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Autotrophic vs. Heterotrophic Nutrition - Mira 

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Autotrophic vs. Heterotrophic Nutrition - Mira 

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Autotrophic Organisms are self feeding and make their own carbon compounds from carbon dioxide and other simple substances.

Heterotrophic organisms obtain their carbon compounds from other organisms. They feed on others.

Some unicellular organisms use both methods of nutrition. For example Euglena gracilis has chloroplasts and carries out photosynthesis, but also feeds on smaller organisms and detritus through endocytosis.

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Determines if two variables might be related or not.

H0: null hypothesis, independently distributed
H1: associated, positively or negatively

1. Draw up a contingency table
2. Calculate degrees of freedom: (Nrows - 1) * (Ncolumns - 1)
3. Find critical region from chi-squared values table. This will be the value will correspond with your degrees of freedom value and a p value of 0.05.
4. Calculate squared (x^2)
x^2 = SIGMA((observed-expected)^2/expected). To obtain your expect value for a given entry for the table (where T stands for Total): ((Tcolumn * Trow) / Teverything)
5. If chi-squared>critical value, reject H0, else not reject H0 and accept it

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The “r” group when drawing an amino acid does not represent a specific molecule.

The R represents the chain that is built on to the amino acid base. R group changes based on what amino acid it is

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An enzyme is a lobular protein that acts as a biological catalyst

The molecule an enzyme reacts with to form a product is called a substrate

The substrate binds to a surface region of the enzyme called the active site

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Water molecules are polar due to their dual nature. Because the negative oxygen is on the top and positive hydrogen is on the bottom the molecule acts like a small magnate. This polarity leads to the hydrogen bonds formed between water molecules.

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Parts of a cladogram

Clade - a tree spanning from one species to another going to the outermost split there are many clades in a cladogram

Node- the splitting point - divergence point from an ancestor

Branch - a smaller portion of the cladogram usually continuing one or 2 clades

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Only 10% of energy passed on from one level to another. So if a producer has 100% of the initial energy a primary consumer would have 10% a secondary consumer 1% and a decomposer only 0.1%

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Chi Squared is a statistical analysis used to test a null hypothesis, a negative hypothesis. If the collected or observed data does not match the model then the chances of the variables being dependent on each other increases causing the rejection of the null hypothesis.

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As energy moves up the trophic levels in an ecosystem, only 10% is passed on to the next level. This is because a tremendous amount of energy is lost due to heat or was used by the organism.

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Homologous vs Analogous Structures - Josh

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Homologous vs Analogous Structures - Josh

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Homologous - The fossils are related in evolutionary ancestry and they share a common ancestor. More specifically, the limb/appendage was derived from the same evolutionary origin. Example: Human limbs and the limbs of other primates.

Analogous - The parts are similar, and perhaps serve a similar function, however they are not related and did not arrive as a result from the same genealogical ancestor. Example: Birds wings and insect wings.

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Left: Alpha Glucose, Right: Beta Glucose

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Alpha Glucose and Beta Glucose share the similar structure as seen above, but they have one major difference. The difference is the positioning of the H and the OH groups on the first carbon. On Alpha Glucose, the H in above and the OH is below, whereas it is the opposite for Beta Glucose. Such a minor difference actually has a major affect on the Glucose. They can bond and perform catabolic reactions with different molecules. Seeing as the main sites of bonding are the two opposing sides of carbon of the molecule, a change in the bonds they make internally will change how the molecule bonds to other sugars.

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Step 1: The DNA strand is read and unzipped by an enzyme called RNA Polymerase.

Step 2: The RNA Polymerase then takes the nucleotides of the DNA and adds their corresponding base pairs (with U instead of T). This becomes mRNA.
Example: DNA strand ATTGCAG would become the mRNA strand UAACGUC

Step 3: RNA Polymerase stops its job and a full mRNA strand is ready for Translation.

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Relationship between Fats and Coronary Heart Disease - Josh

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Relationship between Fats and Coronary Heart Disease - Josh

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Once lipids become lipoproteins, their become either Low Density Lipoproteins (LDLs) or High Density Lipoproteins (HDLs). LDLs raise your cholesterol, however HDLs lower cholesterol.
Cholesterol, while a very useful and necessary steroid, is dangerous when in high quantities. This is because they form plaques (large globs of them) on the walls of arteries. This can lead to Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) if the coronary artery is blocked by these plaques.
Certain fats have different effects on the production of LDL and HDL:

Saturated Fats: Raise LDL - raises cholesterol levels

Trans-Unsaturated Fats: Raise LDL, Lower HDL - drastically increases cholesterol

Cis-Unsaturated Fats - Raise HDL - lower cholesterol

Overall, these fats have different effects on the production of cholesterol via their production of HDL and LDL; trans and saturated fats increase cholesterol, and cis fats decrease cholesterol.

