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Charm and Audrey's plant area

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DID YOU KNOW?

Svalbard Global Seed Vault is a facility where copies of seeds from gene banks are stored. The seed vault is 400feet long and can store up to 4M crops and 2.5B seeds to protect humanity from catastrophe that could wipe out the agriculture diversity

The temperature in the seed vault ranges from -5C to -18C to secure the seeds.

Journalists call the seed vault as the "Noah's Ark of Plant Diversity". Gene diversity is needed for developing new varieties of plants and the seed vault has seeds from all over the world.

Seed vaults give farmers the feeling of safety when seeds are sent to the seed vault and when a seed bank in a place is destroyed, the Svalbard seed vault sends the seeds back for them to create a new gene bank. International conflicts are cooled down when it comes to the seed vault

Svalbard Global Seed Vault is the world's largest collection of genetic diversity of crops

13,000 years worth of agricultural history. As of 2016, it has 70,000 different varieties of barley, 150,000 samples of rice, and 140,000 samples of wheat.

The genes stored in the seed vault are used for creating new varieties to increase the world's food production

Seed banks conserve their seeds, prepare the genes for future food supplies

Reference:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B95Pem9XW7k

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Philippines Effort to Establish a Seed Bank

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Philippines Effort to Establish a Seed Bank

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The Philippines too has taken efforts to establish seed banks. According to the Food and Agriculture Organizations of the United Nations (2019), Southeast Asia Regional Initiatives for Community Empowerment (SEARICE) has partnered with institutions, universities, government and non-government organizations for the collection of seeds. This ensures the security and conservation of the agricultural biodiversity for climate change adaptations. The Philippines started a program called Community Biodiversity Development and Conservation to mobilize farmers, agricultural specialists, and funding agencies to promote farmers rights.

Reference:

http://www.fao.org/3/ca8198en/ca8198en.pdf

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Beet is an example of a eudicot, while an onion is a monocot

Both dicot and monocot seeds have a protective outer layer called testa, that is made out of dead cells. In the embryonic axis, the radicle or the embryonic root can be found. A dicot seed has two cotyledons, while a monocot seed only has one. The endosperm serves as the food reserves of the seed, and during germination, the cotyledons act as an absorptive organ to take up the nutrients from the food reserves. The perisperm can only be found in dicots and is derived from the nucleus and gives rise to the ovule. The hypocotyl is where the cotyledons are attached.

Image from:

Taiz, L., Zeigerm E., Moller, I. M. & Murphy, A. (2015). Plant Physiology and Development. Sinauer Associates, Inc.

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Seed dormancy: What is seed dormancy, types, and how to break it.

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Seed dormancy: What is seed dormancy, types, and how to break it.

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Even under favorable circumstances, viable seeds are unable to germinate, thus, seed dormancy occurs. Various developmental phases encompasses the interplay among environmental conditions which regulates dormancy and due to this, the formation of physiological and genetic differences are difficult to identify. The balance between the embryo's efficiency to survive dormancy and the extent of dormancy leads to seed germination and seed germination is the basis for all assays for dormancy. Therefore, difficulty arises. Primary and secondary dormancy are the classifications of seed dormancy. Primary dormancy have five subtypes and these are morphophysiological dormancy, combinational dormancy, physical dormancy, morphological dormancy, and physiological dormancy.

Techniques namely light, acid and other chemicals, dry heat, hot water, fire, and scarification are utilized to break seed dormancy. Plant seeds that undergo seed dormancy include Arabidopsis, which may either go dormant or non-dormant , manzanita (Arctostaphylos) and California lilac (Ceanothus).

Reference:
Bentsink, L., & Koornneef, M. (2008). Seed Dormancy and Germination. The Arabidopsis Book, 6, e0119. doi:10.1199/tab.0119 .
Tuan, P. A., Sun, M., Nguyen, T.-N., Park, S., & Ayele, B. T. (2019). Molecular mechanisms of seed germination. Sprouted Grains, 1–24. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-811525-1.00001-4
Yildiz, M. et al. (20147). Seed Dormancy. Advances in Seed Biology. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.70571

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In Arabidopsis embryogenesis, there are five stages linked to the shape of the embryo. The first stage is the zygotic stage wherein the union of the egg and sperm produces a single-celled product. The fusion of the haploid egg and sperm forms a diploid where the single-celled zygote’s life starts. The growth of the zygote polarizes, then undergoes asymmetrical transverse division, to form the apical cell and an elongated basal cell.

