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Write a note on the science behind the following ,advantages and disadvantages. Add some websites , videos atleast 5                                               .1.Smoke detectors                2.Markers to track biological processes in plants to better understand their physiology  3.Food irradiation (to preserve canned foods) 4.Archaeological dating of artefacts                     5.Forensic analysis of crime scene or accident remains    6.Medical applications (For example- nuclear medicine in hospitals to determine bone health, radiation therapy for cancer patients, chemotherapy for cancer patients)7.Sterilization of sensitive instruments.

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Write a note on the science behind the following ,advantages and disadvantages. Add some websites , videos atleast 5                                               .1.Smoke detectors                2.Markers to track biological processes in plants to better understand their physiology  3.Food irradiation (to preserve canned foods) 4.Archaeological dating of artefacts                     5.Forensic analysis of crime scene or accident remains    6.Medical applications (For example- nuclear medicine in hospitals to determine bone health, radiation therapy for cancer patients, chemotherapy for cancer patients)7.Sterilization of sensitive instruments.

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https://www.cnet.com/news/appliance-science-how-smoke-alarms-alert-you-to-fires/

2 main types of smoke detectors:   ionizing and photosensitive

ionizing: nside they have two parallel metal plates, with a very small amount of a radioactive element source on one plate. This radioactive material gives off very low power alpha radiation, which knocks electrons off the air molecules it bumps into.

photosensitive: Larger and more sophisticated, requiring bigger batteries or a permanent power connection.

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The DNA analysis of a person is believed to be against human ethics, as it reveals private information about an individual.

The equipment used in forensics is expensive.

Scientific analysis consumes lot of time because of which the verdict is delayed.

It requires precise and accurate analysis. Even if a minor error occurs in the analysis, it may result in the wrong figure.

The evidence cannot be accessible at all times.

1.https://careertrend.com/disadvantages-forensic-scientists-25978.html
2.https://www.buzzle.com/articles/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-forensic-science.html
3. http://batterytow.over-blog.com/article-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-forensic-science-89155812.html
4. https://prezi.com/pmnk1-4nn1pe/forensic-science-benefits-and-disadvantages/
5. https://sciencing.com/pros-cons-forensic-science-8066285.html

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advantages of smoke detectors :

Somke detectores systems are really important and ensure the safety of
everyone in the premises, as well as safe guard against the occurrence of potential property loss in the event of a fire.

The latest smoke deetctor systems are extremely intelligent, they can:

Automatically call the emergency services and key contacts to minimise the time it takes for the fire brigade to attend site

Tell the fire brigade exactly where the fire is so they can get to it ASAP

Minimise pesky false alarms caused by old fire alarm detectors

And, in the unlikely event of a fault, they can also tell you exactly where the problem is!

Alert people of a potential fire website: https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-fire-alarm

Film about function:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pcn7MDpoZrY

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Advantages of food irradiation
- Preservation; in order to eliminate organisms that cause spoilage and decomposition. Preservation also extends the shelf life of foods.
- Control of insects; Destroying insects on fruits. Irradiation also prevents pest-control on the food, because it won't be needed.
- Sterilization; The sterilizing of food is good, because the food can be stored for years without cooling. Patients with impaired immune systems also gain from this.
- Prevention of Food borne Illness; The irradiation of food effectively eliminate organisms that cause illnesses, such as Escherichia coli and Salmonella

This site talks about how and why food is irradiated:
https://www.fda.gov/food/resourcesforyou/consumers/ucm261680.htm
This video describes the advantages and limitations of food irradiation:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xD6brkWEnLE

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- What does it mean to be treated by irradiation?
Food irradiation is a process of food and food packaging to ionising radiation. ionising radiation is from gamma rays,x-rays or electron beams, is an energy there can be transmitted without any direct contact to be the source of energy(radiation) capable of freeing electrons from their atomic bonds in the target food.
- Is it safe to eat irritated food?
the irrigation makes meat and poultry safer by reducing the number of harmfull bacteria and parasites.
food irridation does not make the food we eat radioactive and the radiant energy passes through the food, the food itself never contacts the source of radiant energy, irritated food are wholesome and nutritious, nutrient losses caused by irradiation are less or even the same as losses caused cooking or freezing.
https://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/food-safety-education/get-answers/food-safety-fact-sheets/production-and-inspection/irradiation-and-food-safety/irradiation-food-safety-faq
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_irradiation

Video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2MJc_WNl7ME
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pe6AKh_tLys
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_9vwS3_s1b4

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currently there are three types of smoke alarms known as ionization, photoelectric and combination ionization/photoelectric.

Disadvantages of smoke detectors:

Photoelectric Detects presence of smoke, not toxicity.

