama nasi, lauk pauk dan sayuran lain.

Tahu tak korang sebenarnya latok ini mempunyai pelbagai khasiat. Ha, bukan makan saja-saja tau, banyak manfaat yang korang boleh dapat.
Let's check this out!
1. Antioksida dan anti-bakteria

Satu kajian telah dilaukan secara spesifik ke atas spesies rumpai laut ini membuktikan bahawa ia mempunyai kesan antioksida dan anti-bakteria yang tinggi terhadap bakteria Staphylococcus aureus.

2. Mengawal paras gula dalam darah

Estrak latok didapati dapat meningkatkan penghasilan insulin dan pengambilan gula dari dalam darah oleh sel lemak. Hasil kajian mencadangkan bahawa rumpai laut ini berpotensi dalam membantu mengawal gula dalam darah dan mencegah diabetes.

3. Menyumbang kepada kesihtan jantung

Kandungan asik lemak asid lemak tidak tepu dalam latok berupaya mengurangkan kadar kolesterol, meningkatkan keanjalan salur darah, memelihara struktur kolagen arteri, lantas mencegah penyakit kardiovaskular seperti strok dan serangan jantung.

4. Membantu mencegah kanser

Melalui sebuah kajian, oligosakarida yang terhasil daripada tumbuhan latok melalui rawatan asid mampu mengurangkan jumlah sel kanser payudara. Kesan ini dipercayai berikutan fungsi rumpai laut untuk menyebabkan apoptosis (kematian) sel kanser tersebut berlaku.

5. Menguatkan tulang dan sendi

Latok kaya dengan kandungan protein, kalsium, dan asid lemak tidak tepu seperti omega-3, yang berkesan melegakan keradangan dan mengurangkan gejala artritis.

6. Membantu mencegah goiter

Dalam 100 gram latok, terdapat kira-kira 1.8 miligram iodin. Individu kekurangan iodin berisiko mempunyai tubuh yang tidak mampu menghasilkan hormon tiroid mencukupi lalu mengakibatkan goiter. Selain keju, telur, ikan air masin, dan kerang, rumpai laut juga merupakan salah satu sumber makanan yang membekalkan iodin.

7. Menghasilkan kulit dan rambut yang lebih sihat

Kandungan lemak di dalam tumbuhan ini membantu memelihara membran sel, memperbaiki keanjalan, dan mengurangkan kebolehtelapan (permeability) dinding salur darah bagi mengurangkan gejala kulit kering.

Selain itu, kandungan vitamin A dan C di dalam latok juga mampu menghasilkan kolagen dan antioksida. Ia dianggap sebagai 'bahan kosmetik semula jadi' yang menambah baik kesihatan kulit dan rambut, serta melambatkan proses penuaan.

Namun, tidak semua orang yang boleh terima rasa latok ini kerana rasanya yang agak masin. Korang pula bagaimana?

Sumber: Root of Science

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7 Khasiat Latok Yang Mungkin Ramai Tak Tahu, Dianggap 'Bahan Kosmetik Semula Jadi' - REMAJA

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Latok pernah menjadi tular di media sosial apabila ramai masyarakat Malaysia memuat naik video berkongsi pengalaman mereka menikmati rumpai laut ini. Bagi masyarakat di Semenanjung, mungkin ramai yang masih tidak biasa mendengar atau ada juga yang tidak pernah mencuba, tetapi jika korang ke Sabah, latok terkenal dan dijual di kebanyakan pasar di sana.

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- Bibingka is a type of baked rice cake.
- It is usually eaten for breakfast among Suluk tribe.
- It is traditionally cooked in clay pots lined with leaves.

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- This journal is focusing on what Bajau people eat and how they cook the food.
- From this research, we could see their method of cooking is very old-fashioned.
- Bajau people usually adapt to the slow cooking method since they used wood to cook or stove with gasoline.
- Furthermore, they believed the concept of food from the freshest source of their own backyard which is either planted by themselves or grown wild in the forest.
- Bajau people used edible leaves, roots, fruits and food that are available in the forest near their house.
- Fish is can be caught in the sea or lake near their place.

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- Pinasakan or pinasakan sada is made from braised basung fish with a tangy wild fruit called takob akob, salt and fresh turmeric.
- It goes well with white rice or ambuyat.

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-This food is quite popular in the Semporna area.
- It can be eaten raw after being sliced or cut into small pieces and mixed with lemon juice and other spices according to the taste of the person who wants to eat.

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1. baqiahqiey. “Bajau Traditional Foods 1.” Nurhasanahbaqiah, 20 June 2015.

2. “Semporna Local Food to Try before You Die !!!” TripJalan, 17 Mar. 2020.

3. “18 Makanan Tradisi Bajau (UNIK Dan SEDAP).” Saji.my, 5 Aug. 2019.

4. “CARA MUDAH MEMBUAT KINILAU | KILAU | HINAVA | JOM VISIT SABAH BAH"

5. Preliminary Study of Unveiling Bajau Foods Characteristics in Papar, Sabah.

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- More explaination on Suluk traditional food.

