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Click here to ensure you reference your literature accurately.

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Example 1: One of the most important steps to helping children develop their skills in writing is to allow them to redraft their work.  Time should be allocated for them to respond to any feedback given to them from the teacher allowing them to practise improving their own work encouraging them to become independent in this area of literacy. (Crosby, 2018)

Crosby, D. (2018). Nine essential tips for a successful primary writing unit | Tes News. [online] Tes.com. Available at: https://www.tes.com/news/nine-essential-tips-successful-primary-writing-unit [Accessed 26 Nov. 2018].

Example 2: “One of the earliest things a child must learn, when starting to learn to read, is to recognise that the different letters vary in shape and that the shape of each letter is invariable. This can be achieved in a variety of ways – alphabet books, playing with wooden letters and matching individual letters.”(Roberts 1989)

Roberts, G. (1989). Teaching children to read and write. 1st ed. oxford: Basil Blackwell LTD, p.65.

Example 3:  “Teaching should be able to develop pupils reading and writing in all subjects to support their acquisition of knowledge […] the writing they do should include narratives, exclamations, descriptions, comparisons, summaries and evaluations[…] (Department of Education, 2013)

Department of Education (2013). National Curriculum in England. p.10.

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 Example: Onedifficulty is that there is no one definitive all-encompassing theory or method for teaching reading, so one of the things all teachers of reading have to do in order to feel in con- trol is to inform themselves. Teachers need to have a balanced, historical perspective on the issues so that their developing understanding of the theories can inform practice.

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 Example: Onedifficulty is that there is no one definitive all-encompassing theory or method for teaching reading, so one of the things all teachers of reading have to do in order to feel in con- trol is to inform themselves. Teachers need to have a balanced, historical perspective on the issues so that their developing understanding of the theories can inform practice.

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Graham, J., & Kelly, A. (2008). Reading under control teaching reading in the primary school (3rd ed.). London ;: Routledge.

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Example 1: " We already know that children who come to school from actively literate backgrounds, where they are engaged with print in a wide variety forms, are more likely to make rapid progress in learning to read and write through formal instruction when they arrive in school."
David, T, et al (2000) Making Sense Of Early Literacy. London: Trentham Books.
Example 2: "After reading or listening to plenty of stories and after practising telling stories, children have models for writing fictional stories of their own."
Barratt-Pugh, C & Rohl, M. (2000)
Literacy Leaning in the Early Years. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Example 3: "Children experience a range of literacy practices through their involvement in family entertainment, family celebrations, hobbies and homework, social and community life and parental work. These events give children access to a range of texts that include media and popular culture.
Makin, L & Jones-Diaz, C. (2002). Literacy In Early Childhood. Australia: MacLennan and Petty.
Example 4: "Research indicates that reading to children benefits their accusation of reading and writing. It enhances background information and sense of story structure, and familiarises children with the language of books. (Cullinan, 1992;Morrow 1998)
Morrow, L. (1989) Literacy Development In the Early Years. Boston; London : Allyn and Bacon.

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Example 1: An example of children learning to write would be to use a solution of directionality by adapting the written principle of "the curling Caterpillar". This allowed the child to write the alphabet down the caterpillar from A to Z and to show how the writing would flow from one letter to the next.

The convention of writing in English is that all sentences start on the right and moves across the page to the left, in other countries the principle can be the opposite and in some cases such as undertaken by the Greeks they write right to left and alternate to left to right this allows the pen to never leave the page.
Czerniewska, P. (1992). Learning about writing The Early Years. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.

Example 2: "Not all differences are important in distinguishing one letter or word from another; some must be ignored. For example, boldness or size of the print may have other significance in reading for meaning, but not in distinguishing letters from each other."
Clark, M. (1994). Young Literacy Learners how we can help them. Leamington Spa: Scholastic Publications Ltd.

Example 3: "In both these instances the presence of writing opportunities in the play allowed children to pass knowledge about literacy on to other children. When the play is appropriate and the resources are present, children incorporate play in their scripts as naturally as any of the other physical actions that appear in the play. They write tickets, they use different languages, they signify when their shops are open or closed, and even write receipts."
Hall, N, Robinson, A. (2003).

Exploring Writing and Play in the Early Years. (2nd Edition) London:David Fulton Publishers Ltd.

Example 4: "During the first school years the development of reading ability centers around the acquisition of mechanical skills related to two broad areas of instruction.
Sight Vocabulary: the pool of words recognized on sight.
Word attack skills: the methods of unlocking the pronunciation of words. These are initially of a phonic nature but later broaden to include the use of sight vocabulary, experience, contextual clues, intelligent guessing and so on."
Drummond,D, & Wignell,E (1979).