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1. The first stage is when the substrate binds to the active site of the enzyme.
2. The second stage is when the substrates change into products, or different chemical substances, by the enzyme. This happens while the substrates are bonded to the active site of the enzyme.
3. The last stage is when the products are removed from the active site. The active site is then available for other substrates to bind to it

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2 Ways That Temperature Affects Enzyme Activity - Allie

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2 Ways That Temperature Affects Enzyme Activity - Allie

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1. Substrates are in liquid, and when the temperature of a liquid increases, the kinetic energy of the substrates increases. This increase in kinetic energy results in the substrates moving faster. Since the substrates are moving faster, there is an increased chance for collisions, resulting in more enzyme activity.
2. Bonds in the enzyme are at risk of breaking when heated as an increased heat causes the enzyme to vibrate more. If the bonds in an enzyme break, the enzyme becomes denatured. If an enzyme is denatured, it is unable to catalyse reactions. This results in falling enzyme activity.

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Most enzymes have an optimal pH level and when the pH is either lower or higher than the enzyme's optimal level, enzyme activity decreases. Enzyme activity decreases when the pH level is not at the optimal level is because amount of hydrogen ions affects the structure of the enzyme. If the pH is different enough from the optimal pH level, an enzyme may even become denaturated.

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Carbon fixation: autotrophs convert CO2 into carbon compounds

Carbon in solution: CO2 can dissolve into water as a gas or combine with water into carbonic acid

Absorption of CO2: Autotrophs use CO2 and decrease in internal concentration, atmospheric CO2 diffuses into plant b/c gradient

CO2 is released by aerobic cell respiration (non-photosynthesis cell)

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Methane produced by organic matter in anaerobic conditions by methanogenic archaeans

Methane oxidized into CO2 and H2O in stratosphere

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Biosphere: CO2 into organic compounds via autotrophs
Hydrosphere: CO2 & HCO3 in H2O. CO2 + H2O <-> H2CO3, H2CO3 <-> HCO3 + H, H leads to lower pH
Atmosphere: CH4 from organic matter in anaerobic conditions
Lithosphere: Undigested organic matter and fossils due to decomposition not working in anaerobic conditions

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1. CO2 & H2O
3. CH4
4. N2O
O2 and N2 are not GHGs because they can't absorb long wave radiation

GHGs make up <1% of the atmosphere

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Kingdom - ex. Animalia
Phylum- ex. chordata
Class-ex.Mammalia
Order- ex.Carnivora
Family  - ex.Canidae
Genus - ex. Canis
Species - ex. lupus

King Phillip Cries Often For Grey Skies.

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4 main classes of carbon compounds - Allie

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4 main classes of carbon compounds - Allie

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1. Carbohydrates
Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
2. Lipids
A broad class of molecules that are insoluble
3. Proteins
composed of amino acid chain(s)
two of the twenty amino acids contain sulfur
4. Nucleic acids
Two types: RNA, or ribonucleic, and DNA, deoxyribonucleic.

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Autotrophs/producers: self-feeding (create carbon compounds using CO2 & other substances).

Heterotrophs/consumers: feed on others via ingestion.

Detritivores: heterotrophs that obtain organic nutrients from detritus via internal digestion. They consume plant detritus, feathers, hairs, and other parts of dead animal bodies.

Saprotrophs: heterotrophs that obtain organic nutrients from dead organic matter by external digestion. In order to digest, they secrete digestive enzymes into dead organic matter. They also release elements back into the ecosystem.

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Catabolism
The breakdown of complex molecules into simpler nolecules. This includes hydrolysis of macromolecules into monomers
Anabolism
The creation of more complex molecules from simpler molecules. This includes the formation of macromolecules from monomers by condensation reactions

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Co2 and water vapor are the most significant greenhouse gases. They both retain heat.

Oxygen and Nitrogen are not greenhouse gases because they don't absorb long wave radiation.