# data[].attributes.body
1. “Kadazan-Dusun.” Wikipedia, 7 Apr. 2020.

2. “Hinava.” Wikipedia, 10 Mar. 2021.

3. “Tuhau.” Wikipedia, 7 Feb. 2021.

4. Chong, Casey. “8 Traditional Dishes You Need to Try in Sabah.” TallyPress, 4 Jan. 2019.

5. How to Prepare Sago Flour Borneo Traditional Food.

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1. Kenali Makanan Tradisional Pelbagai Kaum di Sabah.

2. Heussaff, Erwan. “This Beef Soup Is Made with Burnt Coconut [Tiyula Itum from Mindanao].” The Fat Kid Inside, 31 Mar. 2021.

3. “Latok.” Wikipedia, 30 Nov. 2020.

4. Makanan Tradisi Suku Kaum Suluk.

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The Iban's traditional cuisines include lulun or pansoh (foods cooked in bamaboo containers), kasam (meat, fish or vegetables salted and preserved in jars or tin), tuak (glutinous rice wine) and Langkau (vodka from boiled rice wine steam).

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- Manok Pansuh, which simply means cooking food or dish in a bamboo stem, is one of Iban's traditional foods.
- It's naturally clean, simple, and straightforward.
- The food (meat, chicken, fish, vegetables, and even rice, along with spices) will be placed in the bamboo stem and cooked directly over an open fire.

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Baba Nyonya, or Peranakan cuisine, comes from the descendants of Chinese migrants who settled in Malacca and Penang and married native Malaysians during the 15th and 16th centuries. The name of the culinary tradition originated from calling these Chinese men Baba while the Malay women were known as Nyonya.

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- Laksa nyonya is a mouthwatering coconut curry soup that is a staple of Baba Nyonya cuisine.
- It is usually made with a prawn-based fish gravy, often mixed with chicken, and eaten with thick rice noodles or thin vermicelli.
- The final dish is topped with Vietnamese coriander, sliced cucumber, omelette, clams, fish ball, and foo chok (fried bean curd) with a dollop of chilli sambal paste–it's a must-try.

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No instant curry mix would rival the fresh and exotic aroma of homemade spice paste of turmeric, fennel, cumin, coriander seeds, and other aromatics. That's are the specialty of Nyonya Chicken Curry.

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- The Nyonya rice dumpling is a version developed by the Peranakan community, whose cuisine combines traditional Chinese and locally adapted Malay elements.
- Nyonya-style rice dumplings are known for having a hint of blue in them.
- The blue pea flowers have this natural blue tint (butterfly pea flowers or bunga telang).

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Baba Nyonya cendol is a popular Southeast Asian dessert made with coconut milk, flavoured pandan leaf, jelly noodles, red beans, and shaved ice, with added sweetness from gula Melaka (palm sugar).

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Article on the Development on Nyonya Cuisine 

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Article on the Development on Nyonya Cuisine 

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- Based on secondary source data, this article seeks to investigate the creation and spread of Nyonya cuisine in relation to the migration of Peranakans, who are Chinese immigrants to Southeast Asia, especially the Malay Archipelago.

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Journal of Ethnic Foods 6, Article number: 17 (2019) Cite this article

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Abstract

Nyonya cuisine is widely spread in the Malay Archipelago which is known as fusion of Chinese immigrant and local Malay cuisine. The cuisine has been established and developed with globalisation and movement of people in the region. Furthermore, it is identified as cultural product or image of the society which represents the identity of the people in the society. This study is to understand the establishment and development of Nyonya cuisine in line with the migration of the Peranakans in the Malay Archipelago via the exiting literatures. Data collected are from secondary sources, derived from relevant literatures, media and academic articles and authorised websites relevant to Nyonya cuisine and the Peranakans in the Malay Archipelago. The authors' observation is also used to grasp the distinction in Nyonya cuisine. As results, Nyonya cuisine is a representative result of cultural hybridisation by migration of the Peranakans into the Malay Archipelago, geographical proximity and political factors. Nyonya cuisine today is further developing along with the influx of global culture into the region which fosters rejuvenation and exchange of cuisine.

Introduction

By the spread of globalisation, the world becomes more integrated and movement of people across the borders seems more frequent than ever. Not only people but also their culture and ideas across the borders have led to a spread of immigrants' culture into the destination society [ 1]. Cuisine has become a definite subject that should not be ignored in this global movement as it has spread worldwide by the flow of immigrants. Food for humans was only to provide nutrients to survive in the beginning of human beings' history. Obtaining food and cooking were a chore or a core living process, such as breathing. Over the course of history, food has evolved into a sort of 'cultural image' that represents the people and regional identity as 'eating is a daily reaffirmation of cultural identity [ 2]'. Preparing and presenting 'culture image' created such table manners, recipe and art form that give further distinctive features of the cuisine. This contributes to a popular saying 'you are what you eat' meaning the food that you eat represents and defines you [ 3]. Thus, food culture explains and reinforces society or people's identity [ 4]. The cuisine is a cultural product established and further developed by cultural process [ 5]. In regional context, the Malay Archipelago has been perceived as 'melting pot' of the region because of a huge number of immigrants from different cultural backgrounds [ 6], and became a cosmopolitan metropolis today with its multicultural population of the society. Nyonya cuisine is described as the cuisine which blends Chinese cooking ingredients and recipes with Indo-Malay flavours, herbs and spices [ 7]. In other words, Nyonya cuisine is a product of cultural process evoked by globalisation and global migration movement and has widely spread in the Malay Archipelago that became a fusion of local cuisine and migrants' cuisine.

