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Bibliography  (Created from Microsoft Word and OneNote)

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Bibliography  (Created from Microsoft Word and OneNote)

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“Andragogy.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 18 Apr. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andragogy?utm_campaign=elearningindustry.com&utm_source=/the-adult-learning-theory-andragogy-of-malcolm-knowles&utm_medium=link. Accessed 06 July 2018.

“Carl Rogers.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 13 July 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Rogers. Accessed 06 July 2018.

Graham, Steve. “A Simple, Easy To Understand Guide To Andragogy.” Cornerstone University, 22 May 2017, www.cornerstone.edu/blogs/lifelong-learning-matters/post/a-simple-easy-to-understand-guide-to-andragogy. Accessed 10 July 2018.

Hamdy & Taylor. “Adult Learning Theories: Implications for Learning and Teaching in Medical Education: AMEE Guide No. 83.” Medical Teacher, vol.35, no. 11, 4 Sept. 2013, www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.3109/0142159X.2013.828153.  Accessed 05 July 2018.

“K. Patricia Cross.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 27 June 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K._Patricia_Cross. Accessed 06 July 2018.

“K. Patricia Cross Quotes.” Iz Quotes, izquotes.com/author/k.-patricia-cross. Accessed 11 July 2018.

Last Updated March 31st, 2018 03:34 pm. “Adult Learning (K. P. Cross).” InstructionalDesign.org, www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/adult-learning/. Accessed 08 July 2018.

Last Updated March 31st, 2018 03:37 pm. “Andragogy (Malcolm Knowles).” InstructionalDesign.org, www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/andragogy/. Accessed 08 July 2018.

Last Updated March 31st, 2018 11:36 pm. “Experiential Learning (Carl Rogers).” InstructionalDesign.org, www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/experiential-learning/. Accessed 08 July 2018.

“Malcolm Knowles Quotes.” Top 50 Sleep Picture Quotes: Rate a Quote, www.rateaquote.com/author/malcolm knowles/. Accessed 11 July 2018.

Sapio, Lucille Lo, et al. “3 Adult Learning Theories Every E-Learning Designer Must Know.” Main, ASTD Press, 14 Mar. 2018, www.td.org/insights/3-adult-learning-theories-every-e-learning-designer-must-know. Accessed 11 July 2018.

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All three of the theories/theorists I researched focus on the adult learner which is also my primary focus since I work for a large corporation.  Because the three theories focus primarily on adult learners, they overlap in many regards but have some variations in their opinions as well. All three of the theories incorporate self-directed learning because it makes the adult learner involved in initiating the learning process.  Self-directed learners need to be guided and encouraged to grow by their teacher who should be more of a resource to the adult learner than a lecturer or evaluator. K.P. Cross created the Characteristics of Adults as Learners guidelines with two variables:  personal and situational characteristics.  Malcolm Knowles is primarily known for his work pertaining to Andragogy ("man-led") learning. Carl Rogers is best known for experiential learning in adult education.  All three theorists created different ways of breaking down adult learning, however all three can still be used in today's teaching, learning and technology in the corporate world.  The theories do not incorporate technology into their descriptions and beliefs because they did not exist in the days the theories were created.  Technology can still be incorporated today into the older adult learning theories.  For example, self-directed learning can be more achievable with all of the technologies available today that makes them more accessible for everyone including faster and less costly computers/laptops, the invention of Skype and computer based training and software just to name a few.  According to the theories, adult learners want practical knowledge that the learner wants to know about and will be used in the near future.  Technology is all of those things and that is why teaching, learning and technology are so important in today's corporate world.

