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Control Group: a group that is exposed to the same conditions as the experimental group except the independent variable
Dependent Variable: the variable that is observed and changes in reaction to the independent variable
Experimental Group: the group that actually gets the treatment
Hypothesis: a possible explanation that can be tested to answer a scientific question or observation

Independent Variable: the variable that is changed in an experiment
Inference: an interpretation that you make based on your own knowledge or by personal experience
Law: a statement that describes a repeated occurence
Observation: seeing and describing things in an orderly way
Science: collecting and analyzing evidence about the world in an organized way
Theory: well-tested explanations that aid scientists in making accurate predictions

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Carbohydrate: A compound made from carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen.
Element: a pure substance that has only one type of atom
Lipid: a type of macromolecule that is made mostly of carbon and hydrogen atoms
Macromolecule: smallest unit of most compounds
Molecule: smallest unit of most compounds
Monomer: the smallest unit that makes up a polymer
Monosaccharide: a one sugar molecule
Nucleic Acid: a type of macromolecule that contains hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and phosphorus
Polymer: makes up macromolecules and is made from many monomers
Protein: a macromolecule that is made of hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen.

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Binary Fission: when an organism replicates it's DNA and splits in half
Cancer: when cells in the body lose the ability to control growth
Centromere: the region where two sister Chromatid attach
Chromatin: substance that consists of DNA that is tightly coiled around histones dound in eukaryotic chromosomes
Chromosome: structure of DNA and protein that contains genetic information
Cytokinesis: when cytoplasm divides and forms to separate daughter cells
Daughter Cell: a replication if original cell with the same DNA
Diploid: a cell with two sets of homologous chromosomes
Mitosis: eukaryotic cell division in which the cell nucleus divides
Sister Chromatid: one if the two DNA strands in the duplicated chromosome

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Fertilization: when male and female cells join to form a new cell
Gamete: sperm and egg cells (sex cells)
Genes: sequence of DNA that determines a trait
Haploid: a cell with only one set of genes
Homologous Chromosome: same chromosome from each parent
Independent Assortment: when homologous chromosomes align in the center of the cell independent of others
Meiosis: cell division that produces gametes
Mutation: when the genetic material of a cell changes
Recombination:when genes combine different from the parent
Sexual Reproduction: when cells from two parents combine and form a cell of a new organism

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Biotechnology: the application of a technological process it method to living organisms
Codominance: when phenotypes produced by both alleles are completely expressed
Dominant: requires only one allele to show a trait
Gene Therapy: the process of treating a disorder or disease by changing a gene
Genetic Engineering: using biotechnology to directly manipulate an organism's genes
Incomplete Dominance: when one allele isn't completely dominant over another
Pedigree: a chart that show whether a trait is present or absent within a family across several generations
Punnet Square: diagram that is used to predict any genotype and phenotype combinations of a genetic cross
Recessive: both alleles are required to show the trait and no dominant trait is present
Transgenic: when an organism contains genes from other organisms

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Below are two punnett squares. Punnett squares are used to predict genotypes and phenotypes of future offspring. To use a punnett square, you need a homozygous and/or heterozygous trait. These traits are showed by using capital and lowercase letters. For example, a heterozygous trait could be represented as Bb because the letters are different. A homozygous trait could be represented as BB or bb because the letters are the same. Uppercase letters means that the trait is dominant which also means that the trait is most likely to be shown. Lowercase letters mean that the trait is recessive which also means that the trait is less likely to be shown. To find likeliness of a certain trait, you place the heterozygous and/or homozygous parents above and on the side of the punnett square. Then, you will cross them like they are shown below.

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This video talks about pedigrees and how to read them. It talks about sex-linked traits and recessive and dominant traits. The video brings in pedigrees and explains a new concept which is autosomal traits.

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Analogous Structure: when a common function is shared within body parts but not structure
Ancestral Trait: a group of organisms that share a trait as a result from a common ancestor
Binomial Nomenclature: a two-part scientific name given to a species
Cladogram: a diagram that shows patterns of shared traits among species
Classification: the process of classifying something by shared qualities or characteristics
Derived Trait: a trait that doesn't appear in its older members but appears in recent parts of lineage
Evolution: change over time
Homologous Structure: similar structures in different species of common ancestry
Taxonomy: where organisms are classified; levels of organization
Vestigial Structure: a structure that has lost its original function but is inherited from ancestors

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Cambium: plant tissue in which phloem, xylem, or cork grows by division
Cellular Respiration: the breaking down of glucose and other food molecules with oxygen to release energy
Meristem: part of the plant that helps it grow throughout its lifetime
Phloem: vascular tissue that transports nutrients through the plant
Photosynthesis: a process of capturing light energy for plants and other autotrophs to use
Pistil: single carpel that contains the stigma, ovary, and style
Stamen: the male part of a flower that contains the anther and filament
Stomata: where gas exchange occurs and water exits
Transpiration: when water is lost through a plant's leaves
Xylem: vascular tissue that transports water from the roots to the rest of the plant

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Biogeochemical Cycle: a process in which forms of matter are passed from one part of a biosphere to another as well as one organism to another
Biomass: the total amount of mass of organisms in a given trophic level
Carnivore: an organism that eats only meat or other organisms
Detritivore: an organism that eats plant and animal remains along with other dead matter
Food Chain: steps in an ecosystem that shows the energy being transferred from organism eating and being eaten by other organisms
Food Web: a complex map of interactions between organisms in an ecosystem
Herbivore: an organism that eats only plants
Omnivore: an organism that eats both plants and animals
Predation: an interactions in which a predator captures and feeds on a prey
Trophic Level: a series of stepsfound in both food chains and food webs

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Biodiversity: variety if organisms in the biosphere
Carrying Capacity: the limit that a population can reach
Density Dependent Factors: effects that vary with population density
Density Independent Factors: effects all populations regardless of population density
Emigration: movement out of an area
Greenhouse Effect: when certain gases trap sunlight energy in earth's atmosphere
Immigration: movement into an area
Invasive Species: a species that is not native to an area and causes harm to the environment and other organisms
Population Density: the measurement of individuals or population per unit area
Sustainability: when human needs are being provided for while preserving natural resources at the same time

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This is the scientific method. It is used to conduct a successful experiment. As shown in the picture, there are six steps and they are very easy to follow. First, you ask a question or state your problem. Once you do that, you make a hypothesis which is a testable explanation. Now, you gather any needed materials to conduct your experiment and prepare a procedure. This is how you know how to do your experiment. You are finally at the fun part: the actual experiment. You can now test your hypothesis for the question. After the experiment, you record your data and your results. During this, you can ask yourself different questions about what happened during the experiment. Lastly, you make your conclusion by going back through your data and results. Now, you can figure out whether or not your hypothesis was correct or not and why.

