# data[].attributes.body
Following a case brought on by Homer Plessy, who refused to sit in a car for Black people while riding the train, the Supreme Court ruled that a law that "implies merely a legal distinction" between white people and Black people was not unconstitutional. Separate-but-equal facilities were deemed "not unconstitutional" in social rights. As a result, restrictive Jim Crow legislation and separate public accommodations based on race became commonplace.

(Katie Carlson and Madeline Carpenter)

# data[].attributes.body
This case determined that separate is not equal and that segregated schools violated the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. It did not cause immediate full integration of schools, but it did lay a very strong foundation for school integration that would continue to grow in the following years. It was extremely significant in the struggle for racial integration, not only in schools but in society as a whole.

# data[].attributes.body
Passed by Congress. Key components: funds, policies, and procedures targeting students from low income families

# data[].attributes.headline
1966 Conference on the education of Spanish-speaking children sponsored by the National Education Association

# data[].attributes.subject
1966 Conference on the education of Spanish-speaking children sponsored by the National Education Association

# data[].attributes.body
This conference initiated a report that outlined examples of successful programs in southwestern states that made use of the students' home languages. The report recommended repealing English-only instruction laws and declared English should be taught as a second language.

# data[].attributes.body
First federal recognition of the significant need of students that had limited english speaking ability. It sort of lacked giving any solutions as to how to help them learn more effectively, but is still a huge step to recognize the problem!

# data[].attributes.body
San Francisco desegregated their school districts and shifted district lines. Chinese parents, including Guey Heung Lee, wanted a stay of the law so they could appeal. They wanted their children to remain in Chinese heritage schools. Various levels of court denied the stay.

# data[].attributes.body
In Plyler v Doe, the Supreme Court ruled that districts and schools are not allowed to deny free public education to undocumented children. It started in a 1977 attempt from a school in Texas to impose an up-to-$1000 tuition per undocumented student. After a number of appeals that took five years, the Court ruled that it was unconstitutional, saying "No State shall … deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.”, which includes a free public education (American Immigration Council). Some schools and districts have attempted to circumvent the ruling, but Plyler has been applied to disallow such attempts in states such as California, Alabama, and Illinois.

# data[].attributes.body
Supreme Court ruled that Title VI of the Civil Rights Act protects ELs and parents from discrimination. Students must be provided ESL instruction to learn English and gain access to instructional content.
This led to the EEOA of 1974 mandating that schools must provide remedies to ensure equal access to educational opportunities.

# data[].attributes.body
A key outcome of this case is that schools are required to take a “three-pronged test” to prove that they were adequately teaching ELL students. The Castañeda standard requires schools to teach ELL students based on 3 minimum qualifications. First, that the ELL programs and training be based off of theory that is backed by researchers and is constantly being revamped. Second, the ELL programs are properly staffed with qualified EL teachers. Last, the programs must be evaluated in a timely manner to see if ELL students are getting the education they need to overcome language barriers and have the opportunity to be successful in America. One of the caveats of this standard is that a lot of time needs to be measured before we know if students are receiving the education they need and if schools are in need of more training for ELL teachers. By then, some students may have already been pushed under the rug or fallen way behind and it is too late to recover before they enter society on their own.

# data[].attributes.body
-Introduced by President George W. Bush.
-Removal of the word "Bilingual" from the title of the act depicted the students from a deficit view.
-Placed heavy emphasis on high-stakes testing.
-Newcomer ELLs in the U.S. for less than one year were excluded from taking the tests.
-Each state was required to create academic content standards and assessments to measure those standards and use the results.
-Often discouraged bilingual education programs.
-NCLB drove U.S. education policy for 14 years.

# data[].attributes.headline
2015: The most recent time the ESEA was reauthorized

# data[].attributes.subject
2015: The most recent time the ESEA was reauthorized

# data[].attributes.body
This version has the most explicit recognition of the personal and societal benefits of bilingualism and most expansive criteria for programs eligible for Title VII funding.

# data[].attributes.body
Reauthorization of ESEA done in 2015 by President Obama, eventually being implemented in the 2018-19 school year. The ESSA appears to be an improvement on NCLB, however the wording often seems intentionally vague and struggles to provide a consistent framework for states to work from. The ESSA requires targeted support for ELLs who are consistently underperforming. On paper this sounds great, however, the benchmarks for determining students who are under-performers are still standardized tests which can make it more difficult to know if it is content knowledge or english proficiency that is leading to the lower scores. Finally, the ESSA makes no recognition of the benefits of a bilingual education or bilingualism and emphasizes English rather than incorporating both English and the students first language.