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African lions (Panthera leo) are listed as vulnerable with a decreasing population trend and even considered endangered in western and central Africa. In 2004, the total number of lions in Africa was estimated to be 16,000–30,000 individuals, a reduction of 97% over a 200-year period. Pressures from persecution, disease and habitat loss are main causes of wild lion population declines.

Putman SB, Brown JL, Franklin AD, Schneider EC, Boisseau NP, Asa CS, et al. (2015) Characterization of Ovarian Steroid Patterns in Female African Lions (Panthera leo), and the Effects of Contraception on Reproductive Function. PLoS ONE 10(10): e0140373. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0140373

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Multiple males in a pride, or otherwise in the same group, are considered a coalition. While there is one male that asserts himself as the dominant, they all work to protect the pride.

Chakrabarti , Stotra, and Jhala V. Yadvendradev. “Selfish Partners: Resource Partitioning in Male Coalitions of Asiatic Lions.” International Soociety for Behavoiral Ecology, 14 July 2017, pp. 1532–1539.

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The most dominant male usually mates while the others protect the pride. This system enhances fitness of partners through a better defense of resources and reproductive opportunities.

Chakrabarti , Stotra, and Jhala V. Yadvendradev. “Selfish Partners: Resource Partitioning in Male Coalitions of Asiatic Lions.” International Soociety for Behavoiral Ecology, 14 July 2017, pp. 1532–1539.

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Incest is avoided by the natural tendency for one or both sexes to disperse from their birth site. Lions exhibit this by heading out to find and join a pride separate from their parents when they reach maturity. If they happen to stay with their original pride, (especially males) during mating they will provide protection rather than their genetics.

“Incest Avoidance.” Principles and Applications of Domestic Animal Behavior, by Edward O. Price, CAB International, 2008, pp. 93–94.

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Adult pride females have equal opportunities to reproduce unlike in other carnivore societies. Lack of strict hierarchies between partners who have similar resource securities is possibly because of many mating opportunities within large female groups. Skewed mating and feeding rights have only been documented in large coalitions where males were related.

Chakrabarti , Stotra, and Jhala V. Yadvendradev. “Selfish Partners: Resource Partitioning in Male Coalitions of Asiatic Lions.” International Soociety for Behavoiral Ecology, 14 July 2017, pp. 1532–1539.

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Females mainly begin estrus as a result of their pride-mates also coming into season. Lionesses are polyestrous, lasting 4 – 7 days with intervals between periods of a few days up to more than a year. They have a post-partum estrus but do not conceive if the litter survives. If the litter is lost, a new one can be produced within four months.

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Courtship may be initiated by either the male or the female at the very first signs of estrus. The female can demonstrate this by head rubbing and rolling onto her back. The male will then follow her around very closely for the next couple of days.

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When she is ready, the liones will present her hindquarters to the male in a form known as lordosis.

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The act is repeated as often as physically possible over the approximately four days that the female continues to be in heat.  This can amount to hundreds of individual acts of copulation.

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Lionesses may purr loudly yet bare their teeth to males during mating. This is thought to be due to male cats having spines on their penis which cause slight trauma to the vagina upon withdrawal.  The resulting pain however, triggers ovulation. The male may also gently bite the back of her neck.

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During the periods between copulation, the pair may lie down next to each other or walk a short distance.  The male may gently stroke the female with his tongue on the shoulder, neck or back to initiate copulation.

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A lioness mates up to 100 times per day with an average interval of 17 minutes (range 4 – 148), each mating lasting for about 21 seconds. While this is a large number, the lions continue to exhibit all of these courtship behaviors for each copulation.

Putman SB, Brown JL, Franklin AD, Schneider EC, Boisseau NP, Asa CS, et al. (2015) Characterization of Ovarian Steroid Patterns in Female African Lions (Panthera leo), and the Effects of Contraception on Reproductive Function. PLoS ONE 10(10): e0140373. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0140373

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Other males keep their distance during courtship and copulation unless there is a clear size difference, in which case a larger male may fight a smaller one for mating rights.

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Because females have a long estrus period and copulate many times during that period, males may lose interest before the end of an estrus period. Once the dominant male is done with a female, the other males in the pride/coalition are able to begin courtship with that female.

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Reproduction in lions is highly inefficient, with an average requirement of about 1000 copulations which span across many mating events for a litter to be born.

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Its beneficial for a male lion to consort a single female for the entirety of her estrous to maximize chances of successful reproduction.

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While it helps for one male to stay close by one female to give her as many chances of possible for conception, its also beneficial (genetically in terms of fitness and diversity) for females to mate with more than one male during her cycle.