Methodology

This article endeavours to explore the development1 and spread of Nyonya cuisine in a link with migration of the Peranakans, who are Chinese immigrants to Southeast Asia region, particularly to the Malay Archipelago, based on data collected from secondary sources, mainly derived from relevant literatures, academic articles and authorised websites with regard to Nyonya cuisine and the Peranakans in the Malay Archipelago. The authors' past experience and observation were also used to grasp the distinction in Nyonya cuisine in this article. The objectives of this article are (1) to explore the history of the Peranakans and Nyonya cuisine, (2) to investigate distinctive features of Nyonya cuisine in brief and (3) to find out the current status of Nyonya cuisine in the region and the regional differences, particularly focuses on Malacca and Penang.

History of the Peranakans and Nyonya cuisine

Origin of the Peranakans

Along with the migration movement, a mixture of immigrants' and host country's culture sometimes will give birth to a modified or new culture along with new practices, beliefs and food. The relationship between the Peranakans and Nyonya cuisine is an example of the creation and hybridisation of a new vibrant culture [ 8].

'Peranakan' refers to 'descendant' in Bahasa Melayu, and it particularly identifies Chinese immigrants and their descendants from mainland China to Malay Peninsula, including the Malacca Sultanate, during the fifteenth to seventeenth century [ 5, 9, 10]. The term is best described as 'Chinese with Southeast Asian influences, particularly in regard to their language variety, Baba Malay' [ 15]. Male Peranakans are known as Baba, while female Peranakans are known as Nyonya. Some Peranakans from Malacca started to migrate and form new Peranakan enclaves in Singapore and Penang during the British colonisation in the mid-eighteenth to nineteenth century [ 16]. The Peranakans were educated in English-speaking countries during the nineteenth to early-twentieth century and thus were fluent in speaking two or more languages such as English, Bahasa Melayu and Chinese of which many were engaged as leader of communities [ 17, 18] and were allowed to have considerable wealth and high status during the colonial times.

Despite their inter-racial marriages with the strait Malays, most Peranakans are not Muslim which enables them to retain their ancestry and religion as there were no laws requiring them to convert, and after a few generations, many Peranakans desire endogamous marriages which means they prefer to marry other Peranakans [ 19]. Due to the retainment of their ancestral identities, they celebrate major Chinese celebrations such as Lunar New Year and the Lantern Festival [ 20]. There are traces of Dutch, Portuguese and British influences found in Peranakans [ 21]. However, their ancestral identities and Malay influences give the most remarkable influence on Peranakan culture [ 22]. At present, the Peranakans are identified via self-acknowledgement and their tangible culture such as cuisines and clothing [ 19]. Malacca, Penang and Singapore are the three main distinct locations where the Peranakan heritage is firmly established today.

Nyonya cuisine

The Peranakans could not inherit their traditional dishes after their settlement in destination due to unavailability of certain ingredients; as a result, they had to improvise with the local ingredients [ 23] that they have assimilated into the local environment. In addition, the interracial marriages between the immigrant Chinese and locals (Malays) are bound to create some fusion dishes. Some defines Nyonya cuisine as preparing dishes using Chinese technique such as wok-frying and pork, with Malay and Chinese spices and flavours [ 5, 24]. Examples of ingredients derived from the Chinese culture are black mushrooms, fungus such as bok jee (wood ears), kim chiam (lily buds), taukee (soybean sticks), fish maws, tanghoon (glass noodles), beehoon (rice vermicelli) and different varieties of seasonings such as tauchio/taucheo (salted soybean paste) and tichio (sweet sauce) [ 5]. The most distinctive spice in both Nyonya and Malay cuisines is chilli, which can be used in both fresh and dried forms followed by others such as serai (lemon grass) and flower buds such as bunga kantan (torch ginger buds), as well as fruits, nuts and seeds, specifically buah keras (candlenuts), buah keluak (a large black nut), lime juice, asam Jawa (tamarind), cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg and ketumbar (coriander seeds) [ 5, 19].

