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In this class lecture, my high school psychology teacher, Mr. Christian Larson had explained the structure behind memory and the different processes function. He had emphasized that memory is not localized to only one area but rather various parts of the brain.

Referencing his class lecture is useful in relating my previous knowledge of memory to the current investigation of age and memory. It also is effective in demonstrating that age does harm certain types of memory but not others.

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This academic article outlines the timeline of investigations and theories of memory and age. It begins with initial theories, how they developed, and ends with predictions of how studies will be studied and what future science will focus on.

This source demonstrates how the scientific community's understanding has transitioned between various theories as society develops. Additionally, it reveals how future investigations will focus on and the technological advancements that aid it.

" advent of magnetic resonance imaging allowed
researchers to measure the volume of brain structures in
older adults and to relate these measures to memory performance" (86)
"we predict that future research will place greater
emphasis on genetic risk factors and epigenetic environmental triggers that predispose individuals for memory disturbances." (87)

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Older adults require more time to comprehend and interpret new information than younger adults. However, these older adults had the easiest-to-understand interpretation and recall of the text.

This experience demonstrates the current conversations comparing the memory of the elderly with younger individuals. I used this source to support the negative influence of age on memory recall but also how it demonstrates the validity behind Eagleman's explanation of finite neurons.

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Subject Expertise - Academic Journal Article 

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Subject Expertise - Academic Journal Article 

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Al-Qahtani in "The Effect of Age on Memory" explores how age influences sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory. Under the short-term memory section, he referenced studies (Swanson 1999 and Salthouse 1991) that found older adults have a harder time manipulating and accessing new information than younger adults.

This source demonstrates that aging does not influence memory as a whole but rather certain subtypes and functions of it. I can use this source as evidence that age influences memory recall, specifically episodic memory recall but does not influence other certain types of memory.

"it's own constituent parts that may or may not be affected by age either entirely or partially." (173)

"Older adults perform well in the recall as well as younger adults but when the older ones were asked to manipulate the information in other ways like recall them in refers order, younger adults outperformed the older. " (174)
"Older adults have problems accessing new information but once the information enters the system, older adults seem to keep the new information as well as the younger adults" (175)

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"Everyday memory failures across adulthood: Implications for the age prospective memory paradox" investigates the impact of aging on memory-related to everyday life. Researchers explore the way prospective memory excels and degenerates at certain ages. Furthermore, an age-benefit or a lack of prospective memory decline was found in middle-aged to older adults.

This supports my claim that aging does not always influence memory recall negatively. It introduces a new argument that age helps with improving memory because we gain more experience and understanding to rehearse memory recall. I could connect it to the concept of cognitive reserve.

"The absence of a decline between the middle and late adulthood may not be just a benefit of accumulated experience, but also a specific adjustment of everyday behavior in the face of experienced memory failures of consequence" (12)

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"What Is Memory?" by Kendra Cherry defined what is memory, explained the various processes, subtypes, and possible ways to conserve memory.

This source was useful in providing context for what processes are involved in memory and where memory recall fits in it.

"processes that are used to acquire, store, retain, and later retrieve information"
"encoding, storing and retrieval"

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Memory refers to the psychological processes of acquiring, storing, retaining, and later retrieving information. There are three major processes involved in memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Human memory involves the ability to both preserve and recover information. However, this is not a flawless process. Sometimes people forget or misremember things. Other times, information is not properly encoded in memory in the first place.

Memory problems are often relatively minor annoyances, like forgetting birthdays. However, they can also be a sign of serious conditions such as Alzheimer's disease and other kinds of dementia. These conditions affect quality of life and ability to function.

This article discusses how memories are formed and why they are sometimes forgotten. It also covers the different types of memory and steps you can take to both improve and protect your memory.

How Memories Are Formed

In order to create a new memory, information must be changed into a usable form, which occurs through a process known as encoding. Once the information has been successfully encoded, it must be stored in memory for later use.

Researchers have long believed that memories form due to changes in brain neurons (nerve cells). Our understanding today is that memories are created through the connections that exist between these neurons-either by strengthening these connections or through the growth of new connections.