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Below is an example of an animal cell. It also shows the parts of the cell which are very important to the cell. First we have the nucleus which uses DNA to regulate the activities happening in the cell. The cell membrane is a semi-permeable structure that maintains homeostasis by protecting and supporting the cell. The nuclear membrane is what controls what enters or what leaves the cell. There is also the plasma membrane that controls the movement of materials that come in and out of the cell. Cytoplasm acts as the cell's environment as it fills up the cell. The ribosomes, which are located in Golgi Apparatus, make proteins for the cell. The Golgi apparatus, also known as the Golgi body, is where proteins are packed and carried. Next is the rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough E.R.) and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (smooth E.R.). The rough E.R. is where proteins are sorted and the site of secretion. The smooth E.R. is where detoxification and lipid synthesis occur. Lastly is the mitochondria. The mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell is where ATP synthesis occurs. Plant and animal cells are quite similar, but plant cells have some organelles that the animal cell does not have. These organelles include a cell wall, chloroplasts, and a central vacuole. The cell wall is made out of cellulose and gives support for the cell. Chloroplasts are where photosynthesis occurs and the central vacuole contains cell sap which is a weak solution of sugar and salts.

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Mitosis and meiosis are two very similar concepts, but they also have their differences. Mitosis has to do with growth and repair. Meiosis has to do with sex cells. Both processes produce daughter cells. The only difference between that is the number that they produce. In mitosis, two daughter cells are produced. In meiosis, four daughter cells are produced. In mitosis, all of the daughter cells that are produced are identical. In meiosis, the daughter cells are different because it creates genetic variability in the gametes. Also, meiosis has more stages than mitosis. Now, it is easier for you to tell the differences between mitosis and meiosis.

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In this unit, you learn about deoxyribonucleic acid, also known as DNA, that carries genetic instructions. You also learn about nucleotide structures. Nucleotide structures contain sugar, phosphate, and four different nitrogenous

bases. The bases are adenine, thymine, cytosine, and

guanine. Adenine pairs with thymine and cytosine pairs with guanine. These bases are important in protein synthesis. During protein synthesis, transcription and translation occurs. Transcription is the process by which a DNA template is used to produce a single-stranded RNA molecule. Transcription happens in the nucleus. The gene sequence is now copied into messenger RNA. Also, thymine is now replaced by uracil. The messenger RNA then transfers to the cytoplasm where translation occurs. Translation is the process by which a mRNA strand is used to direct the production of a chain of specific amino acids. The mRNA is read by a ribosome and the ribosome starts making the protein. The protein is complete when the stop codon is read.

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The theory of evolution was proposed by Charles Darwin. Evolution is the process by which organisms that are better suited to environment survive and pass genetic traits on to offspring. Evidence of evolution include fossils, molecular biology, embryology, comparative anatomy, and biogeography. Fossils shows comparative anatomical characteristics that reveal common ancestry. Molecular biology DNA and protein sequences from organisms that show common ancestry. Embryology compare embryos of different vertebrates. Comparative anatomy shows homologous and vestigial structures. Biogeography shows patterns of past evolution in the natural geographic distribution of related species. There are also mechanisms for evolutionary change such as mutations, genetic drifts, natural selection, and gene flow. Evolutionary change is based on the passing of mutations to offspring. Mutations are changes in the DNA. Genetic drifts are the variation in the relative frequency of an existing gene. It can also be described as a random event of chance of a population surviving. Natural selection is the process of heritable traits becoming more or less common in a population. To make traits more common, organisms have to be better adapted and able to survive in their environment. Gene flow is a movement of genes from one population to another. Hominids are a good example of evolution. Humans, known as Homo sapiens, haven't always lived on this earth and didn't always look how they do now. Our brain sizes changed as well as our jaw sizes. For example, the Homo erectus lived between 1.89 million and 143,000 years ago. Their brain sizes were 900cm³ and their jaws were large and projecting. Homo sapiens have a brain size of 1300cm³ and small jaws. We have gotten smarter and jaws have gotten smaller.

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In this unit, you learn about plant organs, plant tissues, and their processes. The plant organs include roots, leaves, stems, and flowers. The roots absorb water and nutrients from the soil. They have root hairs which increase surface area to absorb water and nutrients. They have a meristem which is in charge of new growth and a root cap which protects the meristem. The leaves capture light for photosynthesis. The stomata is where water exits and gas exchange occurs. The guard cells that surround the stomata control the opening and the closing of it. The stems carry water and food through the plant. It's also where transpiration occurs, the evaporation of water, and where cohesion and adhesion are used. The flower contains petals, which attract pollinators, and female and male reproductive organs. The female organs are the stigma, style, and ovary. The male organs are the anther, filament, and pollen. The flowers job is to enable flowering plants to reproduce. The plant tissues include the dermal tissue and the vascular tissue. The dermal tissue protects and prevents water loss. The vascular tissue is the transport of water/minerals (xylem) and the transport of food (phloem). Plants go through photosynthesis, cellular respiration, transpiration, and reproduction. Photosynthesis uses energy from sunlight to make food for the plant. Cellular respiration makes and releases ATP energy in the mitochondria. Transpiration is the loss of water from a plant's leaves and its stems.

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This unit talks about the flow of energy in ecosystems from organism to organism. These relationships can be shown by using a food web or food chain. A food web is a series of interconnected food chains. A food chain shows a path of energy from producer to consumer and how much energy is being transferred. In food webs and food chains, they have different levels for organisms. The first level is primary producer which are organisms who use the sun's energy to make their own food. The next level is primary consumer which are heterotrophs who feed on the primary producers. Then the secondary consumers feed on the primary consumers. Next, the tertiary consumers eat the secondary consumers. The tertiary consumer is usually the top of the pyramid. If not, it is the quaternary consumer who is at the top of the food chain and has no natural enemies. Also in this unit, you learn about two biogeochemical cycles: the water cycle and the carbon cycle. The water cycle is the recycling of water through evaporation, condensation, precipitation, runoff, groundwater, aquifers, respiration, transpiration, excretion, and decomposition. The carbon cycle is the recycling of carbon through respiration, photosynthesis, fuel combustion, and decomposition. Another topic of this unit is renewable and nonrenewable resources and how they impact the environment. Energy can be categorized in two main sources which are nonrenewable and renewable. Nonrenewable resources can not be remade or regenerated. They come from natural resources. On the other hand, renewable resources are obtained from different natural sources and can be replaced and be continuously used.

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Ecology is the study of all the interrelationships between organisms and their environment. In this ecology unit, populations and how they are affected are talked about. Limiting factors are abiotic or biotic factors that influence the population. Biotic factors are in the environment and have an increasing effect as population size increases. Abiotic factors are in the environment and affect the population regardless of their population density. A population can continue to grow until it reaches its carrying capacity which is the maximum population size they can reach. Factors such as salinity, temperature, light, and depth can affect aquatic biomes. Light is important for autotrophs in shallow water. Gases dissolve more in cold water than in warm water and the most two important gases are oxygen and carbon dioxide for marine life. Salinity is the measure of the total dissolved solids in water which is mostly salt. There are different ocean zones. The intertidal zone which is closest to shore. The neritic zone which lies over the continental shelf. The oceanic zone which is the open ocean past the continental shelf. The photic zone is the top 200 meters of water. The aphotic zone is water below 200 meters and the bentic zone is on the ocean floor. Many changes that occur in ecosystems can cause a loss in biodiversity. Factors such as habitat loss, degradation, and introduction to invasive species can cause a loss in biodiversity. A loss of biodiversity can destabilize ecosystems and make them more vulnerable.