In the past, Peranakans followed the strict traditions of their Chinese ancestry where the womenfolk of a household were confined to their respective houses most of the time [ 19]. Therefore, Peranakan women spent most of their time mainly in the kitchen of the house since it was said the kitchen was the heart of life and activity of a house at that time. And their cooking ability was judged and standardised the worth of women in the community [ 5]. As mentioned earlier, most Peranakans were relatively wealthy that many households were able to employ several servants and maids. With a considerable amount of free time and helping hands, Peranakan women had resources to experiment and refine their way of cooking, which contributed to the development of Nyonya cuisine. Few examples of famous Nyonya cuisine are Ayam buah Keluak, Penang Asam Laksa, Ayam Pongteh, Achar, fish head curry and prawn chilli paste. These dishes were improvised using the spices such as tamarind and keluak found in the Malay Archipelago [ 23].

Recipes of Nyonya cuisine are handed down to the next-generation that uphold and inherit traditional recipes from the previous generations. Women play a major role in Nyonya cuisine as the role of Peranakan womenfolks was mostly confined to kitchen and house works. The assimilation and hybridisation of Peranakans in the Malay Archipelago created Nyonya cuisine by their efforts to overcome and adapt local culture and environment. The similarities of ingredients, food preparation and cooking of Nyonya cuisine to Chinese and Malay or Indo cuisine are clear evidence that Nyonya cuisine is a product of cultural process that assimilated and borrowed local cuisine into Peranakan cuisine, and further developed and established hybridised cuisine in the Malay Archipelago.

Discussion

The Peranakans in Penang and Malacca and Nyonya cuisine

Penang and Malacca were known as commercial areas in Malaysia where the Peranakans are prominently populated. Chinese male immigrants' consistent movement to Penang and Malacca and their intermarriage with local women [ 15] led eminent number of the Peranakan population in both areas. Penang is located near to the border of Thailand, while Malacca is located further south, near Indonesia (see Fig. 1). Such geographical proximity has highly influenced the establishment of the cuisine in Penang and Malacca. The Peranakans have shared and practiced distinctive lifestyle which hybridises local and Chinese culture. However, difference between the Peranakan culture of Penang and Malacca is notable in their food and language [ 16].

The proportion of Hokkien and Malay language usage gives language distinction between the Malacca and Penang Peranakans. The Malacca Peranakans speak Baba Malay, a language that is a creolised Bahasa Melayu with borrowing Hokkien and English words [ 24]. In addition, Malacca was the centre of the Sultanate Melaka and its dominant regional population has been Malay since their settlement in the fifteenth century, while Penang was an environs of another Malay population and was considered small [ 25], which have added strong influence in the frequent usage of Bahasa Melayu in Malacca. The Penang Peranakans speak Baba Hokkien, which is based on Hokkien with slang of Bahasa Melayu and expression [ 5, 26].

Differences can be found in both regions' cuisines although they are within the category of Nyonya cuisine. It is considered that Nyonya cuisine is originated from Malacca by the first settlement of Strait-Chinese to Malay Peninsula that dispersed to Penang and Singapore during the British colonisation in the mid-eighteenth to nineteenth century [ 16]. Geographical divergence and proximity can re-invent or blend the cuisine in each region; Malacca Nyonya cuisine is mostly influenced by the Portuguese and Indonesian, whereas Penang is highly influenced by Thailand [ 27, 31]. The distinction is clearly shown in each region's dominant ingredients, recipe and utensils [ 28]. Laksa, a renowned dish of Nyonya cuisine, provide clear differences between Penang and Malacca Nyonya cuisine. The ingredients of Laksa in Penang and Malacca show differences as Penang Laksa (see Figs. 2a, b and 3) mainly uses lime, chilli, herbs, shrimp paste and tamarind which gives sour and tangy flavour which is also known as 'Assam Laksa', while Malacca (curry) Laksa (see Figs. 4 and 5) uses Malaysian local herbs such as cumin, belachan, chilli and coconut milk that has sweeter flavour and illustrates more curry-like noodle soup [ 29, 30, 31, 32, 33].

a, b Penang Laksa (Assam Laksa). Penang Laksa is as known as 'Assam Laksa'. The dish was born in Penang with fresh fish-based broth and bunch of herbs and vegetables. The dish has a sour taste by the use of lime, chilli, galangal, tamarind and local herbs and also tangy by fish (usually mackerel or sardine or ikan tonkol (skip jack tuna)) broth and shrimp paste. It is garnished by shallot and other sliced raw vegetables such as cucumber, onion and chilli. The dish is served with heh ko (dark shrimp sauce)-dark sauce displayed on the right of the Assam Laksa in the figure

a, b Malacca Laksa (curry Laksa). Malacca Laksa used coconut milk which provides thick texture in the soup base. It is relatively sweet, spicy, and creamy and contains curry taste as the dish. The dish is known for the strong flavour by several ingredients used for the dish such as chicken and/or prawn, curry powder, fish balls, fried tofu, chillies, shrimp paste, garlic, ginger, cumin and local ingredients. Often garnished by bean sprout, shredded chicken and prawn and served with sambal that enhances the flavour of the dish

The cooking recipe also shows slight differences. Otak-otak (see Figs. 6 and 7) is a custard kind of snack made of fish, egg, belachan, coconut milk, lime juice and other ingredients wrapped by leaf. Malacca otak-otak is narrowly wrapped with coconut or nipa leaves then grilled over charcoal fire to enclose smoky flavour and smell [ 5, 34]. Penang otak-otak is mixed with betel leaves and wrapped with banana leaves in square-bowl shape or pocket shape fastened on the upper side with a toothpick. Penang otak-otak is steamed that gives softer texture, while Malacca's have a strong smoky smell and flavour [ 34] and firm texture after being grilled over charcoal fire.