The surface of the earth absorbs short wave energy from the sun and re-emits it at a longer wavelength. Most of the re-emitted radiation is infrared with peak wavelengths of 10,000nm. Some of the reemitted radiation becomes trapped by the greenhouse gases.

25-30% of the short radiation from the sun is absorbed by the ozone layer before it reaches earths surface. 70-75% of solar radiation reaches earth and is converted to heat.

Without the greenhouse affect the temperature of the earth would be -18 degrees c.

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Bryophyta
- Mosses,Liverworts,Hornworts
-  No xylem or Phloem
- No pollen is produced
- No ovaries
- No seeds
- No fruits

Filicinophyta
- Fern
- Has root, stems and leaves
- Xylem and Phloem are both present
- No pollen
- No Ovaries
- No seeds
- No fruits

Coniferophyta
-Conifers
- Root, stems and leaves are present
- Xylem and Phloem are both present
- Pollen is produced in male cones
- Seeds are produced
- No fruits

Angiospermophyta
- Flowering plants
- Has roots, stems and flowers
- Has a Xylem and Phloem
- Pollen is produced
- Has fruits
- Seeds are produced.

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Amino acids are linked together by condensation and form polypeptides (translation).

The condensation reaction that forms polypeptides involves the amine group (-NH2) of one amino acid and the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another. Water is removed and a peptide bond is formed between the two amino acids.

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There are three requirements for a sustainable ecosystem:

1) Nutrient availability
2) Detoxification of waste products
3) Energy availability

Energy can't be recycled, so sustainability depends on continued energy supplies to ecosystems (ie. sun)

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Mutation: Mutation is the original source of variation. New alleles are produced by gene mutation, which enlarges the gene pool of a population.

Meiosis: Meiosis produces new combinations of alleles by breaking up the existing combination in a diploid cell. Every cell produced by meiosis in an individual is likely to carry a different combination of alleles.

Sexual Reproduction: Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of male and female gametes. The gametes usually come from different parents so the offspring has a combination of alleles from two individuals.

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Methane is oxidized to carbon Dioxide and water in the atmosphere.
Molecules of methane released into the atmosphere persist there on average for only 12 years, because its naturally oxidized in the stratosphere.
Monatomic oxygen and highly reactive hydroxyl radicals are involved in methane oxidation.

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First name = genus (a group of species that share certain characteristics). Begins with a capital letter.

Second name = species/specific name. Lowercase.

Can be abbreviated (ie. L. borealis) if used more than once in a text.

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Similar to genomes, everyone has a unique proteome. A proteome encapsulates all the proteins produced by a cell, tissue or organism.

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DNA (Deoxyribonucleic-acid) - Base pairs lined up in double helix format. It has four types of nucleotides/bases: Guanine (G) , Adenine (A), Cytosine (C), and Thymine (T). G pairs with C, and A pairs with T. The number and sequencing of base pairs make up DNA.

mRNA (Messenger Ribonucleic-acid) -  Very similar to DNA in structure, except it is a single helix formation. The nucleotides A, C, and G are the same, however Thymines becomes Uracil (U).

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Proteins are composed of one or more chains of amino acids. The amino acids in the protein chains all contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Two of the twenty amino acids contain sulphur in addition to the above mentioned elements. There is a carbon atom at the center of amino acids. It is bonded to an amine group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and an R group. The R group is the variable part or the part that changes between the amino acids.

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Three things are needed for natural selection to occur:
1. Reproduction - because adaptations do not occur in the lifetime of one individual
2. Mutation - the source of variation
3. Selective pressure - the factors that contribute to the variation. For example, predators were the selective pressure that caused a dark-fur mutation in the Rock Pocket Mice population as it would help them camouflage in their environment.

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1. Missense - the change of a single nucleotide that changes the amino acid
2. Nonsense - the change of a single nucleotide that results in a stop
3. Silent - the change of a nucleotide that does not affect the corresponding amino acid

Ways nucleotides might change:
1. Substitution
2. Insertion
3. Deletion

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Energy conservations performed by living organisms:
1. Light energy -> chemical energy (photosynthesis)
2. Chemical energy -> kinetic energy (muscle contraction)
3. Chemical energy -> electrical energy (nerve cells)
4. Chemical energy -> heat energy (heat-generating adipose tissue)
*Living organisms cannot convert heat energy into any other form of energy*

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- Cohesive properties
Cohesion is the binding or sticking together of the same type. Water molecules are cohesive. They sick to one another due to hydrogen bonding.