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Unit 1: Scientific Processes
Unit 2: Cell Structure & Function
Unit 3: Cell Transport & Water Properties
Unit 4: Mitosis & Meiosis
Unit 5: DNA & Protein Synthesis
Unit 6: Genetics & Biotechnology
Unit 7: Evolution
Unit 8: Plants
Unit 9: Matter & Energy
Unit 10: Ecology
Unit 11: Human Body Systems

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Activation Energy: the enrrgy required to start a chemical reaction
Adhesion: when molecules of different substances are attracted to one another
Cohesion: when molecules of the same substance are attracted to one another
Diffusion: the movement of particles from an area with a higher concentration to an area with a lower concentration
Enzyme: biological catalysts that speed of chemical reactions
Hypertonic: containing a greater concentration of solutes than another substance
Hypotonic: containing a lesser concentration of solutes than another substance
Osmosis: the movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
Solute: a substance in a lesser amount dissolved in another substance
Solvent: a solution that is present with a greater amount

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This picture shows the different properties of water. It talks about cohesion and adhesion. Cohesion is when water sticks to water. Adhesion is when water sticks to other surfaces. It also talks about surface tension which is how difficult it is to break or stretch the surface of water. In surface tension, hydrogen bonds hold water molecules together so tight that the water's surface acts as if it is a membrane. Two water property terms that are important are hydrophilic and hydrophobic. When something is hydrophilic, it has the tendency to dissolve in or be mixed with water. In fewer words, it likes water. When something is hydrophobic, most likely nonpolar substances, they have the tendency to exclude water molecules meaning that it doesn't like water. Water works differently in heat and in cold. Water absorbs heat from warm air and releases heat from cool air. Also, when frozen, water expands. As said, there are many different properties of water that are very important to know.

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Atherosclerosis: when plaque builds up in the walls of the arteries
Blastocyst: a structure formed in mammals during early development
Capillary: tiny blood vessels that connection to the arterioles and the venules
Gastrulation: a process during embryotic development that changes a blastula to a gastrula
Hemoglobin: a protein found in red blood cells that carries oxygen throughout the body
Lymphocyte: a type of white blood cell that defends the body against dieeases
Macrophage: a type of white blood cell that cleans the body of foreign particles and infectious microorganisms
Morula: a mass of cells called blastomeres that soon become the blastula
Pathogen: a biological agent that cause illness or disease
Veins: blood vessels that carry oxygen-depleted blood towards the heart

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A few systems in the body include the brain, the circulatory system, the immune system, and the reproductive system. The brain itself has parts that include the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the temporal lobe, and the occipital lobe. They each also have different functions. The temporal lobe's unction is evaluating consequences. The parietal lobe's function is reading and speech.
The temporal lobe's function is hearing and smelling. The occipital lobe's function is vision. Next is the circulatory system which contains the heart. Blood flows through the heart in different paths. Blood flows from the upper body to the heart by the superior vena cava. Blood flows from the lower body to the heart by the inferior vena cava. Blood components are also important in the circulatory system. The four components of blood are plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Plasma controls body temperature. Red blood cells, also known as erythrocytes, transports oxygen. White blood cells, also known as leukocytes, guards the body against infections. Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, helps with blood clotting. Next is the human immune system. The germ theory of disease is discussed here. The theory is that diseases are caused by the invasion of the body by microorganisms. The first defense of your immune system is the skin. The second defense is the inflammatory response of the actions of interferons, and fever. There is medicine you can take to protect yourself from diseases such as vaccines and antibiotics. Vaccines can stimulate the immune system with an antigen. Antibiotics can kill bacteria and some antiviral medications can slow down viral activity. If medication is misused, it can cause them not to work as well and re-emerge of diseases that were thought to be under control. The last system is the reproductive system. Parts of the reproductive system include male structures and female structures. The male structures are the vas deferens, testes, penis, urethra, epididymis, prostate gland, and the seminal vesicle. The vas deferens is a long duct where the sperm travels through. The testes are where sperm production occurs. The penis is the male organ for sexual intercourse. The urethra carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body. The epididymis is where immature sperm matures. The prostate gland controls urination and produces minerals and sugar found in semen. The female structures include the ovaries, the fallopian tubes, the vagina, the uterus, and the cervix. The ovaries are where egg cells and hormones are produced. The fallopian tube is what the egg travels through from the ovary to the lower part of the uterus. The vagina is a canal that joins the cervix to the outside of the body. The uterus is where the home of the developing fetus The cervix is the lower part of the uterus that dilates during childbirth to allow the passage of the baby.

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This video talks about the steps of the scientific method. It explained how the scientific method is "a way to ask and answer scientific question." The steps that they go through are, ask a question, make observations, form a hypothesis,
design an experiment and test your hypothesis, analyze the data, and draw a conclusion. The scientific method is used to answer questions you have about any observations and inferences you or someone else has. It's the same process that scientists do when they conduct experiments. Make sure that when you are using the scientific method that you know that your results won't be perfect. These steps can be repeated as needed and your experiment can be repeated as well. Scientists repeat steps and redo their experiments as well. Nothing is perfect, that's why the scientific method is so helpful.

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The Steps of the Scientific Method for Kids - Science for Children: FreeSchool

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This video takes you on a tour about cells. It starts with the cell theory and tells you the different type of cells. It talks about each organelle and its function. It also talks about what occurs in each organelle as well as ATP energy.

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Introduction to Cells: The Grand Cell Tour

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This video talks about the cell membrane and how it helps maintain homeostasis. It also talks about what the membrane is made of. It talks about the different types of transport such as passive transport. It also talks about the differences between the different types of transports.

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Talks about how meiosis creates genetic variation within families. It makes gametes instead of body cells. The ending cells end up with only 23 chromosomes. The video talks about what has to happen before meiosis occurs and even compares and contrasts this process with mitosis so no one gets confused between the two.

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This video talks about DNA transcription and translation. It gives a lesson on this topic in a fun when to make it more fun for viewers and also people who can never pay attention to videos. Anyway, it's a funny video that makes the lesson enjoyable.

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DNA, Hot Pockets, & The Longest Word Ever: Crash Course Biology #11

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This video talks about evolution and the theory and evidence of evolution. He talks about fossils, structures, biogeography, and natural selection.

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Evolution: It's a Thing - Crash Course Biology #20

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This video talks about the importance of plants for life and what role plants play. It talks about two plant categories called vascular and non-vascular plants. The video talks about the functions of each part of the plant as well.

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This khan academy video shows how energy flows throughout ecosystems and through organisms. It also talks about how matter is recycled throughout the ecosystem. It talks about primary producers and the different levels of consumers.