Besides, there are differences in significant Nyonya dish in each region by adaptation of Nyonya cuisine. Buah Keluak (Indonesian black nut dishes) is still a famous dish in Malacca, but in Penang, due to strenuous preparation and particular taste, the dish has disappeared in the region [ 35]. Belachan (shrimp paste) in Malacca has more mashed texture and paler colour while Penang belachan (also known as hae ko) is a dark black sticky paste that is used for salad dressing [ 36, 37]. The Penang Peranakans are more open and receptive to new culture and environment [ 38]. As mentioned above, geographical proximity of Penang to Thailand builds more interaction between Penang and Thailand that created remarkable dish in Penang Nyonya cuisine, such as kerabu salad (spicy pineapple salad)- kerabu is originated from Thailand. Nyonya kuih (also called as Kuih ko sui/swee) is also a famous Penang Nyonya cuisine [ 22] that is steamed in Chinese teacups.

Effects of globalisation-the downfall of Nyonya cuisine and dilution of Nyonya identity

It is widely accepted that the downfall of the Peranakans started in the early twentieth century due to political factor such as the world wars. It depleted the Peranakans of their massive wealth, further contributed by the decline in value of rubber and tin. Some of the wealth was squandered away by the younger generations who basically live off their descendant's savings. Some of the wealth was donated to help rejuvenate the crippled economy of the Malay Archipelago due to the world wars and to help their colonial British bosses in some cases. The withdrawal of the colonial British and independence of Malaysia and Singapore further weakened the Peranakans, stripping them of their special social status and privileges as well as their sense of identity. Furthermore, the decisions of the Malaysian and Singaporean Government to classify people into strict rigid categories by race-as Malay, Chinese, Indian and others-has further diluted the Peranakans' identity. With globalisation, people tend to integrate their cultures with others more, modify or outright replace old traditions and practices in favour of making it easier or cheaper. This means that certain lavish Peranakan practices such as the 12 days wedding rituals were either reduced or abandoned in favour of simpler and cheaper ceremonies. As education becomes more widely available, the younger generations of Peranakan are tempted to choose not to learn the old method as it is usually time consuming and labour-intensive. Also, with a good education, they have a wider range of jobs to choose from instead of sticking to the old professions. As with any cultures, Peranakan also practices taboos or 'pantang larang' but most of the modern generation no longer does this mainly either it is too time consuming or it is not a big deal for them. This also means traditional Nyonya cuisines that are generally time consuming were practiced less and less due to declining interests of the young generation. Finally, the Peranakans have only few ways to express their heritage, mainly through their clothing and food in modern times [ 19]. The older generation of the Peranakans nowadays sees their cultural identity as diminishing in that there is a degree of 'Peranakan-ness' within the society in terms of language fluency by Peranakans in the late 1960s: 'I don't really think there is a Peranakan identity these days; it's more like an open culture for everyone'.-Mr. Tan, an older generation of Peranakans [ 39].

The rejuvenation of Peranakan culture

In the 1980s, the Peranakan culture started to gain back the public interests. In Singapore, films and drama series such as Pileh Menantu's Choosing a Daughter-in-Law (1984), The Old Husband and The Young Wife (1985) and The Little Nyonya (2008) contributed to gain public attention on the Nyonya culture. Cookbooks illustrating Nyonya cuisine helped to resurrect and keep the cuisine alive as well. One of the most representative Nyonya cookbooks was Mrs. Lee Chin Koon's (mother of Lee Kuan Yew) Mrs. Lee Cookbook (Vol.1 in 2003 and Vol.2 in 2004).

In Malaysia, several books on Peranakan community were published. Yeap Joo Kim's The Patriarch (1975), Ruth Ho's Rainbow Round My Shoulder (1975) and Lee Su Kim's Malaysian Flavours (1996, 2004) are representative publication accounts of Peranakan culture [ 19]. The book Nyonya kebaya (2004) and exhibition by Datin Seri Endon Mahmood, the previous First Lady of Malaysia, contributed to have great attention of public in 2000s. Nyonya restaurants continue to appear in Malaysia due to their unique flavours [ 19] which sustain Nyonya cuisine in society.

Despite the rich heritage Nyonya cuisine carries, young population in the region do not seem to be aware of the cuisine. Young university students majoring culinary arts are only aware of the culture of the cuisine, not the uniqueness or details of the cuisine that the efforts made by media and publications seem nominal unless the young person does not have a strong Peranakan family background [ 40].

