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•(Montoya & Sofia, 2018)

• (Ahora noticias, 2016)

•(Nieto & Carla, 2015)

•(Vivienda Saludable, s.f.)

•( Environmental Medicine Matters, 2011)

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•use anti-dandruff shampoo.

•Brush your hair daily.

•Do a general cleaning in our house and open the windows for ventilation

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The cause of dandruff is a natural microbe on the scalp called Malassezia globosa. (Fungi).Is that how it works:

•Malassezia globosa feeds on the natural fat of the scalp, called sebum: this fat is what keeps your hair and scalp hydrated

•Upon decomposition, sebum produces a derivative called oleic acid.

•One in two people is sensitive to oleic acid and, as a result, your scalp becomes irritated

•In response to irritation, the scalp begins to swell, redden and itch.

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•While we eat, we should avoid leaving traces of food at your fingertips or give them to eat.

•It is essential to keep our pet very clean. In the case of long-haired dogs and cats we will brush them as often as necessary, preferably on a terrace, to prevent them from losing hair.

•Never allow the pet to climb on the countertop.

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•A domestic animal, although healthy, can be a source of contamination in the house, both physical (microbes, sand or mud) and microbiological (viruses and bacteria carried on its legs).

•In addition to influencing the health of the family in general, pets can sometimes be a major source of household pollution. The risks involved should not be underestimated, even if we have the animal vaccinated and dewormed, as indicated by the veterinarian, who will give us the guidelines to raise our pet in the healthiest way.

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•The use of these devices increases the humidity of the homes, so it is necessary to prevent and clean these products so that they do not become a contaminating vector in our house. For example:

•

•Cleaning, so that we do not cause them to be a source of non-beneficial microorganisms. Important not to use detergent or rinse it very well because the remains will be integrated into the environment when we activate the equipment. Water must also be changed daily.

•Use it when it is convenient, that is, when there are respiratory problems, in winter due to the dryness of the air or when the temperature-humidity combination is not correct.

•Be careful where we put it, that is not within the reach of the smallest.

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•An ultrasonic humidifier of cold steam, is an instrument that serves to increase the humidity of the air achieving an easier breathing, alleviating the symptoms of the cold among other benefits.

•Humidifiers help us improve the environment by increasing humidity, which also translates into a lower risk that microorganisms that cause respiratory infections proliferate. In addition, we have got irritations in the throat and skin

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HOW TO PREVENT CONTAMINATION BY SECOND HAND SMOKE

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HOW TO PREVENT CONTAMINATION BY SECOND HAND SMOKE

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•Do not smoke in your home, or allow others to do so.

•If a member of your family insists on smoking indoors, increase the ventilation of the place where you smoke: open windows or use smoke extractors.

•Do not smoke in the presence of children, especially infants or preschool children, as they are especially susceptible to the effects of ESP.(Environmental Smoke Pollution)

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EFFECTS ON THE HEALTH OF EXPOSURE TO TOBACCO SMOKE

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EFFECTS ON THE HEALTH OF EXPOSURE TO TOBACCO SMOKE

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•Increased mortality from heart disease.

•Chronic respiratory symptoms in children.

•lung cancer.

•children with low birth weight

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•Tobacco smoke is a complex mixture of gases and particles that contains more than 4,000 chemicals. There are two types of tobacco smoke: the main stream, which is the one that the smoker sucks into his lungs when he inhales the cigarette, and the secondary or lateral current, which is the smoke that is released into the environment from the point of combustion, between blow and blow.

•

•Therefore, the consumption of tobacco in closed environments increases in these levels of respirable particles, nicotine, carbon monoxide (CO), acrolein, formaldehyde and many others

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•Shake carpets often and keep them clean of dust and animal hair. If they are vacuumed, vacuum in the opposite direction to the hairs of the carpet

•The bathroom and the kitchen must be ventilated so that the humidity does not increase nor the appearance of molds is favored.

•Ventilate the rooms for half an hour each day (after mid-morning), allowing air to circulate through all the rooms, especially in the bedroom.