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Flow of energy and matter through ecosystem  | Ecology | Khan Academy

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The video gives a good definition of ecology and how it is studied. It also talks about abiotic factors and biotic factors that affect the population.

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This video goes through every body system in brief detail. It makes the lesson easier to understand and easier to follow. This video tells you why each system is important and its function. It even tells you how and if there are any organs involved in any of the systems and how it contributes to the system itself.

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Human Body Systems Functions Overview: The 11 Champions (Older Video 2016)

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This website goes step-by-step through the scientific method like the video. This website is more in depth on the topic and makes it more clear for someone who still doesn't understand it. The website gives detailed help for each step as well as a picture for a visual image. This website shows you how to conduct a hypothesis with an example. This website tells you what to do if your procedure isn't working. It also shows you what to do if your hypothesis isn't aligning with your results. In my opinion, this website is very helpful for beginners. It is also helpful if you still need a better understanding of fthe scientific method.

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The scientific method is a process for experimentation that is used to explore observations and answer questions.

The interactive diagram below may help you understand the scientific method and how it is applied to an experiment. You can click on parts of the diagram to learn more. Use the "return to top" button to return to the diagram for more exploration.

1. Ask a Question

The scientific method starts when you ask a question about something that you observe: How, What, When, Who, Which, Why, or Where?

For a science fair project some teachers require that the question be something you can measure, preferably with a number.

For detailed help with this step, use these resources:

2. Do Background Research

Rather than starting from scratch in putting together a plan for answering your question, you want to be a savvy scientist using library and Internet research to help you find the best way to do things and ensure that you don't repeat mistakes from the past.

For detailed help with this step, use these resources:

3. Construct a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work. It is an attempt to answer your question with an explanation that can be tested. A good hypothesis allows you to then make a prediction:
"If _____[I do this] _____, then _____[this]_____ will happen."

State both your hypothesis and the resulting prediction you will be testing. Predictions must be easy to measure.

For detailed help with this step, use these resources:

4. Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment

Your experiment tests whether your prediction is accurate and thus your hypothesis is supported or not. It is important for your experiment to be a fair test. You conduct a fair test by making sure that you change only one factor at a time while keeping all other conditions the same.

You should also repeat your experiments several times to make sure that the first results weren't just an accident.

For detailed help with this step, use these resources:

5. Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion

Once your experiment is complete, you collect your measurements and analyze them to see if they support your hypothesis or not.

Scientists often find that their predictions were not accurate and their hypothesis was not supported, and in such cases they will communicate the results of their experiment and then go back and construct a new hypothesis and prediction based on the information they learned during their experiment. This starts much of the process of the scientific method over again. Even if they find that their hypothesis was supported, they may want to test it again in a new way.

For detailed help with this step, use these resources:

6. Communicate Your Results

To complete your science fair project you will communicate your results to others in a final report and/or a display board. Professional scientists do almost exactly the same thing by publishing their final report in a scientific journal or by presenting their results on a poster or during a talk at a scientific meeting. In a science fair, judges are interested in your findings regardless of whether or not they support your original hypothesis.

For detailed help with this step, use these resources:

The six steps of the scientific method include: 1) asking a question about something you observe, 2) doing background research to learn what is already known about the topic, 3) constructing a hypothesis, 4) experimenting to test the hypothesis, 5) analyzing the data from the experiment and drawing conclusions, and 6) communicating the results to others.

A simple example of the scientific method is:

Ask a Question: Why does Greenland look so large on a map?

Background Research: Learn that Greenland is a quarter the size of the United States in land mass. Also learn that Mercator projection maps are made by transferring the images from a sphere to a sheet of paper wrapped around the sphere in a cylinder.

Hypothesis: If I make a Mercator projection map, then the items in the middle of the map will look their true size and the items at the poles will look larger than they really are.

Experiment: Use a sphere with 1-inch by 1-inch squares at each pole and the equator to make a Mercator projection map. Measure the squares on the Mercator projection map.

Analyze Data and Make Conclusions: The middle-of-the-map squares average 1 inch per side while the squares at the poles average 3 inches per side. In conclusion, the projection process used to make Mercator projection maps creates distortion at the poles, but not at the equator. This is why Greenland, which is close to the North Pole, looks larger than it is.

Communicate: Make a video, write a report, or give a presentation to educate others about the experiment.

Who invented the scientific method?

The scientific method was not invented by any one person, but is the outcome of centuries of debate about how best to find out how the natural world works. The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle was among the first known people to promote that observation and reasoning must be applied to figure out how nature works. The Arab Muslim mathematician and scientist Hasan Ibn al-Haytham (known in the western world as Alhazen) is often cited as the first person to write about the importance of experimentation. Since then, a large number of scientists have written about how science should ideally be conducted and contributed to our modern understanding of the scientific method. Those scientists include Roger Bacon, Thomas Aquinas, Galileo Galilei, Francis Bacon, Isaac Newton, John Hume, and John Stuart Mill. Scientists today continue to evolve and refine the scientific method as they explore new techniques and new areas of science.

Scientists do use the scientific method, but not always exactly as laid out in the organized steps taught in the classroom. Just like a chef might make a few changes to a recipe because of the ingredients at hand, a scientist may modify the scientific method by skipping steps, jumping back and forth between steps, or repeating a subset of the steps because he or she is dealing with imperfect real-world conditions. But scientists always strive to keep to the core principles of the scientific method by using observations, experiments, and data to support or reject explanations of how a phenomenon works. While experimenting is considered the best way to test explanations, there are areas of science, like astronomy, where this is not always possible.

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This project guide provides a detailed introduction to the steps of the scientific method.

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This website talks about cell structure, the cell theory, and cell functions. This website provides information on both plant cells and animal cells. It also gives every organelle for each cell and its functions. The website talks about prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. The website also has very helpful pictures for each topic. I recommend this site fro beginners and people who are interested in different cells and their functions.

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Cell Structure | Cell Structure and Function | Biology@TutorVista.com

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There are many cells in an individual, which performs several functions throughout the life. The different types of cell include- prokaryotic cell, plant and animal cell. The size and the shape of the cell range from millimeter to microns, which are generally based on the type of function that it performs. A cell generally varies in their shapes.

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This website explains the uniqueness and specialty of water. It talks about cohesion as well as solvents. It even touches on small topics such as hydrophilic substances and hydrophobic substances. The website also talks about topics that I don't even know about. So, if you want to get ahead of me on this unit, check out this website. I recommend it to people who fully understand the concept and can easily teach themselves on the extra enrichment.

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Biology Special Properties of Water - Shmoop Biology

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Shmoop Biology explains Special Properties of Water. Part of our Biomolecules and the Chemistry of Life Learning Guide. Learning and teaching resource for Special Properties of Water written by PhD students from Stanford, Harvard, Berkeley

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This website gives a perfect visual on the cell cycle of mitosis and meiosis. It goes in depth on each phase in both cycles. This is a good way to fully understand the process of the cycles. It even talks about the genetic diversity of meiosis. This website is amazing and every detail they include is important. Everyone should check this out and extend their knowledge on mitosis and meiosis.