There has been an increase of curiosity and contribution of Nyonya cuisine in regions' cookbooks, blogs, online websites and food product which sustains public interest towards Nyonya cuisine [ 41]. The annual convention of Baba Nyonya hosted by the State Chinese Association (Peranakan communities) in Southeast Asia rotates among Penang, Melacca, Phuket and Singapore [ 42] and also contributes to promoting the cuisine and Nyonya culture in the region. Nyonya food product (see Fig. 8) manufactured by local companies such as instant noodle and laksa paste are highly consumed and enjoyed popularity among locals. Such contribution and support by Peranakan communities and the public appear to be the motive for the rejuvenation of Nyonya cuisine in the present era.

Conclusion

The purpose of this article was to provide a good understanding of the Nyonya cuisine history throughout the history of the Peranakans, to investigate the feature and development of the Nyonya cuisine in the Malay Archipelago and to understand the present status of Nyonya cuisine in the region. Nyonya cuisine was born out as a unique mixture of cultures along with the movement of the Peranakans from China to the Malay Archipelago. Chinese cuisine has evolved and adapted to local cuisine with the transmission of its traditional ingredients which has created new distinctive cuisine in the region. Migration gave significant impacts on the development of regional culture and globalisation and, at the same time, has both positive and negative impacts. It has diluted Peranakan culture by influx of global culture into the region that enables the exchange of culture, while it also assists to rejuvenate the culture by spotlighting and promoting of the culture worldwide. Besides, geographical proximity and political factors also influenced the development of the cuisine in different region of the Malay Archipelago as shown in Penang and Malacca within the category of Nyonya cuisine. By acknowledging the development of Nyonya cuisine since its emergence, it is a distinguished example of cultural hybridisation evoked by a consequence of migrations. The difference between Penang and Malacca Nyonya cuisine shows how geographical proximity, environment and politics influenced the development of the cuisine as Nyonya cuisine differentiated between Penang and Malacca. The tradition of Nyonya culture has been diminished by the strong influence of globalisation into the society. However, the efforts to rejuvenate Nyonya culture intrigued by the public and Peranakan communities via publication, media, campaigns and supports may bring further development of Nyonya cuisine.

Availability of data and materials

All data and materials used in this article are correctly referenced following the guideline of the Journal of Ethnic Foods and can be found in the reference section.

Notes

Development, in general, is best understood as a process that has established and evolved throughout history upon the aims for better improvements. However, the term has been defined in many ways by different perspectives. Among the different definition and elements that have been discussed in order to define the term in the existing literatures, this study uses the term of which covers history [ 11, 12, 13] and modernization [ 14]. This study used the term 'development' as a concept to cover the establishment, history, modernisation and the current trend of Nyonya cuisine based on the existing literatures, not to provide a new perception of the cuisine by authors' perspectives.

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Acknowledgements

The authors appreciate Universiti Brunei Darussalam which made this study possible. And the authors acknowledge Dr. Siti Mazidah binti Haji Mohammad, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam, for her feedback and suggestion in the study.

Funding

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

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Authors and Affiliations

1. Faculty of Arts and Social Science, University of New South Wales, Kensington, Australia

Youri Oh

2. Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam

Youri Oh

3. Faculty of Geosciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands

Nurul Fatin Afiqah Hj Abdul Razak

4. KCA Deutag, Kuala Belait, Brunei Darussalam

Donovan Hee Tat Wee

5. LeVoeu Company, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam

Eric Lu Ching

6. Kaleidoscope Studio, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam

Zubaidah Rahman

Contributions

All authors have contributed equally in developing the design, data acquisition, analysis, drafting of the manuscript, discussion and conclusion of this article. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Youri Oh.

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Oh, Y., Razak, N.F.A.H.A., Wee, D.H.T. et al. The development of Nyonya cuisine in the Malay Archipelago: Penang and Malacca Nyonya cuisine. J. Ethn. Food 6, 17 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s42779-019-0010-x
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The development of Nyonya cuisine in the Malay Archipelago: Penang and Malacca Nyonya cuisine - Journal of Ethnic Foods

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Nyonya cuisine is widely spread in the Malay Archipelago which is known as fusion of Chinese immigrant and local Malay cuisine. The cuisine has been established and developed with globalisation and movement of people in the region. Furthermore, it is identified as cultural product or image of the society which represents the identity of the people in the society.

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A foreign couple trying Baba Nyonya food at Melaka restaurant.

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Delicious MELAKA NYONYA FOOD + NYONYA KUIH | Food and Travel Channel | Melaka, Malaysia

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- Madam Yong Delight is a Malaysian startup who's been the main supplier of traditional Nyonya kuih to many 5-star hotels in Klang Valley.

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Waking up to the earthy fumes of steamed potatoes, warm aroma of spices, and the bubbling of frying oil-these were some of Madam Yong's fondest memories while growing up with a mother who supplied homemade curry puffs to restaurants and caterers in PJ.