-Adhesive properties
Hydrogen bonds can form between water and other(non water) polar molecules. This causes water to stick to these other polar molecules.

- Thermal properties
Water has a high specific heat capacity. Hydrogen bonds prevent water molecules from moving around a lot or breaking. Increases in temperatures require hydrogen bonds to be broken. Energy is needed to break the hydrogen bonds. As a result, more energy is needed to raise the temperature or change the temperature of water. Because of its high specific heat capacity, waters temperature does not fluctuate.

-High boiling point
Because of the hydrogen bonds, the transition from liquid to gas requires a lot of energy. Therefore, water has a high boiling point as a lot of energy is needed to change it from liquid to gas.

-Solvent properties
Water is a solvent. This means it can dissolve many different molecules. Water can dissolve ions and polar molecules, however, it is not great at dissolving nonpolar molecules. Nonpolar molecules do not have positive/negative regions and thus they are not attracted to water, which is polar and has a partial positive and partial negative region. Because of this, they stay separate from water and do not dissolve in water the way a polar substance or an ion would.

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With info from Int-Sci, we know very well that lipids are hydrophobic. Therefore, lipids are insoluble in water. If this this true, then how are lipids transported in the blood?

Steps:
1. Lipid globules are broken down by the digestive system
2. The digested components are combined with a protein to form chylomicron
3. Chylomicrons are released from the intestinal cells into the lacteals (for transport to the liver)
4. Liver converts chylomicrons into soluble lipoproteins

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The impact of greenhouse gases - Riya B. 

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The impact of greenhouse gases - Riya B. 

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The impact of greenhouse gases depends on its ability to absorb long wave radiation. Its concentration also affects its impact. Methane causes more warming per molecule, but carbon dioxide has a bigger impact because there is a much higher concentration of it in the atmosphere.

Im summary the two things that determine the impact of greenhouse gases:
1. Ability to absorb long wave radiation
2. The concentration of the gas in the atmosphere

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Evidence for Evolution(selective breeding) - Riya Bhatia 

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Evidence for Evolution(selective breeding) - Riya Bhatia 

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There are many difference pieces of evidence that support the idea of characteristics of species changing over time(aka evolution). Evolution occurs when heritable characteristics of a species change. Selective breeding is one piece of evidence for evolution.
Selective breeding of domesticated animals, such as dogs, shows that artificial selection(humans selecting certain animals with likable traits and breeding them) can cause evolution. When comparing current domesticated animals to their wild ancestors, there are many many stark differences between the two. Domesticated breeds/animals have not always existed in the form that we see them today. The only possible and logical explanation for this is that humans have repeatedly selected for and bred animals with certain traits(which humans likes/which helped humans). Artificial selection is clearly very effective as there are huge differences between domesticated animals and wild animals and these changes have occurred over a relatively short period of time. This shows that selection can cause evolution.

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As atmospheric carbon dioxide increases, the amount of dissolved carbon dioxide in the water increases. When carbon dioxide enters the water, it reacts with the water to form carbonic acid. Carbonic acid is weak and it breaks into H+ or hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ions. The concentration of hydrogen ions determines the pH of the water. An increase in hydrogen ions results in a lower pH/more acidic conditions. Many marine animals need calcium carbonate for their skeletons. They are greatly affected by ocean acidification because dissolved carbon dioxide greatly lowers the available calcium carbonate in the ocean. Hydrogen ions are attracted to the carbonate and it reacts with carbonate to form bicarbonate, leaving calcium behind. This means less calcium carbonate for the marine animals who need calcium carbonate for their shells/skeletons.

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1.) Individual: a single organism
2.) population: 1 group of a specific species
3.) community: All living(biotic)species in a certain region
4.) Ecosystem: community interacting with Abiotic components and environment
5.) Biom: Type of environment with all abiotic factors and biotic communities
6.) Biosphere: The part of the earth that contains all ecosystems

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Detritivores are heterotrophs that obtain organic nutrients from detritus by internal digestion(organism that cannot produce its own food). Organisms discard quantities of organic matter like dead leaves, feces from animals, hairs, other parts of animal bodies and feathers. This dead organic matter is used as nutrition by detritivores and saprotrophs. They ingest the dead organic matter and then digest it internally and absorb the products of digestion.