The second stage is the globular stage, wherein an octant globular embryo is formed through a series of division of the apical cell. This octant globular embryo exhibits radial symmetry, and cell division follows to increase the number of cells in the globular embryo. The protoderm also forms here and will later become the epidermis.

The third stage is the heart stage where two cotyledons are formed through a series of cell division. This gives the embryo bilateral symmetry.

The fourth stage is the torpedo stage where cellular elongation and differentiation occurs  throughout the embryonic axis. The abaxial and adaxial tissues are differentiated here.

The fifth and final stage is the mature stage  where the embryo and seed becomes metabolically inactive and enters seed dormancy.

Reference:
Taiz, L., Zeigerm E., Moller, I. M. & Murphy, A. (2015). Plant Physiology and Development. Sinauer Associates, Inc.

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Genes and Hormones in the Establishment of Apical-Basal and Radial Axis

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Genes and Hormones in the Establishment of Apical-Basal and Radial Axis

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The apical-basal pattern elements of Arabidopsis include the shoot meristem, the embryonic leaves, the embryonic stem (hypocotyl), the embryonic root (radicle), and the root meristem. The radial elements include the tissue layers epidermis, cortex, endodermis, pericycle, and the vascular tissues. The apical cell  expresses the homeobox gene Arabidopsis thaliana MERISTEM LAYER1 (AtML1), which becomes the epidermis primordium of the embryo (). The apical region also expresses the homeobox gene WUSCHEL (WUS), which is significant in the shoot meristem development. In Arabidopsis embryo, the stable fixation of the apical-basal axis is mainly due to the expression of the apical marker LIPID TRANSFER PROTEIN (LTP). In the radial axis, the genes expressed include the CLV3, CLV1, REV, FIL, YAB3. The expression of SHORT ROOT (SHR) can also be seen in the vascular cambium. For the hormones, auxin is known to have an influence in the polarity of the apical-basal axis, which initiates the primary root meristem and phyllotaxis of the shoot apex.

Reference:
Jurgens, G. (2001). Apical–basal pattern formation in Arabidopsis embryogenesis. EMBO J, 20, 3609-3616. https://doi.org/10.1093/emboj/20.14.3609

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Goniothalamus palawanensis is a species described in Palawan by Tang & Saunders in 2013. It belongs to the species-rich angiosperm family Annonaceae and are commonly found in submontane forests of tropical South-east Asia. Goniothalamus palawanensis is a 5 meter tall tree, with solitary, axillary, and pendant inflorescences that are often cauliflorous. It can be found in dipterocarp and limestone forests in Palawan.

Reference:

Tang, C. C., Xue, B. & Saunder, R. M. K. (2013). A new species of Goniothalamus (Annonaceae) from Palawan, and a new nomenclatural combination in the genus from Fiji. PhytoKeys, 32, 27-35. doi: 10.3897/phytokeys.32.6663

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Ixora palawanensis belongs to the diverse family Rubiaceae, where 83% of the species are endemic to the Philippines. Palawan houses different Ixora species which share similar habitats, but differ in color. The flower color of Ixora palawanensis is salmon-red that are commonly used as ornamental shrubs.