As the eldest sibling in her adolescence, she felt obliged to help her late mother out. So, every morning she'd help with the baking process and cycle to nearby restaurants to deliver the fresh pastries.

Little did she know that several decades later, she'd be experiencing a similar situation with her own daughter in supplying homemade Nyonya kuih to 5-star hotels in Klang Valley.

Expanding Her Kuih Repertoire

While the humble curry puff may seem like a simple form of pastry at a glance, Yong quickly learnt that making it was a technical one, requiring power in kneading its dough and the right balance in taste.

She was in awe of her late mother's work ethics as she tenaciously worked through the night to fulfill large orders.

Yong joked, "Which of course, I did dread and complain back then as it would mean that I would have to help her and eventually miss my favourite shows on television!"

These curry puffs were her inspiration to delve into the world of culinary arts. She later developed a passion for making Nyonya kuih when a Baba Nyonya friend introduced her to a few recipes.

Onde-onde and Angku Mung Bean / Image Credit: Madam Yong Delight

So at 28, while working as a full-time accountant by day, she would also bake a couple of traditional Nyonya kuih in her PJ home for fun, catering to ad-hoc orders for parties by family and friends without expecting much in return.

5 years later, she decided to quit her job to become a full-time home baker when her daughter was born, starting the business named after herself, Madam Yong Delight.

This decision came about as she thought it would give her more flexibility to focus on her passion and spend time with her family.

That was the idea, at least. In reality, it was pretty hard to balance because in 2002, Yong had her first corporate client: a supermarket chain introduced to her by a friend.

They Just Came Knocking

Most of the time, she would bring her young daughter along on many chores from sourcing raw materials, taking customer orders, to handling deliveries.

At times, her toddler would have to wake up in the wee hours of dawn to help get the kuihs ready for deliveries.

"She literally grew up along the evolution of the venture. In hindsight, it was a good thing in a way, a real-life example that everything in life comes with hard work and determination," said Yong in gratitude.

Servicing a corporate customer meant that Yong could no longer run her production from home as it wouldn't have been able to cope with the demand.

With limited resources but ample support from her family, she took a leap of faith in setting up a proper production site.

Ketayap and Pulut Panggang / Image Credit: Madam Yong Delight

Shortly after, another opportunity came knocking. A 5-star hotel in the Klang Valley had approached asking for Nyonya kuih supply.

Though overjoyed by the opportunity and the recognition of her work, deep down she was worried and unsure if she would be able to deliver.

A major challenge of this transition from being a home baker to setting up an actual company serving hotels, supermarkets, and restaurants meant that certain processes and systems had to be in place because she was now a businesswoman.

Hence, the tasks didn't stop at just making Nyonya kuih, but overall management of the company.

That included setting up an accounting system, arranging for logistics, applying for halal certification, and adhering to food safety requirements on a larger scale.

Nine Layers Kuih and Pulut Tai Tai / Image Credit: Madam Yong Delight

"With the support of my long-time reliable helper who has been helping me since 1994 and still with me after 26 years, we went ahead with this opportunity," she told Vulcan Post.

This led from one opportunity to the next, and before they knew it, Madam Yong Delight has been supplying Nyonya kuih to a chain of hotels in the Klang Valley for almost two decades now.

She Won't Impose It On Her Daughter

When asked about her plans on passing the business to her daughter, Yong shared with Vulcan Post that she's always believed that the next generation carrying it on must first have the passion.

"When I started the Nyonya kuih venture, my daughter was just born. So, she grew up with the evolution of the business as well. It has been part of her life but only needs to help out whenever required over the weekend."

"Hence, I wouldn't impose but instead leave it to my next generation to decide whether it is something they would like to pursue in the future," Madam Yong said.

At 63, she's hopeful about continuing to run the business for several years to come and doing the best she can in standardising operations as much as possible.

You can learn more about Madam Yong Delight here.

You can read more F&B articles that we've written here.

Featured Image Credit: Madam Yong Delight

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This 63 Y/O M'sian Runs A Biz Making Nyonya Kuih That Even 5-Star Hotels Demand

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Madam Yong Delight is a Malaysian startup who's been the main supplier of traditional Nyonya kuih to many 5-star hotels in Klang Valley.

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Authentic Nyonya recipes and Nyonya home cooking. Complete with easy Nyonya recipes and gorgeous food photography.

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The article is by Astro Awani.
- It says people in Peninsular isn't familiar with Manuk Pansuh as it is not as popular as other dishes.
- Looking at the opportunity, Dapo Dupa Entrepreneur, Muhamad Firdaus Ibnil Hajar tried his luck to introduce traditional food that is synonymous with the Dayak community to the Peninsula.
- Now, those who crave the deliciousness of chicken in bamboo, especially Sarawakians who live in the Peninsula, do not have to fly far to their beloved state to miss the local cuisine.