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This website gives details on protein synthesis such as transcription and translation. They even give a brief summary of the two. The website includes pictures and a video on DNA replication and a video on protein synthesis. I wish they added more details for people who aren't for visuals as much as they are for reading. Overall, the website can be very helpful and useful.

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Protein Synthesis Summary

Protein synthesis is one of the most fundamental biological processes by which individual cells build their specific proteins. Within the process are involved both DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and different in their function ribonucleic acids (RNA). The process is initiated in the cell's nucleus, where specific enzymes unwind the needed section of DNA, which makes the DNA in this region accessible and a RNA copy can be made. This RNA molecule then moves from the nucleus to the cell cytoplasm, where the actual the process of protein synthesis take place.

What is protein synthesis - The details!

All cells function through their proteins. Protein function is defined by their molecular function , localization within cell and involvement in a particular biological process. All components of protein function are defined by the exact composition, structure and conformation of the proteins, which is encrypted within the DNA region (called locus) encoding that protein. With the process of protein synthesis biological cells generate new proteins, which on the other hand is balanced by the loss of cellular proteins via degradation or export.

Transcription is the first of overall two protein synthesis steps. During transcription, the information encoded in the DNA is copied to a RNA molecule as one strand of the DNA double helix is used as a template. The RNA molecule is sent to the cytoplasm, which helps to bring all components required for the actual protein synthesis together - amino acids, transport RNAs, ribosomes, etc. In the cytoplasm the protein polymers are actually "synthesized" through chemical reactions - that is why the process is known as "protein synthesis" or even more precisely - "protein biosynthesis".

The RNA copy of the protein genetic information encoded in DNA molecule is produced in the nucleus and it is called messenger RNA (mRNA). Each mRNA encodes the information for a single protein and is much smaller in size compared to the DNA molecule. This makes possible for mRNA molecules to exit the nucleus through tiny openings called nuclear pores. Once it exits the nucleus and enters the cytoplasm, the mRNA could interact with a cellular structure known as a ribosome, which serves as the cell's assembler within the process of protein synthesis. The ribosome consists of proteins and ribosome RNA molecules (rRNA), which are organized in two subunits. The mRNA initially binds to just one of the ribosome sub-units.

When the mRNA interacts with the big ribosome sub-unit, this triggers the approach of another RNA molecule, called transfer RNA (tRNA). The tRNA molecule possess a specific sequence of 3-bases (anti-codon), which hast to complement a corresponding sequence (codon) within the mRNA sequence. When it finds it, it attaches to the mRNA, as the other end of the tRNA is "loaded" with an amino acid. At this point arrives the other sub-unit of the ribosome and a complete structure is formed. The first tRNA binds to a so called "start codon", which is one and the same for all proteins. As the complete ribosome structure is formed, another tRNA molecule approaches. The next tRNA differ from the first one and is carrying another amino acid. Again, the tRNA must have an anti-codon that matches complementary the second codon of the mRNA. The two amino acids carried by the first two tRNAs are bind together with help from the ribosome and using cellular energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

The above steps repeats until there are uncoupled codon sequences on the mRNA - thus the chain of amino acids grows longer. Once the sequence of amino acids is successfully assembled in a protein, the two ribosome sub-units separate from each other, to be joined again for later use.

The actual sequence of amino acids forms the so called primary structure of the proteins. Depending on the exact composition and order of the amino acids in the protein sequence, the chain folds into a three-dimensional shape. When this happens the protein is complete.

The process of protein synthesis takes place in multiple ribosomes simultaneous and all throughout the cell cytoplasm. A living cell can synthesize hundreds of different proteins every single second.

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What Is Protein Synthesis - Protein Synthesis

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Protein synthesis is one of the most fundamental biological processes by which individual cells build their specific proteins. Within the process are involved both DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and different in their function ribonucleic acids (RNA).

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This website gives you a whole introduction to genetics. It talks about DNA, genes, chromosomes, and so on. It also includes a three minute video introducing genetics. I wish the website had more pictures, but overall it is a very helpful website that is also pretty brief.

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Genetics is a field of biology that studies how traits are passed from parents to their offspring. The passing of traits from parents to offspring is known as heredity, therefore, genetics is the study of heredity. This introduction to genetics takes you through the basic components of genetics such as DNA, genes, chromosomes and genetic inheritance.

Genetics is built around molecules called DNA. DNA molecules hold all the genetic information for an organism. It provides cells with the information they need to perform tasks that allow an organism to grow, survive and reproduce. A gene is one particular section of a DNA molecule that tells a cell to perform one specific task.

Heredity is what makes children look like their parents. During reproduction, DNA is replicated and passed from a parent to their offspring. This inheritance of genetic material by offspring influences the appearance and behavior of the offspring. The environment that an organism lives in can also influence how genes are expressed.

DNA is the cornerstone of genetics and is the perfect place to start for an introduction to genetics. DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid and it is the molecule that holds the genetic information for a cell and an organism.

A DNA molecule contains a code that can be used by a cell to express certain genes. Specific sections of a DNA molecule provides the information to build specific proteins which can then be used by a cell to express the desired gene.

A DNA molecule is a nucleic acid, one of the four molecules of life. It comes in the form of a long, linear molecule referred to as a strand. Each strand of DNA is bonded to a second strand of DNA to form a DNA double helix. In eukaryotic cells, DNA is found in the nucleus as a tightly coiled double helix.

DNA molecules are replicated during cell division. When a cell divides, the two new cells contain all the same DNA that the original cell had.

In sexual reproduction with two parents, half of the DNA of the offspring is provided by each of the parents. The genetic material of a child is made from 50% of their mother's DNA and 50% their father's DNA.

A gene is a specific segment of a DNA molecule that holds the information for one specific protein. DNA molecules have a unique code for each gene which codes for their specific protein. Some organisms can have more than 100,000 different genes so they will have 100,000 unique sequences of DNA 'code'.

Genes are the basic unit of heredity. The genes of an individual are determined by their parent or parents. A bacteria that is born by one parent cell splitting into two cells and has the exact same genes as their one parent cell.

A human, on the other hand, has two copies of each gene - one set from their mother and a second set from their father. Different forms of the same gene are called alleles. For each gene, a human can have two different alleles or two of the same alleles - one from each parent.

Physical traits such as eye color or height are often determined by the combination of multiple genes. The environment an individual lives in also impacts how genes are expressed.

Chromosomes

A chromosome is a structure made from tightly packed strands of DNA and proteins called histones. Strands of DNA are tightly wrapped around the histone proteins and form into long worm-shaped structures called 'chromatids'. Two chromatids join together to form a chromosome.

Chromosomes are formed in the nucleus of a cell when a cell is dividing. It is possible to see chromosomes under an ordinary light microscope if the cell is in the right stage of cell division.