•Clean the filters of the air conditioners regularly and their conduits once a year.

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•Allergies are a state of hypersensitivity of the organism to a specific substance (allergen) when it is inhaled, swallowed or touched. Numerous external factors help the development or increase of allergic symptoms: pollen from plants, some medications, insect bites, pets, certain foods and excess mold in the home.

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Five minutes each week, vacuum around the bed to pick up the mites that are produced on the floor through the bedspread or blankets.

The cleaning of the bedroom will be done in the morning and with the window open.

The mattress and pillow should be made of latex foam rubber or acrylic material

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Microscopic parasites called mites are vital to human life. In the nights they go through our body and environment, feeding on all the cellular debris, hair and skin scales.

The places where they rest are the elements made of organic materials such as cushions, covers, plush and dolls for children, pets such as dogs, cats, birds, rugs and sofas, among others. Like all living beings, fecal matter, together with air pollution, are the main producers of diseases in the current era, causing 80% of respiratory allergies that children have up to 7 years of age

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•It is important to try to maintain good ventilation in the home to renew the indoor air.

•Sweep and vacuum the floors of the rooms.

•Clean the surfaces of the furniture, especially those closest to the windows.

•Pass the vacuum cleaner over sofas, armchairs and the like.

•Install insulating windows to prevent the entrance of external dust to our homes.

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•Allergies

•Congestion.

•Bronchitis.

•Asthma.

•Pulmonary emphysemas.

-Respiratory infections

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The dust found inside homes is, to a large extent, generated by the human being, especially by the detachment of skin cells. There is also a high percentage of atmospheric dust outside that can be filtered through the windows inside our houses.

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•Use only wood heating appliances approved by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

•Only burn dry wood, never burn treated wood, trash or recyclable material.

•Preheat the combustion box with a fire made of small branches before loading it with firewood.

•Extend the chimney or the shots so on the base of the roof of your house and the houses of the neighbors.

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Exposure to minute smoke particles from wood burning can cause or exacerbate respiratory and cardiovascular problems. When chimneys in wood stoves have short shots or are located near homes, it is much more likely that smoke represents a risk to the health of the owner and neighbors

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Modern wood heating appliances (stoves, boilers, or furnaces) each time they are turned on can produce columns of smoke for hours. Regardless of whether you see it or not, the smoke from wood burning contains

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Living in a contaminated area it can increase the pollution inside houses, adding contaminating agents of out to interiors. But not always it is easy for the persons to choose the cleanest sites to live.

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Is your wood stove choking you? How indoor fires are suffocating cities

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A wood stove emits more harmful air particulates than a diesel truck. Does their newfound popularity in cities threaten to wipe out progress in reducing air pollution?

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WHY IS THERE CONTAMINATION INSIDE OUR HOUSE ?

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WHY IS THERE CONTAMINATION INSIDE OUR HOUSE ?

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In the same construction of the new houses and in the manufacture of furniture materials made with synthetic substances are used; and many of them are potentially toxic.

It can also be because many of the household pollutants come from outside. Living in a polluted area aggravates pollution within homes, adding pollutants from outside to inside ones. But it is not always easy for people to choose the cleanest places to live.

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Pollution at home can be one of the biggest, albeit silent, health risks, because they can present toxic agents or pathogens that affect the air, water, food and everything that a person can be in contact with other things

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Air pollutants have varied effects on human life, the most important having their effects on human health. Their other effects are on materials, and vegetation.

1. Health Effects Associated with Air Pollutants:

Air pollutants have serious adverse effect on human health. People living in urban and industrial areas are particularly prone to varied types of diseases due to air pollution.

I. Health Effects of Sulphur Dioxide (SO₂):

Human beings chronically exposed to SO ₂ have higher incidence of cough, shortness of breath, bronchitis, colds of long duration and fatigue. Most of the SO ₂ in the atmosphere is converted to sulphate salts, which are removed by sedimentation or by washout along with precipitation thereby making rain water acidic due to sulphuric acid formation.