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Muhamad Firdaus menyediakan manuk pansuh hanya dari rumahnya. -Gambar Astro AWANI

DI SEMENANJUNG Malaysia, manuk pansuh yang berasal dari Sarawak sedikit asing dan tidak sepopular juadah luar lain.

Melihat pada peluang itu, Pengusaha Dapo Dupa, Muhamad Firdaus Ibnil Hajar mencuba nasib untuk memperkenalkan makanan tradisi yang sinonim dengan masyarakat Dayak itu ke Semenanjung.

Kini, mereka yang mendambakan keenakan masakan ayam dalam buluh itu, terutama orang Sarawak yang menetap di Semenanjung, tidak perlu terbang jauh ke negeri tercinta untuk melepas rindu pada masakan citarasa tempatan itu.

"Pada mulanya, saya hanya menyediakan masakan ini untuk diri sendiri. Di Semenanjung pula agak sukar untuk mendapatkan juadah manuk pansuh.

"Setelah dua tahun mencuba dan dibantu oleh rakan-rakan dari Sarawak, akhirnya rasa yang diingini untuk manuk pansuh ini dicapai.

"Saya mula memasarkannya secara aktif semasa Perintah Kawalan Pergerakan (PKP) dikuat kuasakan. Lama kelamaan ia menjadi tular dan setiap minggu saya mendapat tempahan," kongsinya bersama Astro AWANI.

Tambah Firdaus lagi, pelanggannya rata-rata terdiri daripada orang Sarawak yang tidak dapat pulang akibat arahan PKP yang dilaksanakan sejak Mac lalu.

Dari situ, katanya Dapo Duda semakin dikenali dan sering kali dipanggil untuk menyiapkan beberapa tempahan untuk dihantar di sekitar Lembah Klang.

"Kenapa saya memilih makanan Sarawak? Ini kerana saya amat menggemari Manuk Pansuh ini dan saya rasa ia sangat unik kerana penyediaannya adalah melalui buluh yang dibakar dalam tempoh tertentu," katanya.

Bercerita mengenai penerimaan pula, ujar Firdaus, meskipun ia disediakan oleh orang Semenanjung, rakan-rakan dari Sarawak memberi sokongan positif kepadanya untuk terus mempromosi masakan itu di sini.

Jelasnya lagi, manuk pansuh mempunyai potensi yang cukup besar dan wajar untuk diangkat sebagai salah satu juadah nasional sebaris dengan juadah-juadah lain.

"Saya berharap, menu seperti ini dapat diketengahkan dan diangkat sehingga ke peringkat antarabangsa supaya ia dapat menjadi identiti negara kita," tambah Firdaus.

Dalam pada itu, tempahan bagi manuk pansuh Dapo Duda hanya akan diproses di hujung minggu sahaja bermula Jumaat ke Ahad.

Manuk Pansuh yang dihasilkannya pula terdiri dari tiga saiz berbeza iaitu saiz kecil berharga RM15 sebatang, sederhana RM25 dan saiz besar RM35.

Namun, perniagaan yang dijalankan oleh Firdaus ini bukan berlandaskan keuntungan wang ringgit semata-mata.

Ada kalanya, Firdaus berkongsi keuntungan bersama mereka yang memerlukan.

Seperti sebelum ini, pada Jun, hasil jualan pansuh diagihkan untuk membantu mangsa kebakaran di Rumah Panjang Belukun di Long Sela'an, Baram di Miri.

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Manuk pansuh air tangan orang Semenanjung

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Muhamad Firdaus menyediakan manuk pansuh hanya dari rumahnya. -Gambar Astro AWANI DI SEMENANJUNG Malaysia, manuk pansuh yang berasal dari Sarawak sedikit asing dan tidak sepopular juadah luar lain. Melihat pada peluang itu, Pengusaha Dapo Dupa, Muhamad Firdaus Ibnil Hajar mencuba nasib untuk memperkenalkan makanan tradisi yang sinonim dengan masyarakat Dayak itu ke Semenanjung.

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- Tuak, or rice wine, is a unique drink made from fermented rice, yeast, sugar, and sometimes sugarcane, though the former was more common in the past.
- People in Sarawak generally enjoy this drink when they have a special occasion or festival, especially during the Gawai celebration.

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- Terung Asam is primarily used in fish soups, curries and sauces.
- The fruits are sometimes used as a substitute for tamarind because they offer a similar sour flavor.
- It is also used to make sambal.

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- One of the traditional cake.
- Always available for certain occasions such as Congregation, Happy Thanksgiving Council and others.
- Some have sold and made as a commercial in the business.

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More explanation on Iban Food through YouTube.

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More explanation on Iban Food through YouTube.

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My name is Firzanah binti Azhar. I live in Klang, Selangor. I have chosen Traditional Food from these five ethnic groups because I am quite interested to know more details about them.

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3. Tan, Joycelyn. “This 63 Y/O M’sian Runs a Biz Making Nyonya Kuih That Even 5-Star Hotels Demand.” Vulcan Post, 17 Dec. 2020,

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