The number of chromosomes varies between species. Humans have 46 chromosomes. Some species can have many more than 100 chromosomes while others can have as little as two.

Genetic inheritance

Inheritance is the backbone of genetics and is an important topic to cover in an introduction to genetics. Long before DNA had been discovered and the word 'genetics' had been invented, people were studying the inheritance of traits from one generation to the next.

Genetic inheritance occurs both in sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction. In sexual reproduction, two organisms contribute DNA to produce a new organism. In asexual reproduction, one organism provides all the DNA and produces a clone of themselves. In either, genetic material is passed from one generation to the next.

Experiments performed by a monk named Gregor Mendel provided the foundations of our current understanding of how genetic material is passed from parents to their offspring.

Video by Frank Gregorio. To see more brilliant videos like this one, check out Greg's vimeo channel

Last edited: 11 December 2016

For more information on genetics visit these pages on our website:
Genetics | DNA replication | Genetic Inheritence | Transcription & translation

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Introduction to Genetics | Basic Biology

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Genetics is a field of biology that studies how traits are passed from parents to their offspring. The passing of traits from parents to offspring is known as heredity, therefore, genetics is the study of heredity. This introduction to genetics takes you through the basic components of genetics such as DNA, genes, chromosomes and genetic inheritance.

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This website is equivalent to a whole essay on evolution. It contains seven videos and thirty-two pictures. This website talks about the beginning of evolution starting with Charles Darwin. If you wanted a complete understanding on evolution, well I found it for you. This website goes into specific detail about evolution, evidence of evolution, and even conceptions of evolution. If you even have the patience to go through this website, you will find amazing information.

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Evolution | Definition, History, Types, & Examples

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Evolution, theory in biology postulating that the various types of living things on Earth have their origin in other preexisting types and that the distinguishable differences are due to modifications in successive generations. The theory of evolution is one of the fundamental keystones of modern biological theory.

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This website talks about everything I said in this unit with even some extra information. It has a few pictures for visuals with a video as well. It talks about each part of the plant and the types of plants out there It goes over the concept of photosynthesis and non-vascular plants. I think this is a very well-made website and that it is worth looking at.

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Plants are an incredibly important kingdom of organisms. They are multicellular organisms with the amazing ability to make their own food from carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. They provide the foundation of many food webs and animal life would not exist if plants were not around. The study of plants is known as botany and in this introduction to plants we look at key topics such as the process of photosynthesis, different types of plants and the different parts of a plant such as roots, stems and leaves.

By using the sun's energy to fix carbon dioxide, plants are able to produce sugars through a process known as photosynthesis. The sugars produced through photosynthesis provide plants with the energy to survive, grow and reproduce. As plants grow they become a food source for animals and other organisms.

There are over 400,000 species of plants currently on Earth and the majority of them produce flowers and fruit for reproduction. Plants that produce flowers belong to a group called angiosperms.

Other woody plants include a group known as the gymnosperms. This group includes pine trees and their relatives plus other non-flowering trees. Less advanced plants include ferns, lycophytes and mosses.

Plants made the move from water to land around 500 million years ago. Living on land is significantly different to living on water and plants have had to make serious changes to their body plans in order survive on land.

Land plants separated their body plans into roots, stems and leaves. Roots absorb water and nutrients from soil, stems transfer materials between roots and leaves, and leaves produce sugars that provide the plant with energy to survive.

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is a key topic for an introduction to plant biology. It is a process that occurs in plant cells that uses the sun's energy to produce sugars from carbon dioxide and water. The process is simply a series of chemical reactions, probably the most important chemical reactions of Earth.

The green color of plants is caused by a molecule called chlorophyll . Chlorophyll has the ability to absorb light energy from the sun. The energy that is absorbed is used to force reactions with water and carbon dioxide. The result of these reactions is the production sugars and oxygen gas.

The overall reaction looks like this:
energy + water + carbon dioxide → sugar + oxygen

Photosynthesis takes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, converts it into sugar and releases oxygen back into the atmosphere. Over time photosynthesis changed the atmosphere of the Earth by increasing the amount of oxygen in the air.

Vascular vs. non-vascular

A critical step in the evolution of current plant species was the evolution of vascular tissue. Like humans have vascular tissue that transports blood through our bodies, the majority of species of plants have vascular tissue that transports water and nutrients around their bodies.

Before plants evolved vascular tissue, water was only able to enter into a plant by diffusing through the plant's cells. This meant plants were unable to grow very large because diffusion is not efficient enough to support large plants. Once plants evolved vascular tissue, they were able to grow much larger and which allowed the evolution of the giant trees that now grace the Earth's lands.

There are still many species on non-vascular plants but the vast majority of plant species contain vascular tissue. Non-vascular plants include organisms such as mosses and liverworts. Some biologists also consider the green algae to be non-vascular plants. Because non-vascular plants rely on diffusion to absorb water they are typically found in moist environments.

Vascular plants make up over 90% of all plant species that are currently found on Earth. More primitive vascular plants include lycophytes and ferns. These two groups reproduce with spores rather than seeds and are unable to produce wood.

Gymnosperms and angiosperms are the two most recently evolved groups of vascular plants. They can both produce wood and reproduce with seeds rather than spores.

Plant body plan

Plants have a relatively simple body plan. A plant can be split into two sections: the underground system known as roots and the above ground system referred to as shoots. The shoots typically include stems, branches and leaves.

The evolution of roots was key to the success of plants on land. Roots grow underground in search for water and nutrients in the soil. Often almost half of a plant's mass is hidden underground in the root system.

Roots also help to anchor a plant to the ground so it doesn't get blown away in the wind or in a flood. They can also be used to store excess food to be used at a later date.

Stems and branches connect leaves and roots to each other. They are the 'highways' that water, nutrients, and sugars travel through to nourish the various parts of a plant.

Branches and stems influence the height and size of a plant which in turn affects how much light it will receive from the sun. A stem and branch can be green and fleshy but in many plants, they are brown, woody and covered in bark.

Leaves are the main place where photosynthesis occurs. The leaves of the plant have the responsibility of producing enough energy to feed the entire plant. Leaves are optimized for this challenge.

A typical leaf is full of a green molecule called chlorophyll which is the magic ingredient in photosynthesis. Chlorophyll is able to use energy from the sun to kick start the process of photosynthesis. Leaves are also usually flat and have large surface areas to capture as much light from the sun as possible.

Angiosperms

An angiosperm is any plant that produces flowers, fruit, and seeds. They are the most advanced, diverse and abundant group of plants. Angiosperms include the majority of the plants that most people are familiar with such as grasses, orchids, roses, lavender, magnolias, plus the plants that produce the fruits, vegetables, grains and nuts that we regularly eat.

Flowers and fruit evolved as a part of a plant's reproduction. Flowers produce pollen and an ovary. Pollen from one flower is delivered to the ovary of another flower - this is known as pollination. A sperm cell found in a pollen grain fertilizes an egg located in an ovary. Once the egg is fertilized, it develops into a seed and the ovary develops into a fruit.