Saprotrophs are heterotrophs that obtain organic nutrients from dead organic matter by external digestion. They secrete digestive enzymes into the dead organic matter and then externally digest it. They then absorb the products of digestion.

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Carbohydrates: They are made up of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen. They have Hydrogen and Oxygen in the ration of 2:1 (2 Hydrogen to every 1 Oxygen). Their name, Carbohydrate, comes from this ratio. (Note: The 2:1 ratio is how you can confidently identify a carbohydrate.)

Lipids: They insoluble in water, including steroids, waxes, fatty acids, and triglycerides. Triglycerides are classified, in common language, as fats if they solid at room temperature, and oils if they are liquid at room temperature.

Proteins: They are one or more chains of amino acids. The amino acids contain Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen and Sulfur. Only 2 of the 20 amino acids that are used to construct proteins contain Sulfur. (Note: Proteins are the only Carbon Compound within the human body that contains Sulfur).

Nucleic Acids: They are made up of nucleotides. Nucleotides contain Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus. There are only 2 types of nucleic acids: ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

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Drawing Molecules (AKA The Fancy Terms) - Jade

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Drawing Molecules (AKA The Fancy Terms) - Jade

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Saturated, Cis Unsaturated, and Trans Unsaturated Fatty Acids - Jade

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Saturated, Cis Unsaturated, and Trans Unsaturated Fatty Acids - Jade

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Fatty Acids are a chain of Carbons surrounded Hydrogens with a Hydrogen on one end and a Carboxyl group on the other. The Carbons in these chains are either single or double bonded together.

Saturated Fatty Acids are a carbon chain surrounded by Hydrogens with no double bonds between Carbons, only single. (These are know as fats in common language)

Cis Unsaturated Fatty Acids are a carbon chain surrounded by Hydrogens with at least one double bond between Carbons. At the point where the double bond occurs the Carbons on either side is bonded to an additional Carbon and a Hydrogen. The Hydrogens on either side of the double bond are on the same side of the Carbon (ex. top, top or bottom, bottom). (These are known as oils in common language)

Trans Unsaturated Fatty Acids are a carbon chain surrounded by Hydrogens with at least one double bond between Carbons. At the point where the double bond occurs the Carbons on either side is bonded to an additional Carbon and a Hydrogen. The Hydrogens on either side of the double bond are on the opposite side of the Carbon (ex. top, bottom or bottom, top).

Note: Trans fats are a form of Unsaturated fatty acid, and saturated fatty acids are always cis.

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Formation and Function of Triglycerides - Jade

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Formation and Function of Triglycerides - Jade

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The parts that are required to form a triglyceride are: 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol. These 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol bond together through a condensation reaction (a reaction in which water is a product) is formed between each fatty acid. The bond created between the fatty acids and the glycerol is called an ester bond. This reaction occurs when an acid reactions with hydroxyl (OH) group in an alcohol. In this case, the ester reaction occurs between the carboxyl (COOH) group on the fatty acid and hydroxyl group on the glycerol.

Triglycerides are used as energy stores, heat insulators, and in shock absorption. Their energy can be released by aerobic cell respiration.

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Why Lipids Are Superior to Carbohydrates for Long Term Storage - Jade

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Why Lipids Are Superior to Carbohydrates for Long Term Storage - Jade

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Lipids in general are the superior to carbohydrates for long term storage because:

1. The amount of energy released in cell respiration per gram of lipids is double that per gram for carbohydrates. This means that for the carbohydrates take twice the amount of weight for the same amount of energy as lipids.

2. Lipids serve as more than just energy storage. Lipids can serve as heat insulators because they poor conductors on energy. They can also serve as shock absorbers, hence why adipose tissue surrounds some organs.

Note: It should be noted that carbohydrates are a more effective short term storage because it is faster to break up. (Specifically glycogen, which can easily be broken into glucose, which can then easily be transported through the blood to where ever it might be needed.

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Dipeptide:
To form a dipeptide two amino acids are linked together in a condensation reaction. This reaction occurs between an amine (NH2) group from one animo acid and a carboxyl (COOH) group from the other.

Note: The peptide bond always same regardless of R group.

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Energy Pyramids, food webs, food chains?

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Energy Pyramids, food webs, food chains?

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A dichotomous key is a key for the identification of organisms based on a series of of choices between alternative/contrasting characteristics.