The most common acute exposure to SO ₂ at concentration > = 0.4 ppm (parts per million) is induction of asthmatics after exposure lasting only 5 minutes. Increased prevalence of cough in children with intermittent exposure to SO ₂ levels of 1.0 ppm is observed.

II. Health Effects of Nitrogen Dioxide (NO₂):

The oxides of nitrogen are toxic gases which enter the human body during breathing. High concentration of NO ₂ may increase susceptibility to respiratory pathogens and also increases risk of acute respiratory diseases like bronchitis, chronic fibrosis, emphysema and bronchopneumonia. N0 ₂ exposure can cause decrement in lung functions.

It has been established that continuous exposure with as little as 0.1 ppm NO ₂ in air over a period of one to three years increases incidence of bronchitis, sedema, emphysema, oedema and adversely affects the performance of lungs. US study by Hasselblad et al. (1992) indicate that repeated N0 ₂ exposure increases respiratory illness in children.

The epidemiological studies suggest that an increase in 30 µg/m ³ in NO ₂ levels result in about 20 per cent increase in respiratory illness and diseases. Continuous exposure with more than 2.0 ppm NO ₂ may cause extensive morphological alteration, lung dispensability and permanent changes in the lung (Bronchiolitis).

III. Health Effects of Particulate Matter:

The particles may influence the human body on setting and cause external effects e.g., effects on skin. However, certain groups of particles pass into the blood stream on being inhaled and act as systematic poison. The effect of irritant particles in respiratory tract depends upon the size of the particles, their solubility, penetration deposition and clearance mechanism in human respiratory tract.

Fine particles may cause irritation of broncospasm, pulmonary oedema and allergic alveolitis, while certain moulds of larger particle size cause obstructive lung disease. As the presence of finer particle size increases, the percentage of particles deposited in upper part of respiratory tract decreases, thus particles are inhaled deeper.

The soluble nature of particles of chemical origin may cause systematic intoxication in the body. Increased particle presence in ambient air increases the frequency of cough and phlegm. The susceptibility of infection in pulmonary system increases in case the inhaled particles are active particles constituting bacterial, fungal spores or viral strains.

The acute effect of particulate air pollution results in changes in respiratory health status and depicts several respiratory symptoms. The symptoms are often recorded into upper respiratory symptoms such as stuffy or running nose, sinusitis, sore throat, wet cough, head cold, hay fever and burning or red eyes.

The lower respiratory symptoms include wheezing, dry cough, phlegm, shortness of breath, chest discomfort and pain. The cough is the most frequently reported symptom due to continued exposure in high particulate laden ambient air.

Asthma and allergic alveolitis are two main respiratory diseases related to chronic exposure to particles. Studies reveal a direct relationship in asthmatic attack with exposure to particles. Particles containing fungi, viral or bacterial pathogens loading in ambient air may play their role in transmission of infectious diseases. Increased particulate exposure increases the incidence of bronchitis. The bronchitis or pneumonia induced by air pollution in the presence of pre-existing heart problems might precipitate congestive heart failure and cardio-vascular mortality.

IV. Health Effects of Carbon Monoxide (CO):

Carbon monoxide is absorbed from the lung tissue in blood stream. Competitive bending between carbon monoxide and oxygen to haemoglobin (Hb) in red blood cells (RBC) then occur forming carboxy haemoglobin (COHb) and oxyhaemoglobin (O ₂ Hb) respectively.

Toxic effects of CO are mainly due to its high affinity for Hb which is 240 times greater than oxygen affinity. The COHb in blood of exposed population may be between 3.0 and 5.3 per cent whereas the safe limit is less than 2 per cent.

High dose exposure of CO may affect lung tissue and may lead to acute decrement in lung functions. CO level to about 5 per cent may cause cardiovascular effect in young healthy, non smoking individuals leading to fatigue and reduced ability to work.