Reading, a source book. London: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd.

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Example 1: "Emergent writing instruction is often a combination of varying degrees of four components

(a) mechanisms of writing, (b) concepts of writing, (c) conventions of writing,

and (d) composing" (Muzevich 1999 in Al-Maadadi and Ihmeideh 2016).
Al-Maadadi,F. and  Ihmeideh, F. (2016) 'Early writing development: kindergarten teachers’ beliefs

about emergent writing in Qatari preschool settings', International Journal of Early Years Education,24 (4) 435–447.
Example 2: "Children need time to practice their writing every day."
Dennis,L.R and Votteler, N.K (2013) 'Preschool Teachers and Children’s Emergent Writing:

Supporting Diverse Learners', Early Childhood Education Journal 41, pp 439-446.

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Example 1 : "Reading and telling stories to children is something that early childhood studies do everyday in their careers. The stores involve and absorb children and every child can be successful in sharing the experience of the story. Story reading provides time for pleasure and success for all children and provides a context for literacy learning."

Sheridan, C.(2000) 'Children's literature and literacy learning', Barratt- Pugh, C. and Rohl, M. (eds.) Literacy Learning in the Early Years. Buckingham: Open University Press, ppd.105-128.

Example 2: " One view is that children will learn to read write quite naturally, but only if they are in an environment which encourages this:
-With people around them reading and writing
-Being read to
-Engaging with literature and informational print as an important part of everyday life."

Bruce,T.,Spratt,J., (2008) Essentials of Literacy from 0-7. London: Sag.

Example 3 : "In preparation phase children need to acquire the technical skills that enable them to represent language in written form. This means as Berninger and Swanson suggest, that children need to learn the transcription skills of letter formation and spelling and punctuation."

Flynn,N.,Stainthorp.,R.,(2006) The Learning and Teaching of Reading and Writing .Chinchester; West Sussex: Whurr.

Example 4 : There are all sorts of factors involved in learning to read. But the on important point that emerges from this controversial field is that the child best learns how to read not so much by adapting the methods of the teacher but by having methods adapted to the child.

Drummond,D.,Wignel,E., (1979)Reading a Source book. 2nd edn. London: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd.

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Example one:  “Bessell-Browne (1985) examined specifically the nature of the use of literacy in social-dramatic play areas in kindergartens.”(Hall, 2003 pg.120 He found that most of the students had numerous students were able to explain their specific writings/drawings and show that it is a confirmation of their identity. Through fine and gross motor skill development, the child was able to depict and explain orally what the picture was and shown through colour a portrayal of emotions and use these motor skills again to hand write their name onto a picture. This shows that “children used literacy in a variety of ways that were meaningful to them in a play setting,” and it is important to engage the child in an active way to enhance their learning and progression by resources meaningful to them.

Hall, N., & Robinson, A. (2003). Exploring writing and play in the early years (2nd ed.). London: David Fulton Publishers.

Example 2: By the age of five years, there are seven uses of languages observed in a child: self-maintaining, directing, reporting, logical reasoning, predicting, projecting and imagining, according to Joan Tough (1976). Reporting, for example, is where a child will refer to the detail, colour, shape etc.  Of an object, or begin to refer to a sequence of events and even reflect on this. This all enables the refinement and adaption of language.

Tough, J (1976) Listening To Children Talking. East Grinstead: Ward Locke.

“Your role in establishing a rich language environment and a positive classroom ethos for young writers is critical. Children in classrooms where teachers foster their interest in and curiosity about words are far more likely to develop genuine enthusiasm for language. They will be encouraged to experiment with new words, take risks and go beyond the safe vocabulary they know.”

Waugh, D. Warner, C and Waugh, R. (2013) Teaching Grammar, Punctuation and Spelling in Primary School. London: SAGE publications

“Understanding the purposeful nature of literacy practices and their connections to broader social goals and cultural practices means that school texts need to have real audiences and real purposes.

“Students need to be a part of constructing the purposes of activities they are asked to do.”

Larson, J. Marsh, J (2015) Making literacy real : theories and practices for learning and teaching . London: Sage Publications.