This is why reviewing and rehearsing information improves the ability to remember it. Practice strengthens the connections between the synapses that store that memory.

Much of our stored memory lies outside of our awareness most of the time, except when we actually need to use it. The memory retrieval process allows us to bring stored memories into conscious awareness.

How Long Do Memories Last?

You can't discuss what memory is without also talking about how long memories last. Some memories are very brief, just seconds long, and allow people to take in sensory information about the world.

Short-term memories are a bit longer and last about 20 to 30 seconds. These memories mostly consist of the information people are currently focusing on and thinking about.

Some memories are capable of enduring much longer-lasting days, weeks, months, or even decades. Most of these long-term memories lie outside of immediate awareness but can be drawn into consciousness when needed.

Why Do We Remember Painful Memories?

Using Memory

To use the information that has been encoded into memory, it first has to be retrieved. There are many factors that can influence this process, including the type of information being used and the retrieval cues that are present.

Of course, this process is not always perfect. Have you ever felt like you had the answer to a question just out of your reach, for instance? This is an example of a perplexing memory retrieval issue known as lethologica or the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon.

Organizing Memory

The ability to access and retrieve information from long-term memory allows us to actually use these memories to make decisions, interact with others, and solve problems. But in order to be retrievable, memories have to be organized in some way.

One way of thinking about memory organization is the semantic network model. This model suggests that certain triggers activate associated memories. Seeing or remembering a specific place might activate memories that have occurred in that location.

Certain stimuli can also sometimes act as powerful triggers that draw memories into conscious awareness. Scent is one example. Smelling a particular smell, such as a perfume or fresh-baked cookies, can bring forth a rush of vivid memories connected to people and events from a person's past.

In order to identify a scent, a person must remember when they have smelled it before, then connect it to visual information that occurred at the same time. So, when areas of the brain connected to memory are damaged, the ability to identify smells is actually impaired.

At the same time, researchers have found that scent can help trigger autobiographical memories in people who have Alzheimer's disease. This underscores just how powerful memories can be.

Types of Memory

While several different models of memory have been proposed, the stage model of memory is often used to explain the basic structure and function of memory. Initially proposed in 1968 by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin, this theory outlines three separate stages or types of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory Memory

Sensory memoryis the earliest stage of memory. During this stage, sensory information from the environment is stored for a very brief period of time, generally for no longer than a half-second for visual information and three or four seconds for auditory information.

People only pay attention to certain aspects of this sensory memory. Attending to sensory memory allows some of this information to pass into the next stage: short-term memory.

Short-Term Memory

Short-term memory, also known as active memory, is the information we are currently aware of or thinking about. In Freudian psychology, this memory would be referred to as the conscious mind. Paying attention to sensory memories generates information in short-term memory.

While many of our short-term memories are quickly forgotten, attending to this information allows it to continue to the next stage: long-term memory. Most of the information stored in active memory will be kept for approximately 20 to 30 seconds.

This capacity can be stretched somewhat by using memory strategies such as chunking, which involves grouping related information into smaller chunks.

In a famous paper published in 1956, psychologist George Miller suggested that the capacity of short-term memory for storing a list of items was somewhere between five and nine. Some memory researchers now believe that the true capacity of short-term memory is probably closer to four.

Long-Term Memory

Long-term memory refers to the continuing storage of information. In Freudian psychology, long-term memory would be called the preconscious and unconscious.

This information is largely outside of our awareness but can be called into working memory to be used when needed. Some memories are fairly easy to recall, while others are much more difficult to access.

Recap

Why We Forget

Forgetting is a surprisingly common event. Just consider how easy it is to forget someone's name or overlook an important appointment. Why do people so often forget information they have learned in the past?

There are four basic explanations for why forgetting occurs:

Failure to store a memory

Interference

Motivated forgetting

Retrieval failure

Sometimes information is simply lost from memory and, in other cases, it was never stored correctly in the first place. Some memories compete with one another, making it difficult to remember certain information. In other instances, people actively try to forget things that they simply don't want to remember.