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Carl Rogers
Experiential Learning Theory 1969(Photo:  Wikipedia.org)
Carl Rogers defined two types of learning:  cognitive and
experiential which are applied mostly to adult learning.
Cognitive learning includes academic knowledge such as items memorized for a class (examples: vocabulary and math equations) which are considered "meaningless."  Experiential learning is practical knowledge that is of immediate value and which the learner wants to know which makes for "significant" learning.   "The Experiential Learning Theory states that the essence of adult learning is making sense of experiences. Adults learn best when they learn by doing. They learn best when they are directly involved with—“experiencing”—the learning instead of memorizing numbers and definitions from books" (Sapio "3 Adult Learning Theories").  Experiential learning is initiated and evaluated by the learner.  The learner also controls the process, nature and direction of the learning which makes learning more lasting.  According to Rogers, self-initiated learning is the most lasting and pervasive.  Rogers also says that people have a natural desire to learn therefore the teacher's role is to facilitate that by: 1) creating a positive environment for learning (minimize external threats), 2) making the purpose of the learning clear, 3) providing learning resources; 4) considering both the intellectual and emotional parts of learning and 5) offering insights and feelings, but not dominate the process ("Experiential Learning (Carl Rogers)").  The research method used for the Experiential Learning Theory was primarily documented through client centered therapy. Experiential learning is heavily influenced by the humanistic movement which in turn influenced Malcolm Knowles and K.P. Cross.

"This process of the good life is not, I am convinced, a life for the faint-hearted. It involves the stretching and growing of becoming more and more of one's potentialities. It involves the courage to be. It means launching oneself fully into the stream of life."

–Carl Rogers

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Malcolm Knowles
Andragogy 1968

(Photo: Infographic.venngage.com)
Malcolm Knowles created the theory of andragogy in
an attempt to develop a theory specifically for adult
learning.  For Knowles, andragogy means instruction
for adults needs to focus more on the process and
lesson than the content being taught.  In practical terms, the following is true about andragogy:  "Typically this learning is very self-directed [e.g. "man-leading"], hands on and not very reliant on an instructor or teacher.  Often the learner doesn’t have the foundation to build upon and will need to learn other dependent skills and assess gaps in knowledge" (Graham, A Simple, Easy).  Andragogy also makes the following assumptions about adult learning: 1) adults need to know why they need to learn something; 2) adults need to learn experientially; 3) adult learning style is problem solving and 4) adults learn best when the topic has practical applications in the near future  (“Andragogy (Malcolm Knowles)").   According to Knowles, adult education should always produce seven outcomes:  1) a mature understanding of oneself, 2) acceptance, respect and love towards others, 3) a fluid and dynamic attitude toward life, 4) understanding and reacting to causes, not symptoms, 5) acquire skills to achieve the potentials of their personalities, 6) understanding human experience and, 7) understanding of and ability to change society (Graham "A Simple, Easy").  Andragogy is considered to be a humanistic theory.  These theories promote individual development and are more learner-centered. The goal is to produce individuals who have the potential for self-actualization, and who are self-directed and internally motivated.  Knowles supported this theory with his concept of andragogy, however, while andragogy explains the motivation to learn, its main limitation is the exclusion of context and the social mechanism of constructing meaning and knowledge (Hamdy "Adult Learning Theories:").  We now know that context and social factors are crucial in professional education.

"An essential aspect of maturing is developing the ability to take increasing responsibility for our own lives 'to become increasingly self-directed'."

–Malcolm Knowles

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Kathryn Patricia Cross
Adult Learning (CAL Model) 1981 (Photo: AZquotes.com)

K.P. Cross created the Characteristics of Adults as Learners (CAL) model to support her analysis of lifelong learning programs.  This model attempts to integrate other theorist's beliefs for adult learning including andragogy (Knowles) and experiential learning (Rogers).  The CAL model is intended to provide guidelines for adult education programs.  The CAL model has two classes of variables:  personal characteristics and situational characteristics ("Adult Learning (K.P.Cross)").  Personal characteristics include:  aging, life phases and developmental stages.  Cross believes that aging (vision, hearing, reaction time) can be a detriment to adult learning while some intellectual skills improve (vocabulary, decision making, reasoning).  Life phases and development stages such as marriage, having kids, job change and retirement are not necessarily determined by age but Cross believed these series of life stages and transitions need to be acknowledged when looking at adult learning by challenging them to move to increasingly advanced stages of personal development.  Situational characteristics  consist of various factors that need to be taken into account when working with adult learners including whether the adult is learning full-time or part-time, if the learning is voluntary or required, the need for flexibility of structure and choice of lessons, and drawing upon various experiences of the adult student that can be shared with the class.  There is no known research to support the model ("Adult Learning (K.P.Cross)")  .

"The task of the excellent teacher is to stimulate 'apparently ordinary' people to unusual effort.  The tough problem is not in identifying winners:  it is in making winners out of ordinary people."

–K.P. Cross