The recurrent episode of exertial angina increase risk of precipitating heart attack, fatal arrhythmia or myocardial damage, increased risk of sudden death with coronary ortery disease. Increased concentration of carbon monoxide also leads to stroke, head injury, artherosclerosis, hypertension, etc. High CO concentration has special effect on children and infants.

There are strong evidences of reduction in birth weight, cardio megaley, delay in behavioural development and disruption of cognitive function and sometimes even infant death syndrome. The other systematic influence of CO poisoning include effects on lever, kidney, bone, immune capacity and spleen may occur in acute CO poisoning.

V. Health Effects of Ozone:

Variations in ozone levels in urban environment are the main cause of concern, both with regard to health risk associated with concentration exceeding the standard and possible health effect associated with human exposure to somewhat lower ozone concentration over long period of many days.

High elevation of ozone causes major problem of human health which includes eye, nose and throat irritation, chest discomfort, cough and headache, Ozone is a respiratory irritant, reacts rapidly with tissues and airways lining of lungs.

The acute reversible decrement in lung functions and increased respiratory symptoms occur in individual exposed for 1 to 3 hours with ozone concentration ranging between 235 to 314 µg/m ³. Acute exposure to ozone may cause lung inflammation within a few hours. Long term ozone exposure has been associated with inflammation of lungs which may be involved in progression from acute chronic health effects. Ozone also increases susceptibility to pulmonary bacterial infections and it can exacerbate its severity of influenza infection. Acute exposure to low ozone levels decreases activity pattern, may affect immune system leading to potential health risk.

VI. Health Effects of Benzene:

Benzene is a hazardous air pollutant which accelerates carcinogencity and human health risk from ambient air. Various studies have provided evidence regarding effect of benzene linked to genetic change, chromosomal aberration, etc. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has classified benzene as carcinogenic to humans which increases the frequency of cancer in human.

Exposure to excessively high level of benzene may cause cancer in kidney, testis, brain, pancreas, stomach, lung, respiratory tract, bladder and uterus. The benzene acts as Leukaemogen in human beings, acting as etiologic agent of aplastic anaemia leading to acute myelogenous leukaemia. World Health Organisation (WHO) estimates a four in one million risk of leukaemia on exposure to benzene to a concentration of 1 mg/m ³. Benzene has also been recognised as causing DNA damage in mammalian cells.

Prolonged exposure to even mild form of benzene may cause euphoria followed by giddiness, irregular heartbeat, headache, dizziness, nausea and unconsciousness. Breathlessness, nervous irritability and unsteadiness in walking may persist for a long time.

Acute benzene poisoning includes extensive petechial haemorrhage in the brain pleurae, pericardium, urinary tract, mucous membrane and skin. Pneumonitis and bronchitis can also be caused by direct action of benzene. The other effects of benzene are disorder of blood, harmful effect on bone marrow, anaemia and reduced ability of blood to clot, damage to immune system and reproductive and development toxicant.

It has been found that benzene is more susceptible to women than men. Benzene exposure may cause menstrual disorder and retard foetal development.

VII. Health Effects of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC):

The volatile compounds have potential carcinogenic effects on human beings and are termed as air toxins. These compounds react with oxides of nitrogen in the presence of sun light and give rise to photochemical smog. This smog is a dense haze which restricts visibility. Hazy fumes cause irritation to eyes and lungs and damage plant life.

VIII. Health Effects of Lead:

Lead particles from the ambient air can be inhaled, can settle down as dust in neighbouring area, on vegetation and water bodies and may be partly ingested. Out of the total estimated release of lead from the vehicular emission, about 50-70% is released as emission into the environment and the remaining part gets deposited. Lead is pervasive environmental poison which affects virtually every system in the body. It can damage the kidneys, the nervous system, the reproductive system and cause high blood pressure.

Children are more prone to lead pollution because they absorb lead more readily than adults. It affects the development of brain of foetuses and young children. Children exposed to lead show lack of intelligence, behavioural problems and decreased ability to concentrate. Blood lead levels as low as 10 µg/decilitre are associated with harmful effects on the learning process of the children. Elevated blood lead level can be more harmful. At extremely high level (70 µg/decilitre or higher), seizure, coma and even death can occur.