How to Improve Memory

No matter how great your memory is, there are probably a few things you can do to make it even better. Useful strategies to deal with mild memory loss include:

Write it down:The act of writing with a pen and paper helps implant the memory into your brain-and can also serve as a reminder or reference later on.

Attach meaning to it: You can remember something more easily if you attach meaning to it. For instance, if you associate a person you just meet with someone you already know, you may be able to remember their name better.

Repeat it:Repetition helps the memory become encoded beyond your short-term memory.

Group it:Information that is categorized becomes easier to remember and recall.

Test yourself: While it may seem like studying and rehearsing information is the best way to ensure that you will remember it, researchers have found that being tested on information is actually one of the best ways to improve recall.

Take a mental picture: Systematically trying to make a mental note of things you often forget (such as where you left your car keys) can help you remember things better.

Get enough rest: Research has also found that sleep plays a critical role in learning and the formation of new memories.

Use memorization techniques: Rehearsing information, employing mnemonics, and other memorization strategies can help combat minor memory problems.

Recap

How to Protect Your Memory

While Alzheimer's disease and other age-related memory problems affect many older adults, the loss of memory during later adulthood might not inevitable. Certain abilities do tend to decline with age, but researchers have found that individuals in their 70s often perform just as well on many cognitive tests as those in their 20s.

To help protect your brain as you age, try some of these lifestyle strategies:

Avoid stress: Research has found that stress can have detrimental effects on areas of the brain associated with memory, including the hippocampus.

Avoid drugs, alcohol, and other neurotoxins: Drug use and excessive alcohol consumption have been linked to the deterioration of synapses (the connections between neurons). Exposure to dangerous chemicals such as heavy metals and pesticides can also have detrimental effects on the brain.

Get enough exercise: Regular physical activity helps improve oxygenation of the brain, which is vital for synaptic formation and growth.

Stimulate your brain: When it comes to memory, there is a lot of truth to the old adage of "use it or lose it." Researchers have found that people who have more mentally stimulating jobs are less likely to develop dementia.

Maintain a sense of self-efficacy: Having a strong sense of self-efficacy has been associated with maintaining good memory abilities during old age. Self-efficacy refers to the sense of control that people have over their own lives and destiny. A strong sense of self-efficacy has also been linked to lowered stress levels.

Recap

A Word From Verywell

Human memory is a complex process that researchers are still trying to better understand. Our memories make us who we are, yet the process is not perfect. While we are capable of remembering an astonishing amount of information, we are also susceptible to memory-related mistakes and errors.

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Memory refers to the psychological processes of acquiring, storing, retaining, and later retrieving information. There are three major processes involved in memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Human memory involves the ability to both preserve and recover information. However, this is not a flawless process. Sometimes people forget or misremember things.

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Lumen Learning in "Step 3 Memory Retrieval" explains how memory recall or retrieval works and the different subtypes of it.

This source was beneficial in understanding the different processes that lead to memory recall and provide context for the various types of memory recall I may read about in other studies.

"process of remembering information stored in long-term memory"

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Memory Retrieval: Recognition and Recall

Memory retrieval, including recall and recognition, is the process of remembering information stored in long-term memory.

Learning Objectives

Outline the ways in which recall can be cued or fail

Key Takeaways

Key Points

Retrieval cues can facilitate recall. Cues are thought to be most effective when they have a strong, complex link with the information to be recalled.

Memories of events or items tend to be recalled in the same order in which they were experienced, so by thinking through a list or series of events, you can boost your recall of successive items.

The primacy and recency effects show that items near the beginning and end of a list or series tend to be remembered most frequently.

Retroactive interference is when new information interferes with remembering old information; proactive interference is when old information interferes with remembering new information.

The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon occurs when an individual can almost recall a word but cannot directly identify it. This is a type of retrieval failure; the memory cannot be accessed, but certain aspects of it, such as the first letter or similar words, can.

Key Terms

working memory: The system that actively holds multiple pieces of information in the mind for execution of verbal and nonverbal tasks and makes them available for further information processing.

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: The failure to retrieve a word from memory combined with partial recall and the feeling that retrieval is imminent.

retrieval: The cognitive process of bringing stored information into consciousness.