Reference:

Banag, C. I., Mouly, A., Alejandro, G. J. D., Bremer, B., Meve, U., Grimm, G. W. & Liede-Schumann, S. (2017). Ixora (Rubiaceae) on the Philippines - crossroad or cradle? BMC Evolutionary Biology, 17, 131. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12862-017-0974-3

Image from: https://elnidoenvironment.files.wordpress.com/2011/11/img_2325.jpg?w=1400

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Reference

Rubite, R. R., Hughes, M., Blanc, P., Chung, K. F., Yang, H. A., Kono, Y., Alejandro, G. J. D., De Layola, L. B., Virata, A. G. N. & Peng, C. I. (2015). Three new species of Begonia endemic to the Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park, Palawan. Bot Stud, 56(19), 1-14. DOI 10.1186/s40529-015-0099-1

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Image from:
Santiago, J. O. & Buot, I. E. (2017). CHECKLIST OF HOYA SPECIES ON PALAWAN ISLAND, PHILIPPINES. Journal of Nature Studies, 16(1), 34-44

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Image from:
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rareflora.com%2Fhoyagol.html&psig=AOvVaw1pzdG_lBogrhhleeucV2Sp&ust=1622129739391000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAIQjRxqFwoTCICQvrPW5_ACFQAAAAAdAAAAABAN

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Santiago, J. O. & Buot, I. E. (2017). CHECKLIST OF HOYA SPECIES ON PALAWAN ISLAND, PHILIPPINES. Journal of Nature Studies, 16(1), 34-44

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Hoya species are wax plants that are mostly vines and epiphytic climbers. Hoya meliflua (Blanco) Merr. and Hoya wibergiae Kloppenb. are two species endemic to Palawan. They are unique due to their unusual floral morphology where some have star-shaped corona. Besides being used as ornamental plants, they also have medicinal uses. Some Hoya species extracts can be used to treat headache and muscle pain.

Reference:
Santiago, J. O. & Buot, I. E. (2017). CHECKLIST OF HOYA SPECIES ON PALAWAN ISLAND, PHILIPPINES. Journal of Nature Studies, 16(1), 34-44

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Endemic to Palawan are 14 species of Begonia and in 2015, three additional species were discovered by Reubite et al., in Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park (PPSRNP). These three species are Begonia taraw, Begonia hughesii, and Begonia tagbanua. Begonia is capable of generating micro-endemic species on limestone habitats like the karst limestone landscape of PPSRNP. What's interesting about the three species of Begonia is that they grow close to each other at altitudes of less than 50m, but they grow in mutually exclusive habitats. As discovered by Rubite & Hughes (2015), Begonia taraw is found to grow around the mouth of the underground river, on the limestone cliffs. Rubite and Peng (2015), then found Begonia hughesii growing in rock crevices near the karst forest. Hughes and Peng then found Begonia tagbanua growing on clay soil banks within the forest.

Reference

Rubite, R. R., Hughes, M., Blanc, P., Chung, K. F., Yang, H. A., Kono, Y., Alejandro, G. J. D., De Layola, L. B., Virata, A. G. N. & Peng, C. I. (2015). Three new species of Begonia endemic to the Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park, Palawan. Bot Stud, 56(19), 1-14. DOI 10.1186/s40529-015-0099-1

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Reference

Rubite, R. R., Hughes, M., Blanc, P., Chung, K. F., Yang, H. A., Kono, Y., Alejandro, G. J. D., De Layola, L. B., Virata, A. G. N. & Peng, C. I. (2015). Three new species of Begonia endemic to the Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park, Palawan. Bot Stud, 56(19), 1-14. DOI 10.1186/s40529-015-0099-1

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Imbibition of water, how food reserves are mobilized, and tropisms: What happens?

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Imbibition of water, how food reserves are mobilized, and tropisms: What happens?

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Imbibition of water

There are three phases seed undergoes when taking up water, these are phase I, phase II, and phase III. In phase I, seeds initially uptake water rapidly. Phase II is considered as the plateau phase where uptake of water is enhanced. Phase III occurs when germination begins and uptake of water is increased. As the DNA repair, transcription and translation is restored accompanied by cell division resumption and cell-elongation, the germination can be observed. The rupture of testa and the rupture of endosperm is the two stage process of germination. The completion of germination occurs when the micropylar endosperm is ruptured by the developing radicle.