Must be cleaned on a regular basis.

Has a potential for high false alarm rate.

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Forensic analysis of a crime is the science application to criminal activity. Forensic scientists preserve and analyse scientific evidence during the investigation. Radio active isotopes are involved during the analysis when scientists have to date remains. Carbon dating is a process that has been used for a long time for archaeology dating but will usually require one to rely on studies that have been done on how bodies decay in different climates. Often, these scientists will not know the temperature and moisture conditions where the body was left. However, it is done by looking at how much carbon is present in the body in proportion to the amount of carbon isotope. This can help them determine how old something is, and in this case, how long something has been decaying.

1.https://oakland.edu/bals/interdisciplinary-careers/forensics-and-crime-scene-analysis/
2.https://science.howstuffworks.com/csi5.htm
3.https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3489-radioisotopes-reveal-victims-life-and-death/
4.https://www.coursera.org/learn/forensic-science/lecture/6wy7M/week-3a-5-analysis-of-skeletal-remains-ii

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There are many advantages of forensic analysis

-With the help of some computer tools, it is likely to control cyber crime. This action is done by packet sniffing.

-Forensic analysis helps determine the cause of death by examining the post-mortem changes, blunt injuries, the scene of the death and blunt injuries.

- Forensic analysis is used to investigate accident cases and to determine its cause by analysing the vehicle condition, tire and other marks, eye witnesses, calculating the vehicle's speed etc.

-Clinical forensic medicine is useful in finding out child abusive, defensive wounds on a victim, gunshot wounds, injury patterns and domestic violence, self-inflicted injuries, sexual assault and semen persistence.

-Biometrics technology is a combination with forensics, which can help identify the fingerprint of the criminal, or the other object which are present on the scene.

-Phonetics which is another part of forensics, which is used to tap the voice signals and identify the speaker

-Some other useful forensic analysis advantages include: fire investigation, forgery, fraud (specifically in payment cards), lie detection, footprint marks, voice analysis, digital imaging and photography, etc.

file:///C:/Users/laura/AppData/Local/Microsoft/Windows/INetCache/IE/Y16Z5BO6/mgg005.pdf]
https://sciencestruck.com/forensic-toxicology
https://www.buzzle.com/articles/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-forensic-science.html

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The process of sterilization is an extremely important part of medical care and the health industry.

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Nuclear medicine uses radiation to provide information about the functioning of a person's specific organs, or to treat them. Diagnostic procedures using radioisotopes are now routine.

Radiotherapy can be used to treat some medical conditions such as cancer, which uses radiation to weaken or destroy particular targeted cells.

Over 40 million nuclear medical procedures are performed annually, with demand for treatment with radioisotopes increasing.
http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/non-power-nuclear-applications/radioisotopes-research/radioisotopes-in-medicine.aspx
https://www.radiochemistry.org/nuclearmedicine/frames/medical_radioisotopes/index.html

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Chemotherapy focuses on cells that grow and divide quickly like cancer cells do.
It works through the whole body and might also affect some other fast growing cells in the body such as skin or hair, bone marrow cells or the cells of the digestive system.
Chemotherapy can destroy the cancer cells so that they cannot be detected in the body again. The best result would be that the cells would never grow back. This is commonly the wished result after a surgery. Chemotherapy also helps prevent the cancer cells from spreading out further in the body which is helpful before a surgery. Sometimes it also only prevents pain or pressure without controlling the tumor or the cancer cells themselves. The symptoms might be relieved and the life of the patient can be extended.

https://medlineplus.gov/cancerchemotherapy.html
http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/diagnosis-and-treatment/chemotherapy-and-other-drug-therapies/chemotherapy/?region=on
https://www.webmd.com/cancer/chemotherapy-what-to-expect#1

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Advantages of nuclear medicine for determining bone health
Nuclear medicine or bone scans can determine the status or the health of the bones
Advantages include detecting abnormalities in skeletal system (bone infection, fractures from exercise, Paget’s disease, benign bone tumour, tumour, bone pain and arthritis. Offers additional treatment plans, improves methods for early detection, accurate results.

https://futureofworking.com/6-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-nuclear-medicine/

https://www.sgh.com.sg/Patient-Services/conditionsandtreatment/Pages/BoneScan.aspx

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Absolute dating means determining an age on a specified chronology in archaeology and geology.
It's also called chronometric or calendar dating, as use of the word "absolute" implies an unwarranted certainty of accuracy.

Techniques include tree rings, radiocarbon dating of wood or bones, and trapped charge dating methods.
Radiocarbon dating: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=phZeE7Att_s
Tree ring dating: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AlMfqzihNTE
Coins found in excavations may have their production date written on them, or there may be written records describing the coin and when it was used, allowing the site to be associated with a particular calendar year.