Memory retrieval is the process of remembering information stored in long-term memory. Some theorists suggests that there are three stores of memory: sensory memory, long-term memory (LTM), and short-term memory (STM). Only data that is processed through STM and encoded into LTM can later be retrieved. Overall, the mechanisms of memory are not completely understood. However, there are many theories concerning memory retrieval.

There are two main types of memory retrieval: recall and recognition. In recall, the information must be retrieved from memories. In recognition, the presentation of a familiar outside stimulus provides a cue that the information has been seen before. A cue might be an object or a scene-any stimulus that reminds a person of something related. Recall may be assisted when retrieval cues are presented that enable the subject to quickly access the information in memory.

Patterns of Memory Retrieval

Memory retrieval can occur in several different ways, and there are many things that can affect it, such as how long it has been since the last time you retrieved the memory, what other information you have learned in the meantime, and many other variables. For example, the spacing effect allows a person to remember something they have studied many times spaced over a longer period of time rather than all at once. The testing effect shows that practicing retrieval of a concept can increase the chance of remembering it.

Some effects relate specifically to certain types of recall. There are three main types of recall studied in psychology: serial recall, free recall, and cued recall.

Serial Recall

People tend to recall items or events in the order in which they occurred. This is called serial recall and can be used to help cue memories. By thinking about a string of events or even words, it is possible to use a previous memory to cue the next item in the series. Serial recall helps a person to remember the order of events in his or her life. These memories appear to exist on a continuum on which more recent events are more easily recalled.

When recalling serial items presented as a list (a common occurrence in memory studies), two effects tend to surface: the primacy effect and the recency effect. The primacy effect occurs when a participant remembers words from the beginning of a list better than the words from the middle or end. The theory behind this is that the participant has had more time to rehearse these words in working memory. The recency effect occurs when a participant remembers words from the end of a list more easily, possibly since they are still available in short-term memory.

Free Recall

Free recall occurs when a person must recall many items but can recall them in any order. It is another commonly studied paradigm in memory research. Like serial recall, free recall is subject to the primacy and recency effects.

Cued Recall

Cues can facilitate recovery of memories that have been "lost." In research, a process called cued recall is used to study these effects. Cued recalloccurs when a person is given a list to remember and is then given cues during the testing phase to aid in the retrieval of memories. The stronger the link between the cue and the testing word, the better the participant will recall the words.

Interference with Memory Retrieval

Interference occurs in memory when there is an interaction between the new material being learned and previously learned material. There are two main kinds of interference: proactive and retroactive.

Proactive Interference

Proactive interference is the forgetting of information due to interference from previous knowledge in LTM. Past memories can inhibit the encoding of new memories. This is particularly true if they are learned in similar contexts and the new information is similar to previous information. This is what is happening when you have trouble remembering your new phone number because your old one is stuck in your head.

Retroactive Interference

Retroactive interference occurs when newly learned information interferes with the encoding or recall of previously learned information. If a participant was asked to recall a list of words, and was then immediately presented with new information, it could interfere with remembering the initial list. If you learn to use a new kind of computer and then later have to use the old model again, you might find you have forgotten how to use it. This is due to retroactive interference.

Retrieval Failure

Sometimes a person is not able to retrieve a memory that they have previously encoded. This can be due to decay, a natural process that occurs when neural connections decline, like an unused muscle.

Occasionally, a person will experience a specific type of retrieval failure called tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. This is the failure to retrieve a word from memory, combined with partial recall and the feeling that retrieval is imminent. People who experience this can often recall one or more features of the target word such as the first letter, words that sound similar, or words that have a similar meaning. While this process is not completely understood, there are two theories as to why it occurs. The first is the direct-access perspective, which states that the memory is not strong enough to retrieve but strong enough to trigger the state. The inferential perspective posits that the state occurs when the subject infers knowledge of the target word, but tries to piece together different clues about the word that are not accessible in memory.