Food reserves are mobilized

When the free fatty acids and glycerol are produced from the hydrolyzed triacylglycerol by lipases in oleosomes, then the mobilization of storage lipid is initiated. In peroxisomes, β-oxidation occurs to metabolize the fatty acids. After, the glyoxylate cycle will partially occur in the peroxisome and the remaining would be in the cytoplasm. Isocitrate lyase, malate synthase and citrate synthase are some of the five enzymes of the glyoxylate cycle occurring in the peroxisome, while the remaining two are the malate dehydrogenase and aconitase occurs in the cytoplasm. Succinate is transported into the mitochondria from the peroxisome and under Krebs cycle, succinate will be converted into malate. Once the malate is transported into the cytoplasm, the oxaloacetate will then be yielded from malate. In seed germination, processes for carbon transport are synthesis of sugar and gluconeogenesis.

Tropism

Tropisms are utilized by the plant for response to the environment by repositioning organs to capture resources. Tropism are directional growth movements of the plant responding to factors such as water and gravity. In gravitropism, gravity is used as the basis or the main driver which directs the movement of the root growth. In the root cap, the lateral gradient occurs after shootward flux of auxin brought about by the statolith's displacement and gravity is interpreted in the columella cells found in the root cap. The root tip is observed to be growing downwards after the epidermis of the elongation zone undergoes differential growth caused by the continuous flow of auxin in the lateral root cap and in the epidermis located at the lower side of the root. Moreover, hydrotropism is a tropism wherein the root's directional growth is onto a water source. The water potential is detected by the plant roots in the root's surroundings and in the elongation zone, differential growth is observed after the direction of the root tip changes.

Reference:
Awatif S. Ali and Alaaeldin A. Elozeiri (December 6th 2017). Metabolic Processes During Seed Germination, Advances in Seed Biology, Jose C.
Dietrich, D. (2018). Hydrotropism: how roots search for water. Journal of Experimental Botany. Volume 69, Issue 11, Pages 2759–2771. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/ery034
Jimenez-Lopez, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.70653.
Tuan, P. A., Sun, M., Nguyen, T.-N., Park, S., & Ayele, B. T. (2019). Molecular mechanisms of seed germination. Sprouted Grains, 1–24. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-811525-1.00001-4
Yildiz, M. et al. (20147). Seed Dormancy. Advances in Seed Biology. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.70571

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Alyxia linearis Markgraf belongs to the family of Apocynaceae and is found along the river in the forest in Bacungan, Puerto Princesa

Reference:
Garcellano, R. C., Dahse, H. M., Franzblau, S. G., Wang, Y., & Aguinaldo, A. M. (2015). PRELIMINARY PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING AND EVALUATION OF ANTIPROLIFERATIVE, CYTOTOXIC AND ANTITUBERCULOSIS ACTIVITIES OF THREE APOCYNACEAE PLANTS ENDEMIC TO PALAWAN. Science, Technology and Innovation for Sustainable Development, 77.

Image from:
http://phytoimages.siu.edu/imgs/pelserpb/r/Apocynaceae_Alyxia_linearis_84800.html

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Tabernaemontana ternifolia D.J.Middleton is a species of the genus

Tabernaemontana Plum. ex L. and belongs to the family of Apocynaceae.

Reference:
Garcellano, R. C., Dahse, H. M., Franzblau, S. G., Wang, Y., & Aguinaldo, A. M. (2015). PRELIMINARY PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING AND EVALUATION OF ANTIPROLIFERATIVE, CYTOTOXIC AND ANTITUBERCULOSIS ACTIVITIES OF THREE APOCYNACEAE PLANTS ENDEMIC TO PALAWAN. Science, Technology and Innovation for Sustainable Development, 77.

Image from:
http://tabernaemontana-alternifolia.plantregister.com/

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Reference

Rubite, R. R., Hughes, M., Blanc, P., Chung, K. F., Yang, H. A., Kono, Y., Alejandro, G. J. D., De Layola, L. B., Virata, A. G. N. & Peng, C. I. (2015). Three new species of Begonia endemic to the Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park, Palawan. Bot Stud, 56(19), 1-14. DOI 10.1186/s40529-015-0099-1