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Showing Their Age | History | Smithsonian

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Dating the Fossils and Artifacts that Mark the Great Human Migration

Archaeological finds worldwide have helped researchers to fill out the story of human evolution and migration. An essential piece of information in this research is the age of the fossils and artifacts. How do scientists determine their ages? Here are more details on a few of the methods used to date objects discussed in "The Great Human Migration" ( Smithsonian, July 2008):

Coprolites, Paisley 5 Mile Point Caves, Oregon
Age: ~14,300 years old
Method: radiocarbon dating

In a cave in Oregon, archaeologists found bones, plant remains and coprolites-fossilized feces. DNA remaining in the coprolites indicated their human origin but not their age. For that, the scientists looked to the carbon contained within the ancient dung.

By definition, every atom of a given element has a specific number of protons in its nucleus. The element carbon has six protons, for example. But the number of neutrons in the nucleus can vary. These different forms of an element-called isotopes-are inherently stable or unstable. The latter are called radioactive isotopes, and over time they will decay, giving off particles (neutrons or protons) and energy (radiation) and therefore turn into another isotope or element. They do this at a constant rate called an isotope's "half-life".

Most carbon comes in the stable forms of carbon-12 (six protons, six neutrons) or carbon-13, but a very small amount (about 0.0000000001%) exists as the radioactive carbon-14 (six protons, eight neutrons). Living plants and animals take up carbon-14 along with the other carbon isotopes, but when they die and their metabolic functions cease, they stop absorbing carbon. Over time, the carbon-14 decays into nitrogen-14; half will do so after about 5,730 years (this is the isotope's half-life). After about 60,000 years, all of the carbon-14 will be gone.

Anything that was once part of a living object-such as charcoal, wood, bone, pollen or the coprolites found in Oregon-can be sent to a lab where scientists measure how much carbon-14 is left. Because they know how much there would have been in the atmosphere and, therefore, how much someone would have absorbed when alive, they can calculate how long it has been since death or deposition. The coprolites averaged about 14,300 years old and are some of the oldest human remains in the Americas.

Hominid skulls, Herto, Ethiopia
Age: ~154,000 to 160,000 years old
Method: argon-argon dating

A team of scientists digging in Ethiopia in 1997 found stone tools, the fossil remains of several animal species, including hippopotamuses, and three hominid skulls. How old were they? The organic remains were too old for carbon-14 dating, so the team turned to another method.

Radiocarbon dating works well for some archaeological finds, but it has limitations: it can be used to date only organic materials less than about 60,000 years old. However, there are other radioactive isotopes that can be used to date non-organic materials (such as rocks) and older materials (up to billions of years old).

One of these radioisotopes is potassium-40, which is found in volcanic rock. After the volcanic rock cools off, its potassium-40 decays into argon-40 with a 1.25-billion-year half-life. It is possible to measure the ratio of potassium-40 to argon-40 and estimate a rock's age, but this method is imprecise. However, scientists discovered in the 1960s that they could irradiate a rock sample with neutrons and thereby convert the potassium-40 to argon-39, an isotope not normally found in nature and easier to measure. Though more intricate, this process yields more precise dates. For example, scientists at the University of California at Berkeley were able to date samples from the 79 A.D. eruption of the volcano Vesuvius to within seven years of the event.

Because the hominid skulls and other artifacts found at Herto could not be directly dated-the organic material had long since been fossilized-the researchers instead performed their analysis on volcanic rock that was embedded in the sandstone near the fossils. The rock was about 154,000 to 160,000 years old, making the skulls the oldest Homo sapiens remains yet to be found.

Engraved ocher stones, Blombos Cave, South Africa
Age: ~77,000 years old
Method: thermoluminescence dating

An excavation of a seaside cave in South Africa revealed two objects that were clearly manmade-pieces of ocher stone etched with a crisscross pattern. Neither the stones nor the rock in which they were buried were volcanic in origin, though, so the researchers chose another method for determining their age: thermoluminescence.

As in argon-argon dating, the thermoluminescence clock also begins with the last time that a rock was heated to a high temperature. The extreme heat eliminates electrons stored in certain crystals-such as quartz and feldspar-within the rock. Over time, the crystals trap electrons produced by trace amounts of radioactive atoms found in the environment. By reheating the rock, scientists can release the stored energy, which is given off as light and called "thermoluminescence." The intensity of the light indicates how long it has been since the rock was last heated.

Like the Herto skulls, the ages of the carved ocher stones from Blombos Cave could not be directly determined. However, in the same rock layer as the ochers were pieces of burnt stone, which were likely the same age as the ochers and ideal for thermoluminescence dating. The burnt stone, it was revealed, was about 77,000 years old, which made the ochers some of the oldest pieces of abstract design to be discovered.