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tRNA is an RNA molecule that attaches an anticodon and amino acid to an mRNA sequence. The Amino acids link together forming an amino acid chain. The chain is then moved to the cytosol of the cell where it begins to fold creating a protein.

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primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary structures of protein?

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primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary structures of protein?

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Proteins have many different functions throughout the body such as:
Structure - Such as Collagen or Keratin
Hormones - Insulin
Immunity - Antigens such as MHC, Interferon, Complement
Transport - Carrier Proteins
Sensation - Neurotransmitters
Motion - Actin or Myosin
Enzymes - Catalase, Lactase, RNA Polymerase, or any other enzyme

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Utilizing the nucleotides present in each codon, you can identify each amino acid produced during translation. Some codons will result in a "stop" amino acid (signified by the squares on this diagram), meaning that the sequence has ended.

How to use the diagram:

Let's say you have the codon "UAC." Your first step would be to look at the nucleotides represented in the middle and find "U." Then continue outward to "A" and "C." You should end up with the amino acid tyrosine.

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Lactase and Catalase chemical reactions - Mira

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Lactase and Catalase chemical reactions - Mira

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Lactose ---lactase----> glucose + galactose

2H202-----catalase---> O2 + 2h2O

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Porifera: aquatic invertebrates that comprises the sponges.
Characteristics
- Marine aquatic organisms
- Asymmetrical bodies
- Body shape can be cylindrical, vase-like, rounded or sac-like.
- They are diploblastic animals (having a body derived from only two embryonic cell layers)
Examples
- Sea Sponges

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Cnidaria: aquatic invertebrates that comprises the coelenterates.
Characteristics
- Radially symmetrical
- Body multicellular, few tissues and some organelles.
- Body contains an internal cavity and a mouth.
- Reproduction is asexual or sexual
Examples
- Anemone
- Coral
- Jellyfish

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Echinodermata: marine animals that are recognizable by their radial symmetry.
Characteristics
- They have a star-like appearance and/or are spherical or elongated.
- The organisms are spiny-skinned.
- They are triploblastic (having a body derived from three embryonic cell layers)
- They have a coelomic cavity.
Examples
- Star Fish
- Sea Urchin
- Sea Cucumber

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Platyhelminthes: relatively simple bilateral, unsegmented, soft-bodied invertebrates.
Characteristics
- Their body is dorsoventrally flattened
- They exhibit bilateral symmetry
- They do not have a body cavity and are acoelomate.
- They are mostly parasitic
Examples
- Flatworms

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Annelida: a large phylum with over 22,000 extant species.
Characteristics
- They are all bilaterally symmetrical animals
- They have a segmented body plan wherein the internal and external morphological features are repeated in each body segment.
- Worm-like in overall morphology
Examples
- Earthworm
- Polychaete
- Leech

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Animalia Phylums: Mollusca (Shaniah)                                      

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Animalia Phylums: Mollusca (Shaniah)                                      

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Mollusca: Second largest Phylum with about 60,000 to 100,000 species

Characteristics:
- Mouth and an anus
- Bilateral symmetry,
- Shell made of CaCO3
- A fold in the body secretes a shell
- A hard rasping radula is used for feeding
- Soft unsegmented body

Examples:
- Marine bivalves
- Gastropods
- Snails,
- Chitons
- Squid
- Octopus

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Arthropoda: a phylum of invertebrate animals

Characteristics:
- A mouth and an anus
- Bilateral symmetry
- An external skeleton made with plates of chitin
- Segmented bodies and legs or other appendages with joints between the sections

Examples:
- Insects,
- Arachnids,
- Crustaceans
- Myriapods

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Chordata: A phylum of distinguished animals that have had a notochord at some point during their development.

Characteristics:
- Mouth and an anus
- Bilateral symmetry
- Bone skeletal structure
- Has a spine

Examples:
- Birds
- Mammals
- Amphibians
- Reptiles
- Fish

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1. DNA strand is unwinded into a coding strand and a template strand by RNA polymerase
2. Complimentary base pairings are made with the template strand (T->A, A->U, C->G, G->C)
3. Transcript (RNA) goes to the ribosome
4. The ribosome reads the transcript in sequences of 3 (codons)
5. Corresponding anti-codon, tRNA, and amino acid bond with the codon.
6. The sequence of amino acids fold to create a functional protein. It can be a primary structure, beta-pleated sheet, or 3D structure.
Remember: Structure affects function