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Example 1: Material that children write themselves can become a vital resource to use for early readers. Graves and Calkins (1986) showed that when children are freed from unnecessary constraints of writing such as the mechanics of writing and are encouraged to choose their own topics, they will and they do write.
Schwartz, J. (1988). Encouraging Early Literacy: An Integrated Approach to Reading and Writing in N-3, Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann
Graves, D.H, Writing: Teachers and Children at Work, Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann (1983), Calkins, L, The Art Of Teaching Writing, Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann (1986)

Example 2: “Monologue should be seen as preparatory to story-telling which in turn is one of the bases for writing”

“by providing the bases for monologue, the child will edge slowly towards anticipating their future role as a writer”

Roberts, G. (1989) Teaching children to read and write. Oxford: Basil Blackwell ltd. page 81

Example 3: Frith notes the correlation between the knowledge of phonetic cues and spelling, highlighting that children must have the understanding of phonics and sounds to be able to write the phonemes and graphemes they represent (Elliot and Pumfrey, 1993).
Ellie, C., Pumfrey, P. (1993) Children's Difficulties in Reading, Spelling and Writing. Basingstoke: The Falmer Press.

Example 4: English being an additional language can hinder a child’s reading development as it can lower self-esteem and most teachers are monolingual (Riley, 1999). This can cause children to be of a lower ability and cause lower expectations of what they can achieve as the child will struggle to understand how to write marks and words that convey meaning to the teacher.

Riley, J. (1999) Teaching reading at Key stage 1 and before, Cheltenham: Stanley Thornes.

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Example 1: Goodman (1967) “Reading is a psycholinguistic guessing game, in which the child predicts or guesses the next word” (Making sense of reading, p.17)
Goodman, K (1967), Making sense of reading, the new phonics and its practical implications, Warwickshire: Scholastic Ltd. P.17

Example 2: “shared reading is an admirable thing to do with hesitant readers, using known texts such as nursery rhymes and folk tales made up by a child and transcribed by the teacher. Stories with repetitive passages are particularly good for building up confidence in the reader (Roberts 1999 p.22)
Roberts, G (1999), Learning to Teach Reading, London: A SAGE Publications Company. P.22.

Example 3: “ in the apprenticeship approach to reading, the teacher and child begin by sharing a book together with, at first, most of the actual riding being done by the teacher. As the child develops confidence through repeated sharings of the book, he or she gradually takes over the reading until the teacher can withdraw entirely. (Wray and Lewis 1997 p.22)
Wray,D and Lewis, M (1997), extending literacy: children reading and writing non-fiction, London: Routledge. P.22.

Example 4: the writing children find easiest is personal narrative. This includes drawing on real life and imaginary experience in order to create stories, characters and to write about real life people. To start with writing is closely linked to the child’s speech. Eventually, the structures of writing will be expanded.
Roberts, G (1989), Teaching children to read and write, Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd.

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The alphabetic method was introduced in the end of the fourteenth century by introduction upper and lower case letters. In this method children are taught the names of letters and how to recite them.  Then later in letter formation children for example trace their fingers around sandpaper letters.

Pound, L. (2017). ‘How Children learn book 2’ Bedfordshire: Andrews Uk

Spelling should be taught by segmenting spoken words into sounds before choosing graphemes to represent the sounds. This is a method used in reception and revisited in year 1.

Johnston, R and Watson, J. (2014) ‘Teaching synthetic Phonics in primary schools.’ London: Learning Matters

Using senses and sensory images is vital to guide a writer into a piece of descriptive writing. It allows students to gain own ideas around a stimulus provided, to then develop their own understanding of writing and elaborate from their own perspective.

Loane, G and Muir, S. (2017) ‘Developing young writers in the classroom.’ Oxon: Routledge.

Children learn through a range of activities ranging from being at home to being in education. Each step in their development is counted as a learning experience. Each child learns in different ways each aspect of literacy differs between children and each become expects in different literacy event.

Barratt-Pugh, C and Rohl, M. (2000) ‘Literacy learning in the early years’ Buckingham; Open University Press

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Example 3: In order for children to develop the skills needed for both reading and writing, they need to be able to associate the sounds they are hearing with the written representation (Department for Education 2017; The British Association for Early Childhood Education 2012).

The British Association for Early Childhood Education (2012) Development Matters in the Early Years Foundation Stage. Available at:  https://www.early-education.org.uk/sites/default/files/Development%20Matters%20in%20the%20Early%20Years%20Foundation%20Stage%20-%20FINAL.pdf (Accessed 26 November 2018).

Department for Education (DfE) (2017) Statutory Framework for the Early Years Foundation Stage. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/596629/EYFS_STATUTORY_FRAMEWORK_2017.pdf (Accessed 26 November 2018).

Example 4: Children need to be taught using a multisensory approach in order to remember and maintain focus upon the task at hand. This is especially important during the teaching of phonics. Examples of this include writing letters in the sky to utilise their gross motor skills prior to beginning to write on paper (Ofsted 2010).

Ofsted (2010) Reading by six: How the best schools do it. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/379093/Reading_20by_20six.pdf (Accessed: 26 November 2018).