About Sarah Zielinski

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Archaeological finds worldwide have helped researchers to fill out the story of human evolution and migration. An essential piece of information in this research is the age of the fossils and artifacts. How do scientists determine their ages?

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Advantges

There are some potential advantages in making scientific progress of understanding and discovering in the nature of genetic and environmental factors on complex social science traits. Some of these advantages are the following.

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Disadvantages
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26818/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK62439/
For DNA markers there are some potential disadvantages like when you have to draw blood to inspect the DNA you would need a profesional which would be minimal cost but to genotype the information would cost a larger amount.

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Types:

RFLP (or Restriction fragment length polymorphism)

SSLP (or Simple sequence length polymorphism)

AFLP (or Amplified fragment length polymorphism)

RAPD (or Random amplification of polymorphic DNA)

VNTR (or Variable number tandem repeat)

SSR Microsatellite polymorphism, (or Simple sequence repeat)

SNP (or Single nucleotide polymorphism)

STR (or Short tandem repeat)

SFP (or Single feature polymorphism)

DArT (or Diversity Arrays Technology)

RAD markers (or Restriction site associated DNA markers)

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Advantages

Molecular markers are abundant while biochemical markers are very few and morphological markers still fewer in number and insufficient for using for breeding purposes.

Morphological and biochemical markers are subject to variation due to environmental factors while molecular markers are not.

Biochemical markers may show tissue specificity while molecular markers show no such bias.

Morphological markers are affected by epistasis while molecular markers are not.

Molecular markers can exhibit high polymorphism compared to the other types of markers.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rbRQrP4FmoY

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21962/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_marker

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advantages

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Disadvantages:

It reduces the content of several key nutrients such as Vitamin E, Thiamin Vitamin C, Riboflavin, Pyridoxine, Vitamin B12. Other nutrients are also affected however the results are less consistent.

It creates radiolytic products with unknown short term or long term safety effects.

Some of the organoleptic properties are affected especially for herbs, spices, essential oils.

Formation of cholesterol oxides and fatty acid epoxidation and other oxidation products (aldehydes, esters, ketones etc.) posing safety concerns.

Aggregation of certain proteins has been found for high protein commodities.

Is ineffective against viruses.

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There are two main categories of dating methods in archeology : indirect or relative dating and absolute dating. Relative dating includes methods that rely on the analysis of comparative data or the context (eg, geological, regional, cultural) in which the object one wishes to date is found.

On the other hand, absolute dating includes all methods that provide figures about the real estimated age of archaeological objects or occupations.

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The major disadvantage of using radioisotopes in nuclear medicine is that it has a negative impact on health. Radioisotopes are also expensive as well as difficult to store due to constantly emitting radiation.

https://healthresearchfunding.org/pros-cons-nuclear-medicine/
http://visionlaunch.com/pros-and-cons-of-nuclear-medicine/

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The process of sterilization is an extremely important part of medical care and the health industry.
One of the oldest forms of sterilization is heat sterilization. It is also one of the least used methods when it comes to sterilizing medical equipment.
Heat sterilization can be divided into two separate categories:

dry heat sterilication

Moist Heat Sterilization

Sterilisation is the process of killing all viable microorganisms, including resistant spores, to a high level of probability, ensuring that the likelihood of a microorganism's survival is no more than one in a million.

http://www.medicaldevice-developments.com/features/featureleave-nothing-to-chance-sterilising-medical-devices-different-techniques-pros-cons/

https://study.com/academy/lesson/hot-air-oven-for-sterilization-definition-working-principle.html

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chamber that an LED shines light through. At a right angle to this is a photodiode, an electronic component that detects light. 

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https://www.cnet.com/news/appliance-science-how-smoke-alarms-alert-you-to-fires/

2 main types of smoke detectors:   ionizing and photosensitive

ionizing: nside they have two parallel metal plates, with a very small amount of a radioactive element source on one plate. This radioactive material gives off very low power alpha radiation, which knocks electrons off the air molecules it bumps into.

photosensitive: Chamber that an LED shines light through. At a right angle to this is a photodiode, an electronic component that detects light.  If there is smoke in the air, though, the photodiode will detect the light that is reflected by the smoke particles. It's like dust particles in a sunbeam: You don't see the sunbeam unless there is dust in the air to deflect some of the light.

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https://msu.edu/course/fsc/229/Notes/Lecture%2011.htm

website:
https://msu.edu/course/fsc/229/Notes/Lecture%2011.htm
https://connectusfund.org/7-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-food-irradiation
https://www.fda.gov/food/resourcesforyou/consumers/ucm261680.htm