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Memory retrieval, including recall and recognition, is the process of remembering information stored in long-term memory. Outline the ways in which recall can be cued or fail Key Points Retrieval cues can facilitate recall. Cues are thought to be most effective when they have a strong, complex link with the information to be recalled.

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Provided background information on SuperAgers. SuperAgers have memory recall function equivalent to those couple decades younger because of a slower rate of atrophy, lack of atrophy, or larger starting brain mass.

This source demonstrates how age does not necessarily harm memory recall. It introduces a unique group of individuals whose phenotype and genotype are being studied to better understand the relationship between age and memory as well as how to maintain cognitive memory function.

"defined as adults 80 years and older with episodic memory ability at least as good as that of average middle-aged adults."

"have a significantly thicker brain cortex than their same-age peers with average-for-age memory..."

"SuperAgers may experience similar atrophy rates as their cognitively average peers but start with larger brain volumes, or they may resist age-related cortical atrophy"

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Neuroscientist Emily Rogalski shares about the lifestyle habits that SuperAgers have that could contribute to their reduced memory decline. It includes behaviors such as being active physically and mentally, being social, and indulging moderately.

Suggests habits that non SuperAgers could adapt to possibly maintain a similar level of memory function at the same age range.

"SuperAgers live an active lifestyle."

"SuperAgers continue to challenge themselves."

"SuperAgers are social butterflies."

"SuperAgers indulge."

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Four surprising ways to keep your brain healthy, according to the latest research.

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Subject Expertise - Academic Journal Article

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Subject Expertise - Academic Journal Article

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This source compared the impact of aging on memory in mid-age adults and the elderly. Furthermore, researchers observe how processing of our visuospatial and verbal memory declines over time but reaches a peak at age 85.

This supports my claim that age has a negative impact on our memory. I could use this source to specifically mention the subtype of memory influenced and how the decline is continuous over time.

"further decline after the age of 85, only the recall tasks revealed a heightened decline, suggesting that retrieval processes are particularly affected beyond the eighth decade." (353)

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Comparison of Adult Age Differences in Verbal and Visuo-Spatial Memory- The Importance of ‘Pure’, Parallel and Validated Measures

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In The Brain The Story of You, David Eagleman discusses the variety of processes and factors that make us who we are. Among them are the explanation of how memories are created, cognitive reserves, and unique cases where individuals did not suffer from neurological diseases.

This source was useful in understanding how memories are formed and the issues related to maintaining memories. I was able to learn about a new concept, cognitive reserves, and relate its benefits to the findings of other studies. Because of the wide range of information, I used different sections of this source to answer both sides of the question.

"As areas of brain tissue have degenerated, other areas have been well exercised, and therefore have compensated or taken over those functions." (31)

"Each new event needs to establish new relationships among a finite number of neurons." (25)

"You have a finite number of neurons, and they are all required to multitask." (24)

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Locked in the silence and darkness of your skull, your brain fashions the rich narratives of your reality and your identity. Join renowne...

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Essay 4: The Aging Brain and Memory Recall 

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Essay 4: The Aging Brain and Memory Recall 

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Central Question: Does aging negatively influences memory recall?

The negative influence of age on memory recall depends on biological and sociological factors that vary in each individual. A common pattern is with age the ability to recall and manipulate new information deteriorates. However, things like cognitive reserves and unique phenomenons like SuperAgers demonstrate age does not always harm our memory recall.

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"Older Brain Really May Be a Wiser Brain" discusses scientific research that supports why society views older people to be wiser. She refutes the misconception that an elderly person processes things slower because of a decrease in brainpower. In reality, an elderly's brain takes in more information but takes longer to assimilate, this process leads to a "wiser brain" as more connections are made and retained between new and older information.

I used this source as the starting point of my research and gain a general knowledge of the relationship between the aging brain and our cognitive functions. The article mainly discussed information processing and the aging brain but it had also touched on memory recall. Hence my focus on the relationship between age and memory recall.

"The aging brain is simply taking in more data and trying to sift through a clutter of information, often to its long-term benefit."

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Older Brain Really May Be a Wiser Brain (Published 2008)

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New research suggests that memory lapses that occur with age might be a sign of a widening focus of attention.