Angiosperms have a close relationship with animals, in particular insects and birds. The pollination of flowers is most commonly assisted by animals. Flowers provide animals with nutritious foods such as nectar and pollen.

As animals move between flowers feeding on nectar and pollen, they transfer pollen between flowers. The newly delivered pollen then has the ability to fertilize the egg of the new flower.

Many angiosperms and animals have evolved alongside each other and their survival depends on one another. If the angiosperm goes extinct, the animal loses its food source. If the animal goes extinct, the plant loses it pollinator and cannot reproduce.

Gymnosperms

Gymnosperms are the closest relatives of angiosperms. They are a group of woody plants that produce seeds but no flowers or fruit. The seeds of gymnosperms are usually found in cones rather than inside fruit.

The world's largest, tallest, oldest and widest organisms are all gymnosperms. They are incredible plants and some species are known to survive for over 2000 years.

There are four different groups of gymnosperms. These include the gingko, gnetophyta, cycads and conifers. Conifers contain the majority of species and include the well-known pine trees.

Ferns and lycophytes

Ferns and lycophytes are non-woody plants and also don't produce seeds, flowers or fruit. Instead, ferns and lycophytes reproduce using tiny structures called spores.

These two groups were once the most common plants of Earth but they have since been outgrown by gymnosperms and angiosperms. Still, around 12,000 species of ferns and 1,200 species of lycophytes remain on Earth.

The main difference between ferns and lycophytes is in the vascular tissue of their leaves. Ferns have fronds with multiple veins whereas the leaves of lycophytes are very simple and only have one vein.

Non-vascular plants

Besides lacking tissue, non-vascular plants also lack wood, roots and flowers. This group of often ignored plants includes mosses, hornworts, liverworts and (depending on who you're talking to) some algae. Compared to vascular plants, non-vascular plants are small and they struggle to grow taller than a few centimeters.

Mosses are the most common and best known of the non-vascular plants. They include over 14,000 species that are found all around the world.

Liverworts and hornworts are two groups of underappreciated plants. They are flattened plants that are typically only a few millimeters tall but grow sprawling across moist surfaces and are commonly mistaken for mosses and algae.

Video by Frank Gregorio. To see more brilliant videos like this one, check out Greg's vimeo channel

For a deeper look at the biology of plants check out the plant section of our website:
Plants - Basic Biology

Last edited: 16 December 2016

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Plants are an incredibly important kingdom of organisms. They are multicellular organisms with the amazing ability to make their own food from carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. They provide the foundation of many food webs and animal life would not exist if plants were not around.

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This website has a short, brief summary on the concept of energy flow through ecosystems. In all honesty, I think you would so better with my demonstration and lesson on matter and energy. The website is still good and detailed, so don't give up on it completely. It talks about the amount of energy that gets passed to each organism and how many trophic levels an ecosystem can support.

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The Habitable Planet Unit 4 - Ecosystems // Online Textbook

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The low rate of energy transfer between trophic levels makes decomposers generally more important than producers in terms of energy flow. Decomposers process large amounts of organic material and return nutrients to the ecosystem in inorganic form, which are then taken up again by primary producers.

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I think this is a great website with important and useful information. It talks about all of the body systems and gives functions and great detail. There is a reasonable amount of pictures and videos. This website also includes fun facts. Who doesn't like a good fun fact? You should check out this amazing website whenever you have the time.

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(Image credit: Getty Images)

The human body is everything that makes up, well, you. What decides and regulates the physical form and function of the human body is our genetic information, however, external environments and behaviours can alter the way our body's look and how well they function, according to Human Growth and Developments (opens in new tab).

The human body is made up of all the living and nonliving components that create the entire structure of the human organism, including every living cell, tissue and organ.

On the outside human anatomy consists of the five basic parts, the head, neck, torso, arms and legs. However, beneath the skin there are countless biological and chemical interactions that keep the human body machine ticking over.
Related: Body changes during pregnancy
What are the different systems in the human body?

Our bodies consist of a number of biological systems that carry out specific functions necessary for everyday living.

The job of the circulatory system is to move blood, nutrients, , carbon dioxide, and hormones, around the body. It consists of the heart, blood, blood vessels, arteries and veins. According to the Cleveland Clinic (opens in new tab), the human body's network of blood vessels, veins and capillaries is over 60,00 miles (around 96,560 kilometres) long.

The digestive system consists of a series of connected organs that together, allow the body to break down and absorb food, and remove waste. It includes the mouth, esophagus, , small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus. The liver and pancreas also play a role in the digestive system because they produce digestive juices filled with enzymes to break down the components of your food, such as carbohydrates, fats and proteins, according to the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (opens in new tab).

The endocrine system consists of a network of glands that secrete hormones into the blood. These hormones, in turn, travel to different tissues and regulate various bodily functions, such as metabolism, growth and sexual function, according to Johns Hopkins Medicine (opens in new tab). For example, one of the glands in the pancreas - called the endocrine gland - releases hormones called insulin and glucagon to regulate blood sugar.

(Image credit: Getty Images)

The immune system is the body's defense against , and other pathogens that may be harmful. The immune system is activated when antigens (proteins on the surface of bacteria, fungi and viruses) bind with receptors on immune cells, alerting the body to their presence and kicking the immune system into gear, according to Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG) (opens in new tab). The system is made up of I lymph nodes, the spleen, bone marrow, lymphocytes (including B-cells and T-cells), the thymus and leukocytes, which are white blood cells.

The lymphatic system includes lymph nodes, lymph ducts and lymph vessels, and also plays a role in the body's defenses. Its main job is to make and move lymph, a clear fluid that contains white blood cells, which help the body fight infection, according to the Cleveland Clinic. The lymphatic system also removes excess lymph fluid from bodily tissues, and returns it to the blood.
Related: Fight or flight: The sympathetic nervous system
The nervous system controls both voluntary action (like conscious movement) and involuntary actions (like breathing), and sends signals to different parts of the body. The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system consists of nerves that connect every other part of the body to the central nervous system, according to the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (opens in new tab).

The body's muscular system consists of about 650 muscles that aid in movement, blood flow and other bodily functions, according to the Library of Congress. There are three types of muscle: skeletal muscle which is connected to bone and helps with voluntary movement, smooth muscle which is found inside organs and helps to move substances through organs, and cardiac muscle which is found in the heart and helps pump blood.

The reproductive system allows humans to reproduce. The male reproductive system includes the penis and the , which produce sperm. The female reproductive system consists of the vagina, the uterus and the ovaries, which produce eggs. During conception, a sperm cell fuses with an egg cell, which creates a fertilized egg that implants and grows in the uterus.

(Image credit: Getty Images)

Related: How to increase lung capacity
Our bodies are supported by the skeletal system, which consists of between 206 and 213 bones in an adult human body, which are all connected by tendons, ligaments and cartilage, according to the journal StatPearls (opens in new tab). As infants, humans have 270 bones, before some fuse together during growth. The skeleton not only helps us move, but it's also involved in the production of blood cells and the storage of calcium. The teeth are also part of the skeletal system, but they aren't considered bones.