Lead in specially harmful to pregnant women and infants. Lead can be accumulated and stored in bones for decades and can be released whenever there is demand for calcium such as during pregnancy and lactation. During lactation, lead crosses placenta and is detected in breast milk. This is the major source of lead to infants which causes neurological problems in the developing child.

Not to speak of ladies, infants and children's, even adult males are not spared by lead pollution in the air. Chronic exposure with elevated blood lead levels is associated hypertension, headache, confusion, irritability, focal motor dysfunction and insomnia.

Further higher level cause drowsiness, loss of muscular coordination, kidney damage, fatigue, apathy and susceptibility to infection and anaemia. Higher blood lead level (80 µg/decilitre or more) also leads to gastro-intestinal problems and liver damage.

2. Effects of Air Pollutants on Materials:

Air pollutants produce physical and chemical change in materials which results in their damage and destruction. The natural effects of corrosion and weathering are aggravated when the air is polluted. The most destructive air pollutants to materials are smoke, grit, dust and oxides of sulphur.

Sulphur dioxide is the most dangerous air pollutant. It changes to sulfurous and sulphuric acid with moisture and accelerates the rate of corrosion. Amount of moisture in the air determines the rate of corrosion-more the moisture, more the corrosion.

Different types of metals and metallic structures such as iron and steel, aluminium and aluminium alloys, copper and copper alloys are corroded when exposed to polluted air. Building materials are also corroded and disfigured with increasing pollution of air. Smoke, grit and soot deposits disfigure the buildings. During high winds, larger particulate can result in surface erosion.

The oxides of sulphur react with limestone to form calcium sulphate. Slow loss of substances from surface occurs during rains which lead to blistering. Effects of various air pollutants on materials are shown in Table 9.3.
Table 9.3 Air Pollutants and their Effects on Materials:

SI. No. Air Pollutants Effects

1.

Particulate Matter (PM)

Physical erosion with abrasive action.

Particulate deposits cause streaky appearance.

Corrosion of metallic substances.

Deposition on electric contacts interfere with function, accelerate corrosion.

Soiling to textile, reduced wear life and abrasive effect.

2.

Sulphur dioxide (SO ₂) and sulphur trioxide (SO ₃)

Flaking of surfaces due to formation of sulphuric acid from SO x.

Acceleration of corrosion of steel and other metals. Embrittlement of paper and leather.

Reduced strength of fibres in textiles.

3.

Oxides of nitrogen (NO x)

Corrosion effect on surface and metals.

Fabric discoloration and fading.

3. Effect of Air Pollution on Vegetation:

In addition to its effects on health and materials, air pollution has damaging effect on vegetation also. The effects of air pollutants on vegetation depend upon their chemical nature, level of concentration and duration of exposure.

The principal air pollutants of prime concern to agriculture and vegetation are sulphur dioxide, SPM and photochemical oxidants. The air pollutants effect vegetation are demonstrated by plants through following characteristics:

i. Qualitative and quantitative changes in solar radiations input on leaf surface and alteration in energy exchange process.

ii. Decrease in chlorophyll and chloroplast injury.

iii. Increase in gaseous exchange process.

iv. Dust induced alteration in physico-chemical parameters.

Table 9.4 shows the impact of major air pollutants viz. sulphur dioxide, ozone and suspended particulate matter on vegetation.

Ambient Air Quality Standards:

In order to arrest the deterioration in air quality and to provide for prevention and control of air pollution, the Government of India enacted the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act in 1981. The responsibility has been further emphasised under Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

It is necessary to assess the present and anticipated air pollution through continuous air quality survey/monitoring programmes. The Central Pollution Control Board had formulated and notified the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for industrial, residential and sensitive areas. The notified ambient air quality standards are presented in Table 9.5.
Table 9.4 Effects of Air Pollutants on Vegetation:

SI. No. Air Pollutants Effects on Vegetation

1.