The respiratory system allows us to take in vital oxygen and expel carbon dioxide in a process we call breathing. It consists mainly of the trachea, the diaphragm and the .

The human body contains nearly 37.2 trillion cells.

It's estimated that the microbial biome of our bodies, including bacteria and fungi is around 39 trillion cells.

The average adult takes around 22,000 breaths a day.

Each day, the kidneys process about 200 quarts (50 gallons) of blood to filter out about 2 quarts of waste and water.

Adults excrete about a quarter and a half (1.42 liters) of urine each day.

The human brain contains about 100 billion nerve cells.

Water makes up more than 50 percent of the average adult's body weight.

The urinary system helps eliminate a waste product called urea from the body, which is produced when certain foods are broken down. The whole system includes two kidneys, two ureters, the bladder, two sphincter muscles and the urethra. Urine produced by the kidneys travels down the ureters to the bladder, and exits the body through the urethra.

The skin, or integumentary system, is the body's largest organ. It protects us from the outside world, and is our first defense against bacteria, viruses and other pathogens. Our skin also helps regulate body temperature and eliminate waste through perspiration. In addition to skin, the integumentary system includes hair and nails.

What are the body's vital organs?

What are vestigial organs?

Unlike the vital organs, there are some other organs and structures within the human body that no longer serve a purpose - known as vestigial organs. That's not to say that they didn't once play a role in human survival, according to the Department of Anatomy at Midwestern University (opens in new tab).

Over the course of human evolution, some organs and anatomical structures have lost their function, for example, the coccyx or tailbone. It was Charles Darwin that first proposed that humans descended from primates with tails, noting the tiny set of vertebrae we all share adjacent to the pelvis - called the coccyx - is what remains of our ancestral tail, according to the New York Times (opens in new tab).

Another well-known example of a seemingly functionless organ is the appendix. The appendix is a narrow pouch attached to the lower abdominal cavity of the human body. It's generally considered to be redundant in the function of the human body, however, in 2017 research conducted by Midwestern University (opens in new tab) suggested that the appendix may serve as a reservoir for several types of beneficial gut bacteria.

Additional resources

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The Human Body: Anatomy, Facts & Functions

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(Image credit: Getty Images) The human body is everything that makes up, well, you. What decides and regulates the physical form and function of the human body is our genetic information, however, external environments and behaviours can alter the way our body's look and how well they function, according to Human Growth and Developments (opens in new tab).

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In an experiment, what is used to be compared to the experimental group?
a. Independent Variable
b. Control Group
c. Constant
d Dependent Variable

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In which organelle does photosynthesis occur?
a. Mitochondria
b. Cytoplasm
c. Cell Wall
d. Chloroplasts

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Water _____ heat from warm air and _____ heat from cool air.
a. releases; absorbs
b. transfers; freezes
c. absorbs; releases
b. freezes; transfers

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How many daughter cells are produced in meiosis?
a. One cell
b. Two cells
c. Three cells
d. Four cells

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What base is thymine replaced with?
a. Uracil
b. Cytosine
c. Guanine
d. Adenine

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How would a heterozygous dominant trait be demonstrated as a genotype?
a. BB
b. bb
c. Bd
d. Bb

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Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of Homo erectus?
a. Brain size is 1500cm³
b. May have had a language
c. Lived between 1.59 million and 143,00 years ago
d. One place they were found in Southern Africa

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What is the function of the root cap?
a. Photosynthesis
b. New growth
c. Protection of the meristem
d. Cellular Respiration

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Which of the following is NOT part of the water cycle?
a. Precipitation
b. Condensation
c. Evaporation
d. Cellular Respiration

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Which of the following doesn't effect population?
a. Birth rates
b. Ocean acidification
c. Immigration
d. Emigration

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Which part of the brain is involved with vision?
a. Occipital lobe
b. Frontal lobe
c. Pituitary gland
d. Temporal lobe

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B

# data[].attributes.body
D

# data[].attributes.body
C

# data[].attributes.body
D

# data[].attributes.body
A

# data[].attributes.body
D

# data[].attributes.body
A

# data[].attributes.body
C

# data[].attributes.body
D

# data[].attributes.body
B

# data[].attributes.body
A

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What does a plant cell have that an animal cell doesn't?
a. Nucleus
b. Cell wall
c. Cell membrane
d. Ribosomes

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What hominid are humans classified as?
a. Homo erectus
b. Homo habilis
c. Homo sapiens
d. Homo neanderthalensis

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What is the term for an attraction between molecules of the same substance?
a. Cohesion
b. Adhesion
c. Polarity
d. Hydrophilic

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What of the following do the two biogeochemical cycles, water cycle and the carbon cycle, have in common?
a. Photosynthesis
b. Decomposition
c. Excretion
d. Fuel combustion

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What is an example of a renewable source?
a. Natural gases
b. Gasoline
c. Coal
d. Wind power

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Where does cellular respiration occur?
a. Lysosome
b. Central Vacuole
c. Mitochondria
d. Nucleolus

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How many daughter cells are produced in mitosis?
a. One daughter cell
b. Two daughter cells
c. Three daughter cells
d. Four daughter cells

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Which organ structure is NOT part of the female reproductive system?
a. Cervix
b. Uterus
c. Ovaries
d. Testes

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Which organ structure is NOT part of the male reproductive system?
a. Fallopian tube
b. Prostate gland
c. Seminal vesicle
d. Penis

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What is the first step of the scientific method?
a. Hypothesis
b. Question
c. Experiment
d. Conclusion

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What does water do when frozen?
a. Evaporate
b. Expand
c. Photosynthesize
d. Dry up

# data[].attributes.body
What is cytosine paired with?
a. Guanine
b. Thymine
c. Uracil
d. Adenine

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Which of the following represents a genotype?
a. 1/2
b. 25%
c. 2:5
d. Bb

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Which of the following is a vestigial structure of a human?
a. Leg
b. Arm
c. Tailbone
d. Feet

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Which of the following is NOT a female reproductive organ in plants?
a. Stigma
b. Ovary
c. Filament
d. Style

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Which ocean zone is closest to the shore?
a. Intertidal zone
b. Photic zone
c. Bentic zone
d. Oceanic zone

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What is another name for red blood cells?
a. Leukocytes
b. Erythrocytes
c. Thrombocytes
d. Endomites

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How does blood get to the heart from the upper body?
a. Capillaries
b. Inferior vena cava
c. Superior vena cave
d. None of the above

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What brain component controls body temperature?
a. Plasma
b. Red blood cells
c. White blood cells
d. Both a and c

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Who are the first organisms of a food web or food chain?
a. Quaternary consumers
b. Secondary consumers
c. Tertiary consumers
d. Primary producers

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1. b
2. c
3. a
4. b
5. d
6. c
7. b
8. d
9. a
10. b
11. b
12. a
13. d
14. c
15. c
16. a
17. b
18. c
19. a
20. d