Sulphur dioxide

Enters into leaf through stomata.

Excessive exposure causes injury on blade with ivory colour, brown to reddish brown spots, depending on plant and environmental conditions.

2.

Ozone

High concentration causes dark brown to black lesions on upper surface of leaves.

3.

Suspended Particulate Matter

Block the stomata through deposition on leaf surface.

Excessive dust deposition retards the growth of plant.

Automobile exhaust smoke damage lower surface of leaves, bronzing and silvering, upper surface shows fleck like marking.

As mentioned above, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) is responsible for setting air quality standards. However, though World Health Organization (WHO) has applied guidelines for 1 hour, 8 hour and 24 hour averages, in India only annual mean and 24 hour average standards have been presented, except for carbon dioxide (CO) for which 8 hour and 1 hour standards have been notified.
Table 9.5. National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS):

Pollutant Averaging time Indian air quality standards
WHO² recommendations

Sensitive areas
Residential, rural and other areas
Industrial areas

8 hours (2)

1.0

2.0

5.0

10

Separate standards have been notified for industrial, residential and sensitive areas. This has drawn a lot of flak as this classification does not explain how the standards can satisfy the primary objective of protecting public health. It allows more tax limits for industrial areas. This issue had emerged at the World Bank-sponsored workshop on integrated approaches to vehicular pollution control in Delhi in April, 1998.

As a result of this classification, separate standards operate in Indian cities whereas WHO guidelines are common for all land-use areas. The national standards for annual sulphur dioxide emissions and PM 10 levels in industrial areas is 1.6 times and 2.1 times higher than WHO norms.

National annual suspended particulate matter standards for residential areas is 2.3 times higher than the 60 microgrammas per cubic metre (µg/cum) norm set by WHO (See Table 9.5). Significantly, Indian NO x standards are stricter than WHO norms. While WHO allows 150 µg/cum over 24 hours, Indian residential standards are 80 µg/cum over 24 hours.

Air quality standards need to be made stricter if a lower level of pollutant affects health more than previously thought. However in India, the standards were revised only once in 1994 to create a new category called respirable suspended particulate matter (RSPM) to account for small particulate emissions. Facilities were, however, not created to monitor RSPM separately.

Medical experts say that as standards are set for individual pollutants, they fail to show the combined effect. "All pollutants together can have an aggregate effect on health that is much greater than the individual effect. This needs to be kept in mind while setting air pollution standards."

National Air Monitoring Programme (NAMP):

Central Pollution Control Board initiated National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring (NAAQM) programme in the year 1984 with seven stations. Subsequently, the programme was renamed as National Air Monitoring Programme (NAMP).

The number of monitoring stations under NAMP increased steeply from 28 in 1985 to 290 in 1992 and their number renamed at the same level until 1999. Thereafter the number of monitoring stations increased and stood at 295 in 2000-02 covering 99 cities/towns in 28 states and 4 Union Territories.

Objectives:

The objectives of the NAMP are as follows:

i. To determine status and trends of ambient air quality.

ii. To ascertain whether the prescribed ambient air quality standards are violated, and to assess health hazard and damage to materials.

iii. To continue ongoing process of producing periodic evaluation of air pollution situation in urban and industrial areas of the country.

iv. To obtain the knowledge and understanding necessary for developing preventive and corrective measures.

v. To understand the natural cleansing process undergoing in the environment through dilution, dispersion, wind based movement, dry deposition, precipitation and chemical transformation of pollutants generated.

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Effects of Air Pollutants on Human Health

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ADVERTISEMENTS: A brief description of effects of various air pollutants on health is given as under: Air pollutants have varied effects on human life, the most important having their effects on human health. Their other effects are on materials, and vegetation. 1. Health Effects Associated with Air Pollutants: Air pollutants have serious adverse effect on ...

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Every day we are exposed to certain substances found in homes, offices, schools, transportation, etc., that come from pollution of the indoor air.